PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Review

In this topic the student is introduced to the basic concepts of reservoir

production mechanisms and the corresponding fluid flow patterns.

Content
Reservoir Production Concepts

A reservoir rock will produce naturally as a consequence of the fluid it contains, existing
at high pressure and the rock under continuous state of compaction. The reservoir
contains high level of energy in the form of compression force which can be utilised for
fluid production from the reservoir into the wellbore and to the surface all the way to the
treatment facilities.
The response of the reservoir to the depletion process is dynamic and the reservoir
fluid is continuously changing in terms of volume, composition and other properties. The
response of the reservoir system to depletion is governed by the reservoir production
mechanism.

The Reservoir Depletion Response

The basic concept regarding the production of fluid from a reservoir is that for fluid to be
produced as a result of its high pressure then there must be pressure drop. To maintain
the pressure, the reservoir must compensate for the loss of the produced fluid by one of
the following mechanisms:
• expansion of the reservoir rock matrix;
• expansion of the connate water;
• expansion of the hydrocarbon phases present in the reservoir:
• of undersaturated oil if pressure is above bubble point;
• of oil/gas if pressure is below bubble point;
• of the overlying gas cap;
• expansion of the underlying aquifer.

In most cases, as the reservoir is depleted, the system cannot maintain its pressure and
the overall pressure in the reservoir will decline. The utilisation of the reservoir pressure
had earlier been presented under composite production system. Effective utilisation of
reservoir energy for improved production can be attained by:
• increasing reservoir pressure through fluid injection into the reservoir. This can
include water or gas injection;
• providing more energy for the vertical lift process. Examples include gas lift,
downhole pumping using electric submersible pumping (ESP), hydraulic
downhole pumping, sucker rod pumping or jet pumping.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Reservoir Production Mechanisms

There are two angles to the production of fluids from a reservoir formation:
• microscopic scale - this relates to the phenomena that govern the interaction
between the reservoir rock and the entrained fluid and assists in providing a
quantitative and qualitative analysis of the characteristics for fluid flow through
the reservoir;
• macroscopic scale - this relates to the method by which the reservoir provides the
energy for fluid production.

Microscopic Phenomena

The distribution and relative ease of mobility of oil compared to gas or water or vice
versa within the reservoir is influenced not only by the physical properties of each of the
phases but also by forces exerted at interface between these phases and between each
phase and the rock surface. These forces are characterised largely by three microscopic
properties of each of the fluid phases:
• surface tension;
• wettability;
• capillary forces

Surface Tension:
In a mixture of two immiscible fluids, there exists a physical interface or film between the
phases. This interface is caused by unequal attractive forces exerted on the molecules
of each phase. In situations where one phase is dispersed within another, such as oil in
water, the phase may assume the characteristic of a droplet dispersion. Thus, this
surface or interfacial tension will significantly affect the way in which water displaces oil
or vice versa.

Wettability:

Interfacial tension also occurs at the interface between the reservoir rock and the
entrained fluid in the pores. The difference between the surface energies of systems
could lead to a fluid either maximising or minimising its contact area with the formation
surface especially when another fluid is present. For multiphase situations e.g. water
and oil, oil may try and minimise its contact area per unit volume with the rock and it can
be defined as the non-wetting phase. Water may have a larger contact area with the
rock face and would be regarded as the wetting phase. A fluid which is the wetting
phase will adhere to the surface and hence will be difficult to displace through the
reservoir rock. Alternatively, the non-wetting phase will be relatively more mobile with
smaller contact angle and then easier to produce. The contact angle between two fluids
at a solid surface can be used to measure the wettability (Figure 1). This wettability will
impact on the relative permeability to each type of fluid. Since sedimentary rocks are
assumed to have aquatic origins, it is reasonable to assume that in the majority of cases
the rock will be water wet and thus have higher permeability to oil.
Capillary Effects:

Interfacial tension can cause fluid to rise within a capillary. If a fine capillary is placed
within a liquid (Figure 2, left), which wets the inside walls, the liquid will appear to creep
up the capillary. The liquid will be pulled up the tube by surface tension until a balance is
created between the hydrostatic fluid head in the capillary above the datum and the
force due to surface tension at the meniscus on top of the liquid (Figure 2, right).

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Figure 1. Fluid Contact Angles and Wettability.

θ Liquid
Gas Liquid Gas
(air) (iso-octane) (water)
(water) θ

Solid Solid

Complete Wetting (zero contact angle) Partial Wetting (contact angle 30˚)

Sg.s = Sl.s + Sg.l Cos θ Gas (iso-quiniline) Liquid

(water)
S = Interfacial Tension θ
g = Gas, s = Solid
l = Liquid, θ = Contact Angle
Solid

Low Degree of Wetting (contact angle 155˚)

Figure 2. Capillary Rise.

Liquid film
wetting wall
Vapour

Tension at
this point
h Wall

Meniscus
Liquid
Liquid

The relative importance of capillary pressure and surface tension is that they will define
the distribution of two immiscible fluids within a reservoir rock. The fluid flow through the
porous media is a capillary phenomenon and is controlled by the capillary pressure
defined by the following equation:

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

2σ cos θ
Pc = = gh∆ρ
r

Pc = capillary pressure
Equation 1 σ = surface tension
θ = contact angle
r = pore radius
h = height above free liquid surface
∆ρ = difference in density of the two fluids

In a reservoir where oil and water exist, a sharp interface may not actually exist
especially where immediately above the interface the pores are filled with a constant oil
saturation and below filled with water. The effect of capillary rise between the phases
may result in a transition zone existing where the oil saturation changes from 0% to a
constant and finite level (Figure 4). Degree of transition zone occurrence and the shape
of the capillary curve through it is a function of porosity and permeability of the rock as
well as pore size distribution (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Comparison of Displacement from a Capillary Tube and Gravel Packs.

Figure 4. Capillary Pressure Curve.

Oil-water contact

Transition zone
h

Swi
0 Sw 100

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Figure 5. Effect of Grain Size Distribution on Shape of Capillary Curve through

Transition Zone.

At primary deposition of the sediments, water is invariably the wetting phase, and as oil
migrates it will attempt to displace the water, which is difficult. A 100% water sweep is
impossible. Thus, there is always an irreducible water level known as irreducible water
saturation (Swi) which is generally inversely proportional to reservoir formation grain
size. In the migration of a non-wetting phase into the pore, a threshold injection pressure
is required before the non-wetting phase can enter the pores (Figure 6). Once this is
attained, it becomes easier to saturate the pores until the irreducible water level is
reached.
Figure 6. Pressure to Displace a Bubble Through a Restriction.

Macroscopic Concepts or Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

A reservoir rock will produce naturally as a consequence of the fluid it contains, existing
at high pressure with the rock also in a state of compaction. The reservoir pressure is
naturally used to produce from the reservoir into the well, to the surface and finally into
the separation unit - natural flow.
The response of the reservoir to depletion is dynamic and the fluid remaining in
reservoir will change both in terms of volume, composition and other properties. The
manner in which the reservoir responds to the depletion process is governed by the
drive mechanism.
The basic concept regarding the production of fluid from the reservoir is that for fluid to
be produced as a result of its high pressure, then the reservoir system will deplete and

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

must therefore compensate for the loss of the produced fluid by one or more of the
following mechanisms:
• expansion of the reservoir rock matrix;
• expansion of connate water;
• expansion of reservoir hydrocarbon;
• expansion of the underlying aquifer.

Overall, as oil is produced, the system may not be able to maintain its own pressure,
hence, the overall pressure in the reservoir will decline. The mechanism by which the
reservoir produces fluid and compensates for the production is termed the reservoir
drive mechanism. Specifically this refers to the method by which the reservoir provides
the energy for fluid production. There are a number of drive mechanisms and a reservoir
can be under the influence of one or more of these drive mechanisms simultaneously.
The key mechanisms are :
• solution gas drive mechanism;
• gas-cap expansion drive mechanism;
• water drive mechanism;
• gravity drive mechanism;
• compaction drive mechanism;
• combination drive mechanism.

Solution Gas Drive Mechanism:

If a reservoir contains oil initially above the bubble point then, as production continues,
removal of oil will be compensated for by the expansion of the remaining oil. The
production will be accompanied by a reduction in the reservoir pressure, which will
eventually drop below the bubble point. Gas will come out of solution and any
subsequent production will lead to an expansion of both the oil and gas within the
reservoir.

Gas Cap Expansion Drive:

With reservoir pressure equal to or at some later stage less than the bubble point
pressure for the oil, the gas released from solution will migrate upwards to form a gas
cap on top of the oil. Production is therefore through the expansion of the gas cap. The
loss of the gas from solution will lead to the oil having a much higher viscosity and
hence lower mobility.
With the solution gas drive mechanism, the production of fluids occurs primarily with
gas expansion as it moves towards the wellbore. The performance of the gas cap drive
reservoir in terms of oil production rate and gas-oil-ratio (GOR) is similar, however the
reservoir pressure declines more slowly due to the capacity for expansion within the gas
cap. Allowing reservoir pressure to drop substantially will maximise the size of the gas
cap accompanied by maximum expansion capability. However this will reduce oil
mobility.

Water Drive Reservoir Mechanism:

In a reservoir with a water drive mechanism, the production of fluids is balanced by
either aquifer expansion or inflow of water into the reservoir, which helps maintain
reservoir energy. The net effect of water influx into the reservoir may be to prevent
reservoir pressure dropping. This depends on large aquifer volume.
Expansion of aquifer into the depleted oil zone will lead to a steady elevation in the oil-
water-contact (OWC).

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Gravity Drive Mechanism:

In gravity drive mechanism, the hydrostatic pressure due to the oil column and pressure
of the gas cap provides the drive downdip to a producing well. Effective sweep requires
maximum structural dip, low oil viscosity, good vertical/horizontal permeability, active
gas cap and negligible aquifer activity (Figure 7).

Compaction Drive Mechanism:

The oil within the reservoir pore space is compressed by the weight of overlying
sediments and the pressure of the fluids they contain. If fluid is withdrawn from the
reservoir, the volume of produced fluid can be compensated for by the overlying
sediments compacting the lower sediments. This will cause a compensating
compression of the fluid in the reservoir pore system and potential increase in reservoir
pressure.

Combination Drive:

In the majority of reservoirs the production of fluids is not controlled by only one but a
combination of several drive mechanisms. In such situations, the response of the
reservoir to production is less predictable.
Figure 7. Gravity Drive

Reservoir Flow Dynamics

There are three basic types of flow describing the fluid dynamics in a reservoir:
• unsteady state flow;
• steady state flow;
• semi-steady state flow.

Unsteady State Flow

As a reservoir is depleted, the volume is continuously changing. This is accompanied by

continuous change in fluid composition, properties, pressure and interaction with the
host rock. This phenomenon represents an unsteady state situation. However, in normal

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

practice, over specified periods, fluids can be produced at specified rates from a defined
drainage radius.
This applies during the relatively short period which is the time it takes for the effect of
pressure disturbance occurring at the wellbore to reach the boundary of the reservoir.
During this period, the reservoir responds to the disturbance as if it is of infinite extent.

Steady State Flow

As fluid flows across the drainage radius, if the volumetric flow rate into the reservoir is
equal to the production rate of fluids from the reservoir, the reservoir can be said to be in
steady state flow.
This is the condition whereby pressure and flow conditions at every point in the
reservoir do not change with time. There is mass flow into the reservoir to maintain
pressure as fluid is produced. Example cases include large gas cap, strong aquifer;
water injection; gas reinjection.

Semi-Steady (Pseudo-Steady) State Flow

If no fluid flows across the outer boundary of the reservoir during production, then the
fluid production can be compensated for by the expansion of residual fluids in the
reservoir. In such a situation, production will cause a reduction in pressure throughout
the reservoir unit. This represents a pseudo-steady state or semi-steady state situation.
This applies to a reservoir which has been producing at a constant rate for a
sufficiently long period for the effect of the outer boundary to become apparent.
Conditions are not truely steady-state since pressure decreases with time at every point
in the reservoir but the rate of change of pressure is independent of time.

Equations Related to Flow Regimes

We will now examine the derivation of some of the related equations to the different
states of flow.

For Radial Flow

Consider an elemental section of the formation, with thickness dr, as shown in Figure 8,
with radial flow towards the well.
Figure 8. Radial Flow.

rw
r
h
dr

Elemental formation bulk volume = 2πr h dr. Given that the formation porosity is Φ, the
elemental formation pore volume = 2πr h dr Φ.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Mass balance to the elemental flow through the radial thickness, dr, is given by Equation
2.
∂ρ
[ρq]r + dr − [ρq]r = 2πrhdrφ Elemental Mass Remaining
∂t

Equation 2 [ρq] r + dr = mass flow entering element at radius r + dr

[ρq] r = mass flow produced from element at radius r
q = volumetric flow
ρ = density

Also from above, as pressure drops due to production, the elemental fluid will expand:
∂ (ρq)dr
ie. [ρq]r +dr = [ρq]r +
∂r

∂ (ρq)dr ∂ρ
∴ = 2πrhdrφ
∂r ∂t
Equation 3
2πrhk ∂p
By Darcy' s Law : q =
µ ∂r

∂  rkρ ∂p  ∂ρ
Substituting : ∴  .  = rφ
∂r  µ ∂r  ∂t

1 ∂V 1 ∂ρ
Compressib ility Factor : C = - =
V ∂p ρ ∂p
Equation 4
∂p 1 ∂ρ ∂p ∂ρ
∴ Cρ = ρ =
∂t ρ ∂p ∂t ∂t

Substituting Equation 4 in Equation 3 gives:

1 ∂  rkρ ∂p  ∂p
Equation 5   = Cφρ
r ∂r  µ ∂r  ∂t

Equation 5 is the general equation for radial flow in a homogeneous reservoir, and
represents the Transient Flow Condition, otherwise known as Unsteady State Flow.

Figure 9 represents the different flow regimes in a reservoir. It shows the existence of
the ‘transient’ period, or critical time (tc), above which the flow eventually becomes
‘steady’. The ‘transient’ partial differential equation is the most frequently used in
reservoir engineering. Above tc, is the ‘steady’ region, where the flow condition can be
steady state (if volume flow into the reservoir equals production rate), or pseudo steady
(if there exists a defined boundary across which no flow occurs).

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Figure 9. Reservoir Flow Conditions.

pwf = Flowing
pwf
‘Steady’ Region bottom hole pressure

Transient

tc
Time

Specific Solutions to Partial Differential Equations

Transient Flow Region

Equation 5 may be linearised to give:

∂ 2p 1 ∂p φµc ∂p 1 ∂  ∂p  φµc ∂p
+ = or r =
∂r 2 r ∂r k ∂t r ∂r  ∂r  k ∂t

c is the total reservoir compressib ility defined as :

c = c o S o + c w S w + c gS g + c f

Equation 6 S o = oil saturation

c o = oil compressib ility
c g = gas compressib ility with saturation S g
c w = water compressib ility with saturation S w
c f = formation compressib ilty
So + S w + Sg = 1

Equation 6 can be applied to Black oil but may have to be modified for gas reservoirs
since compressibility changes with pressure.

k
The ratio = η is called the Diffusivity Constant.
φµc

Solutions to Equation 6 can be expressed in dimensionless variables as follows :

r
rD = = dimensionless radius
rw
kt ηt
Equation 7 tD = = = dimensionless time
φµcrw2 rw2
2πkh
p rD = (p i − p r,t ) = dimensionless pressure drop
qµ

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

In field units:
6.33k 7.08kh
η= p rD = (p i − p r,t )
φµc qµ
Equation 8
k = permeabili ty (D), µ = viscosity (cp)
c = compressibility (1/psi), h = pay thickness (ft)

In the transient flow region (t<tc), critical time, the key boundary condition, can generally
re2
be defined as: t c = , where re is the drainage radius (ft) and tc is the critical time in
4η
days. In dimensionless units this represents:
1
Equation 9 pD = [ln t D + 0.809] t D > 50
2
Another solution to the transient condition is through the adoption of Epsilon integral (Ei)
technique defined by:
qµ  r2   ηt 
p = pi + Ei −   > 100 
14.16kh  4ηt   r2 
 w 
Ei( − x ) ≈ ln x + 0.5772 for x < 0.02
∞
e −u x x2 x3
Ei(− x ) = − ∫ du = ln x − + − + ......
Equation 10 u 1! 2.2! 3.3!
x

r2
x= , t = days, r = radius (ft),
4η t
p i = initial reservoir pressure
p = pressure at radius, r

The above is an approximate solution known as line source solution based on the
assumption that the well is approximately a line source of zero radius. With this it is
possible to estimate the pressure at any distance, r, during the transient period. Figure
10 is the Epsilon Integral chart which can be used to compute Ei(-x) for a given value of
x.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Figure 10. Epsilon Integral Chart.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

‘Steady’ Flow Region

1) Steady State:

For steady state flow conditions, pressure does not change with time (dp/dt=0),
therefore the following Darcy Law flow equation applies:
2πkh (p 1 − p 2 )
q=
µ r
ln 2
r1

which for a typical reservoir condition becomes :

2πkh (p e − p wf )
Equation 11 q=
µ r
ln e
rw

p e = reservoir pressure, p wf = flowing bottom hole pressure

h = pay thickness
re = drainage radius, r w = wellbore radius

This is represented graphically by Figure 11. At r=rw, p=pwf. At r=re, p=pe.

Figure 11. Graphical Representation of Equation 11, Steady State Flow Conditions.

pi
pe

pwf

rw r re

2) Pseudo-Steady State:

re2
Here the boundary condition can be expressed as t > , giving Equation 12:
4η
2t D 3
Equation 12 pD = 2
+ lnreD − (t D > 25 )
reD 4

In this case, it is assumed that no flow takes place through the reservoir boundary. Thus
dp/dt is constant. and (dp/dr)r=re=0.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

∂V
q= V = volume of fluid
∂t
1 ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂p ∂p
c=− = . = q = −cV
V ∂p ∂t ∂p ∂t ∂t
V = πre2 hφ
∂p −q
Equation 13 = 2
∂t πre hφc

In field units :
∂p − 1.79q
= 2
∂t re hφc

From Equation 5, we have:

1 ∂  rkρ ∂p  ∂p
  = cφρ
r ∂r  µ ∂r  ∂t

Equation 14 From above we have :

∂  rkρ ∂p  − ρqr
∫ 
∂r  µ ∂r 
= ∫ πre2 kh
∂p qµr 2
=r =− + Constant
∂r 2πre2 kh
At r=re, dp/dr = 0
qµ
∴ Const. =
2πkh
∂p qµ  1 r 
∴ =  − 
∂r 2πkh  r re2 
Integrating
  1   rw
2 
qµ   re  
p e − p wf = ln  − 1−  
2πkh   rw  2  r

 
Equation 15    e  
re >>>>>>> rw
qµ   re  1
∴ p e − p wf = ln −
 
2πkh   rw  2 

p e = reservoir pressure
p wf = flowing bottom hole pressure
re = reservoir or drainage radius.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 27: Reservoir Fluid Flow Dynamics

Volume Averaged Pressure

When a reservoir is drained by a number of wells all operating under semi-steady state
conditions, each well will drain within its no-flow boundary. The rate of pressure decline
will then be the same at every point within the reservoir. Therefore, the average
reservoir pressure can be expressed as:
re

∑p V i i ∫ pdV
rw
i
p res = = dV = 2πrhφdr
∑V i
re

i ∫ dV
rw
re

2πhφ prdr ∫ 2
re
rw
∫ prdr
rw
∴p = = <<<<< 1
πhφ (
re − rw2
2
) re2 r
w
re

From equation 6 :
qµ  r r2 
p= ln − 2 + Constant 
2πkh  rw 2re 

In field units :

q=
7.08kh
.
p − p wf ( )
µ  re 3
Equation 16 ln − 
 rw 4 

Shape Factor

The above equations are based strictly on simple radial circular geometry. For other
reservoir geometries, corrections have to be made in terms shape factors.
For semi-steady state conditions:
qµ  1 4A 

p − p wf = ln

2πkh  2 γC A rw2 


Equation 17 A = area being drained by well, ft 2

γ = 1.781 (Exponential of Euler constant)
C A = Dietz shape factor

The value of CA for different shapes is available in reference literature.

Final Comment

For reservoir pressure distribution, especially well test pressure build-up and drawdown
analysis, the transient flow equation is used. Nevertheless, reservoirs are produced at
constant rates over given periods, and wells are known to drain over a defined drawing
radius in a block, both of which represent pseudo-steady state conditions.

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