UNIT II COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS Functional Units of a Digital Computer: Von Neumann Architecture - Operation and Operands of Computer Hardware Instruction - Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Memory Location, Address and Operation ~ Instruction and Instruction Sequencing - Addressing Modes, Encoding of Machine Instruction ~ Interaction between Assembly and High Level Language. Explain the components of a computer system withthe block diagram in detail (Apr/May 21) Components of a computer system A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts. They are 1. Input 2. Memory 3. Arithmetic and logic unit 4. Output 5. Control unit Basic functional units of a computer Central Processing Unile>U) Sar aa Conte Unit aaa MEMORY MAIN MEMORY ‘SECONDARY MEMORY Fig 3.1 The basic components of computer systemThe computer accepts programs and the data through an input and stores them in the memory. The stored data are processed by the arithmetic and logic unit under program control. The processed data is delivered through the output unit. All above activities are directed by control unit. a, Inputunit The computer accepts coded information through input unit. The input can be from human operators; electromechanical devices such as keyboards or from other computer over communication lines. Examples of input devices are Keyboard, joysticks; trackballs and mouse are used as graphic input devices in conjunction with display. + Itisacommon input device. ‘+ Whenever a key is pressed; the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its corresponding binary code and transmitted over cable to the memory of the computer. b. Memory unit Memory unit is used to store programs as well as data. Memory is classified into primary and secondary storage. Primary Storage It also called main memory. It operates at high speed and it is expensive. It is made up of large number of semiconductor storage cells, each capable of storing one bit of information. These cells are grouped together in a fixed size called word. This facilitates reading and writing the content of one word (n bits) in single basic operation instead of reading and writing one bit for each operation. Secondary Storage Itis slow in speed. It is cheaper than primary memory. Its capacity is high. It is used to store information that is not accessed frequently. Various secondary devices are magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks (CD-ROMs), floppy etc.e. Arithmetic and Logic Unit Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) Actual execution of most computer operations take of the processor. Example: Suppose two numbers added. They are brought into the processor, and the the ALU. and control unit together form a processor. ¥ place in arithmetic and logic unit located in the memory are to be actual addition is carried out by elements available in the processor. Each Registers are high speed storag cessor register can store one word of data. When operands are brought into the pro¥ for any operation, they are stored in the registers. Accessing data from register is faster than that of the memory. Output unit “The function of output unitis to produce processed result to theoutside world in human understandable form. Examples of output devices are Graphical display, Printers such as inkjet, laser, dot matrix and so on. The laser printer works faster. e. Control unit Control unit coordinates the operation of memory, arithmetic and logic unit, input unit, and output unit in some proper way. The control unit issues control signals that cause the CPU (and other components of the computer) to fetch the instruction to the IR (Instruction Register) and then execute the actions dictated by the machine language instruction that has been stored there. Control units are well defined, physically separate unit that interact with other parts of the machine. A set of control lines carriesthe signals used for timing and synchronization of events in all units Example: Data transfers between the processor and the memory are controlled by the control unit through timing signals. Timing signals are the signals that determine when a given action is to take place.Componente of Von. Neumann Anchittbcb se Basic Operational Concept F cw Mata memory System : Cua) fee ei Te noe] Sei a a b Program counter Imran repiter Memory addres reghter Slemory botierrepiice Tnpotbet put ndaren register 5 Inputlstbat batter react Fig 3.2 Computer Components Computer Components: Top-Level view PC the program counter contains the address of the assembly language instruction to be executed next. IR the instruction register contains the binary word corresponding to the machine language version of the instruction currently being executed, MAR the memory address register contains the address of the wordin main memory that is being accessed, The word being addressed contains either data or a machine language instruction to be executed. MBR the memory buffer register (also called MDR for memory data register) is the register used to communicate data to and from the memory. The operation of a processor is characterized by a fetch-decode- execute cycle. In the first phase of the cycle, the processor fetches an instruction from memory. The address of the instruction to fetch is stored in an internal register named the program counter, or PC. As the processor is waiting for the memory to respond with the instruction, it increments the PC. This means the fetch phase of the next cycle will fetch the instruction in the next sequential location in memory. In the decode phase the processor stores the information returned by the memory in another internal register, known as the instruction register, or IR. The IR now holds anary number. The processor decodes the single machine instruction encoded as a bi c tions to performin the next stage. value in the IR in order to figure out which opera stage. In the execution stage the processor actually carries out the instruction. This step often requires further memory operations; for example, the instruction may direct the processor to fetch two operands from memory, add them, and store the result in a third location (the addresses of the operands and the result are also encoded as part of the instruction). At the end of this phase the machine starts the cycle over again by entering the fetch phase for the next instruction. The CPU exchanges data with memory. For this purpose, it typically makes use of two internal (to the CPU) register: + Amemory address register (MAR), which specifies the address inmemory for thenext read or write, and * A memory buffer register (MBR), which contains the data to bewritten into memoryor receives the data read from memory. ‘An 1/0 addresses register (I/OAR) specifies a particular 1/0 device. ‘An 1/0 buffer (1/OBR) register is used for the exchange of data between an 1/0 module and the CPU.A memory module consists of a set of locations, defined by sequentially numbered address. Each location contains a binary number that can be interpreted as either an instruction or data. An 1/0 module transfers data from external devices to CPU and memory, and vice versa. It contains internal buffers for temporarily holding these data until they can be sent on. Instructions can be classified as one of three major types: arithmetic/logic, data transfer, and control. Arithmetic and logic instructions apply primitive functions of one or two arguments, for example addition, multiplication, or logical AND. Von Neumann Architecture Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945. His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers produced today. Central Processing Unit Control Unit Avithmetic / Logic Unit output Device Fig 3.3 Von Neumann architecture Central Processing Unit (CPU) ‘The Central Processing Unit.(CPU) is the electronic circuit responsible for executing the instructions of a computer program. It is sometimes referred to as the microprocessoror processor. The CPU contains the ALU, CU and a variety of registers. Registers Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored in a register before it can be processed.