2.

1 BATTERIES

Batteries are devices, which store power for future use.

Batteries are classified in to two categories:

i) primary batteries

ii) secondary batteries

Some of the important factors, which must be considered when selecting a battery, are:

 Recharging method

 Performance at various temperature

 Life cycle

 Maintenance

Secondary batteries or cells can be recharged after discharge

These types include:

 Load acid batteries

 Nickel cadmium

 Nickel Zinc e.t.c.

2.1.1 LEAD ACID BATTERIES

It stores electrical energy in the form of chemical energy. This chemical energy is converted into

electrical energy when the battery is in use.

The battery consists of a number of cells, which consist of the following.

 Positive and negative plates – they consist of lattice type of grid and made of cats

antimonies lead alloy.

immersed completely.

 Container – This is where compartments and the cells are contained made of vulcanized

rubber.

 Separators – sheets of porous materials placed between the positive and negative

electrodes to prevent them from coming in to contact with each other.

2.1.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is an electronic regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. Voltage regulator consists of two main categories.

1. Ac voltage regulator

2. Dc voltage regulator

IN OUT

COM

Fig 2.1 Symbol of a regulator

DC Voltage Regulator

This is used to regulate dc voltage only. The dc voltage regulator is used since the output from

the rectifier is dc.

Types of dc Voltage Regulator

a) Switching regulator

b) SCR regulator

c) Linear regulator
2.1.3 LINEAR REGULATOR

Linear regulators are based on devices that operate in their linear regulator (in contrast, a

switching regulator is based on a device forced to act as an on/off switch). In the past, one or

more vacuum tubes were commonly used as the variable resistance. Modern designs use one and

unable to step up or invert the input voltage like switched supplies.

The voltage regulator employed is L7805. The regulator as the following features

Description

The L78xx series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO- 3,

D²PAK and DPAK packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range

of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the

distribution problems associated with single point regulation. Each type employs internal current

limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If

adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed

primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to

obtain adjustable voltage and currents.

Features

 Output current up to 1.5 A

 Output voltages of 5; 6; 8; 8.5; 9; 12; 15; 18; 24 V

 Thermal overload protection

 Short circuit protection

 Output transition SOA protection

 2 % output voltage tolerance (A version)

2.2 ARDUINO
Arduino is a physical processing device based on a microcontroller board and an integrated
development environment for the programming of the board. Arduino is an open source
hardware technology one of the best platforms out there that can be used to build home
automation system. This technology can be used to control such applications as lights and
sensors through reading them as inputs and turning them as outputs like activating a motor,
switching on lights or online publishing of something. It is possible to tell the board what
needs to be done through sending set of instructions to the microcontroller. To effectively
achieve this the programming language of Arduino, which is based on wiring, and the
Arduino software which is based on processing must be used. The program forming Arduino
can run on various operating systems such as windows, Macintosh, and Linux (4).
The program is simple and accessible thus, it has been used in numerous projects. Arduino is
easy to use for novice and also flexible enough to cater for advanced users. So anyone
can use it including children, programmers among others by just following the step by step
instructions of the kit. Teachers and students sometimes use it to develop low cost scientific
instruments so as to prove the principles of chemistry and physics or at times to get started
with the programming involved in robotics. Arduino makes the process of working with
microcontrollers much easier and provides several advantages .Bluetooth module is
important in connecting the Arduino-UNO board and an Android device. The HC 06 module
of Bluetooth is more compatible as it consists of a serial interface and a Bluetooth adapter.
The module is user friendly as it does not require any setting after purchase apart its AT
mode which is used to switch between master and slave mode. In this project, however, the
slave mode was used.
•
Fig 2 .2 Arduino Uno
2.3 SENSOR
2.3.1 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Ultrasonic is an excellent way of figuring out what’s in the immediate vicinity of your Arduino.
The basics of using ultrasound are like this: you shoot out a sound, wait to hear it echo back, and
if you have your timing right, you’ll know if anything is out there and how far away it is. This is
called echolocation and it’s how bats and dolphins find objects in the dark and underwater,
though they use lower frequencies than you can use with your Arduino.Figure-1 show the
working principal of ultrasonic ranging concept. Figure-1 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor is a very
affordable proximity/distance sensor that has been used mainly for object avoidance in various
robotics projects. It has also been used in turret applications, water level sensing, and even as a
parking sensor. This module is the second generation of the popular HC-SR04 Low Cost
Ultrasonic Sensor. Unlike the first generation HC-SR04 that can only operate between 4.8V~5V
DC, this new version has wider input voltage range, allow it to work with controller operates on
3.3V.HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor provides a very low-cost and easy method of distance
measurement. It measures distance using sonar, an ultrasonic (well above human hearing) pulse
(~40KHz) is transmitted from the unit and distance-to-target is determined by measuring the time
required for the echo return. This sensor offers excellent range accuracy and stable readings in an
easy-to-use package. An on board 2.54mm pitch pin header allows the sensor to be plugged into
a solder less breadboard for easy prototyping.
Module Specification Electrical Parameters Value Operating Voltage 3.3Vdc ~ 5Vdc Quiescent
Current

Fig2.3.1 Ultrasonic sensor

2.3.2 MOTION SENSOR

Passive Infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light

radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction of PIR-

based motion detectors. Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with one

temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another temperature,

such as a wall All objects emit what is known as black body radiation. It is usually infrared

radiation that is invisible to the human eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for

such a purpose. The term passive in this instance means that the PIR device does not emit an

infrared beam but merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation. “Infra” meaning below
our ability to detect it visually, and “Red” because this colour represents the lowest energy level

that our eyes can sense before it becomes invisible. Thus, infrared means below the energy level

of the colour red, and applies to many sources of invisible energy Infrared radiation enters

through the front of the sensor, known as the sensor face. At the core of a PIR sensor is a solid

state sensor or set of sensors, made from an approximately 1/4 inch square of natural or artificial

pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of gallium nitride (GaN), caesium

nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenyl pyrazine, and cobalt phthalocyanine.

Lithium tantalite (LiTaO3) is a crystal exhibiting both piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties.

The sensor is often manufactured as part of an integrated circuit and may consist of one (1), two

(2) or four (4) 'pixels' of equal areas of the pyroelectric material. Pairs of the sensor pixels may

be wired as opposite inputs to a differential amplifier. In such a configuration, the PIR

measurements cancel each other so that the average temperature of the field of view is removed

from the electrical signal; an increase of IR energy across the entire sensor is self-cancelling and

will not trigger the device. This allows the device to resist false indications of change in the

event of being exposed to flashes of light or field-wide illumination. (Continuous bright light

could still saturate the sensor materials and render the sensor unable to register further

information.) At the same time, this differential arrangement minimizes common-mode

interference, allowing the device to resist triggering due to nearby electric fields. However, a

differential pair of sensors cannot measure temperature in that configuration and therefore this

configuration is specialized for motion detectors. In a PIR-based motion detector (usually called

a PID, for Passive Infrared Detector), the PIR sensor is typically mounted on a printed circuit

board containing the necessary electronics required to interpret the signals from the pyroelectric

sensor chip. The complete assembly is contained within a housing mounted in a location where
the sensor can view the area to be monitored. Infrared energy is able to reach the pyroelectric

sensor through the window because the plastic used is transparent to infrared radiation (but only

translucent to visible light). This plastic sheet also prevents the intrusion of dust and/or insects

from obscuring the sensor's field of view, and in the case of insects, from generating false signals

to the flood light.

Fig 2.3.2 PIR motion sensor image

2.4 BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a global wireless standard that enables connectivity for a wide range of

electronic devices ranging from mobile phones to medical devices, computers, and even

toothbrushes. Bluetooth technology eliminates the need for a cable connection between

devices by connecting them over short distances (up to 100m) using short-wavelength radio
 transmissions in the unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from 2.4000 to

2.4835 GHz. While other protocols like ZigBee and RFID can be used to connect networks

of sensors and build connectivity across devices, Bluetooth is pre-existing in common

consumer electronics. The accessibility of Bluetooth makes it a perfect standard for

connecting devices within personal area network (PAN) space. Up to seven devices can be

connected over Bluetooth to form a piconet. WLAN, commonly known as Wi-Fi, can also be

used for some of the Bluetooth applications like streaming audio, however, Bluetooth’s

ability to utilize the entire spectrum of 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz makes it ideal for robust,

short-range wireless transmission in congested radio environments where WLAN devices can

run into performance issues. To ensure robust operation in the interference-dominated ISM

band, Bluetooth uses spread spectrum, frequency hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal

rate of 1600 hops per second for basic and enhanced data rate transmissions.

Bluetooth allows for high-quality data and audio streaming between devices, as well as the

creation of sensors smaller than ever before. Bluetooth Smart, or Bluetooth Low-Energy, has

allowed for coin-cell battery, solar, and kinetic powered sensors to be placed almost anywhere.

The combination of Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth LE lets devices communicate to

applications in an ultra-power efficient way which makes it a prime technology for the Internet

thing of IoT.

Bluetooth can be used in many appliances ranging from cars to cell phones all the way to

headsets. With the Bluetooth innovation, it is possible to text, listen to music and even control

data between gadgets remotely.

temperature and other electronic devices using Bluetooth although to a greater extent a computer

may be involved. It is possible to use a remote mobile with a host controller to communicate to

several home appliances using Bluetooth as a wireless device. This involves use of a wireless

network. Client module and the host controller communicate through enabled Bluetooth in a

smartphone.

.•

Fig 2.4 Bluetooth Module HC 06

2.5 LED LIGHTING

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with

impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or

anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers —electrons and

holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a

hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its colour, depends on the band gap energy of
the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are
indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies
corresponding to near infrared, visible or near ultraviolet light. Super bright white light emitting
diodes are used here.Bright light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used to perform this function.