Unit – I Quantum Physics

• Blackbody radiation – Planck’s radiation law - Wein’s law, Rayleigh-Jean’s law -

Photoelectric effect
• de Broglie’s Hypothesis,
• Davisson and Germer’s experiment
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle with an illustration - Non-existence of electrons
in nucleus
• Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
• Born interpretation of the wave function
• Particle in one dimensional potential box.

Blackbody – Spectral radiation

A black body is a body which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident on it. When a
blackbody is heated, it emits radiation which are known as blackbody radiations.

In practice, no actual body is a perfect blackbody. Ferry devised a blackbody which consists
of a hollow thick-walled sphere painted lampblack internally and provided a small circular
opening to enter the radiation.

In 1884, Stefan and Boltzmann showed that the energy of radiation in unit volume
of space due to all wavelengths in th spectrum is proportional to fourth power of absolute
temperature of the blackbody

𝐸 ∝ 𝑇4

𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4

Where σ is Stefan’s constant

σ = 5.672 ₓ 10-8 Jm-2s-1K-4

Although this law has been experimentally verified but it does not explain the energy
distribution among different wavelengths.
Lummer and Pringsheim measured the spectral distribution of a blackbody radiation. From the
observations a graph is drawn between emissive power and wavelength for various
temperatures.

The important findings from the graph are

1. The energy is not uniformly distributed in the radiation spectrum of blackbody

2. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation increases with increase in wavelength
and becomes maximum at a particular wavelength. With further increase in wavelength,
the intensity of radiation decreases
3. The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy represented by the peak of the
curve shifts towards shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases.

Weins Formula:

It is observed that as the temperature increases, the wavelength corresponding to maximum

energy λm decreases

𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

This relation is known as Wein’s displacement law.

Also they derived the energy density as

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 −ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = {exp ( )} 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 𝜆𝑘𝑇
Rayleigh – Jeans Law

On the basis of classical mechanics, Rayleigh and Jeans derived an expression for energy
density (radiation energy/volume) of a hot body. They observed that energy density increases
with frequency and becomes infinite. According to Rayleigh and jeans the energy density is
given as
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑑𝜆
𝜆4
Paschen showed that Wein’s formula agreed with the experimental curves for shorter
wavelengths whereas Rayleigh formula agreed with longer wavelengths.

PLANCK’s Radiation Law:

To explain the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the spectrum of blackbody,

Max Planck in 1900 derived the radiation law with following assumptions

1. A chamber containing blackbody radiation also contains simple harmonic oscillators of

molecular dimensions which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
2. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its
vibration.
3. An oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner, it can emit energy in the
multiples of small unit called quanta (photons).
If an oscillator is vibrating with frequency 𝜗, it can only radiate in quantas of magnitude
‘ℎ𝜗’ i.e., the oscillator can have only descrete energy values En given by
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜗
Where ℎ𝜗 = 𝜀
n is integer
h is Plancks constant (6.625 × 10−34 ) J Sec
4. The oscillator can emit or absorb radiation energy in packets of ℎ𝜗. This implies the
exchange of energy between radiation and matter can take place in a descrete set of
values 0, ℎ𝜗, 2ℎ𝜗, 3ℎ𝜗, … 𝑛ℎ𝜗.

If N be the total number of Planck’s Oscillators and E be their total energy, then the average
energy per Plancks oscillator
𝐸
𝜀̅ = 𝑁 -------------------------(1)

Let there be 𝑁0 , 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , , … … . . 𝑁𝑟 … .. etc oscillators having energy 0, 𝜀, 2𝜀, 3𝜀, … … . 𝑟𝜀, … ..

etc respectively.

Now we have

𝑁 = 𝑁0 + 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 +, , … … . . + 𝑁𝑟 + ⋯ -------------------------(2)

𝐸 = (0 × 𝑁0 ) + (𝜀 × 𝑁1 ) + (2𝜀 × 𝑁2 ) + (3𝜀 × 𝑁3 )+, , … … . . +(𝑟𝜀 × 𝑁𝑟 ) + ⋯ --------------

--------(3)

According to Maxwells distribution of formula, the number of oscillators having energy 𝑟𝜀 is

given by
−𝑟𝜀
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝑘𝑇 ) ----------------------(4)

Where k is Boltzmann constant

Substituting the values 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , , … … . . 𝑁𝑟 … .. from equation (4) in equation (2) and equation
(3) we get

−𝜀 −2𝜀 −𝑟𝜀
𝑁 = 𝑁0 + 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + , , … … . . + 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )+⋯
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
−𝜀 −2𝜀 −𝑟𝜀
𝑁 = 𝑁0 [1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + , , … … . . + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )+⋯]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
1
[∵ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ … + 𝑥 𝑟 + ⋯ . = ]
1−𝑥
𝑁0
𝑁= −𝜀 ----------------------(5)
1−𝑒𝑥𝑝( )
𝑘𝑇

The total energy is given by

−𝜀 −2𝜀
𝐸 = (0 × 𝑁0 ) + (𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) + (2𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ))
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
−3𝜀 −𝑟𝜀
+ (3𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ))+, , … … . . +(𝑟𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) + ⋯
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
−𝜀 −𝜀
𝐸 = (𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) [1 + (2𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ))
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
−2𝜀 −(𝑟 − 1)𝜀
+ (3𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ))+, , … … . . +(𝑟𝜀 × 𝑁0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) + ⋯ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
1
[∵ 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + ⋯ … + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑟−1) + ⋯ . = ]
(1 − 𝑥)2

−𝜀
𝑁0 𝜀 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (
)
𝐸= 𝑘𝑇
−𝜀 2
[1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
𝑘𝑇
----------------------(6)

Now, the average energy of oscillator is given by

−𝜀
𝑁0 𝜀 𝑒𝑥𝑝( )
𝑘𝑇
−𝜀 2 𝜀 𝑒𝑥𝑝(
−𝜀
)
𝐸 [1−𝑒𝑥𝑝( )]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝜀̅ = 𝑁 = 𝑁0 = −𝜀
−𝜀 1− 𝑒𝑥𝑝( )
1−𝑒𝑥𝑝( ) 𝑘𝑇
𝑘𝑇

𝜀 ℎ𝜗
𝜀̅ = 𝜀 =
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1 ℎ𝜗
𝑘𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1
𝑘𝑇
Thus the average energy of oscillator is different from the energy kT of a classical oscillator.
We know that number of oscillators per unit volume in frequency range 𝜗 and 𝜗 + 𝑑𝜗 is given
by

8𝜋𝜗 2
𝑁= 𝑑𝜗
𝑐3
Multiplying the average energy of oscillators, we get the total energy per unit volume belonging
to the range 𝑑𝜗 or the energy density belonging to the range 𝑑𝜗 is

8𝜋𝜗 2 ℎ𝜗
𝐸𝜗 𝑑𝜗 = × 𝑑𝜗
𝑐 3 ℎ𝜗
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1
𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝜗 3 1
𝐸𝜗 𝑑𝜗 = [ ] 𝑑𝜗
𝑐 3 ℎ𝜗
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1
𝑘𝑇
This is known as Planck’s radiation law

This law can be expressed in terms of wavelength as

𝑐 −𝑐
𝜗 = 𝜆 and |𝑑𝜗| = |𝜆2 𝑑𝜆|

𝑐 3
8𝜋ℎ ( ) 1 𝑐
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜆 [ ] ( 2 ) 𝑑𝜆
𝑐 3 ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )−1 𝜆
𝜆𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = [ ] 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )−1
𝜆𝑘𝑇
Derivation of Wein’s formula:
ℎ𝑐
For small temperatures 𝜆𝑇 is small ∴ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝜆𝑘𝑇) ≫ 1 and 1 can be neglected from the
denominator of Planck’s equation

Thus
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 −ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 5
[𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )] 𝑑𝜆
𝜆 𝜆𝑘𝑇
Which is Wein’s law

Derivation of Rayleigh-Jeans law:

For higher temperatures 𝜆𝑇 is large

 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1 ℎ𝑐
Now, 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝜆𝑘𝑇) = 1 + 𝜆𝑘𝑇 + + ⋯ ..
2! 𝜆𝑘𝑇

ℎ𝑐
=1+
𝜆𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = [ ] 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 1 + ℎ𝑐 − 1
𝜆𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = [ ] 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑘𝑇
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑑𝜆
𝜆4
This is Rayleigh Jeans law

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other radiation
of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.

The emitted electrons are called as photo electrons.

According to Maxwell classical wave theory of light the more the intense incident light should
eject the electrons from the metal with a greater energy. But, from the Lenard’s experiment, it
is found that the energies of the emitted electrons to be independent of the intensity of incident
radiation.

Einstein adopted the Planck’s quantum hypothesis and applied it to electromagnetic radiation,
increase in the intensity of light corresponds to the enhancement in the number of photons per
unit time (flux), while the energy of each photon remains same as long as the frequency of
radiation kept constant.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

The apparatus to study photoelectric effect consists of a photosensitive surface on a plate A

and plate B enclosed in an evacuated quartz bulb. The plate A is connected to the negative
terminal of a potential divider while plate B is connected to the positive terminal through a
galvanometer/micro ammeter.
In absence of any light, there is no deflection in ammeter. But when a monochromatic light is
allowed to fall on plate A, current starts flowing and is called photocurrent.

The number of electrons and their kinetic energy depends on the following factors:

1. The potential difference between the two electrodes i.e., between the plates A and B
2. The intensity of incident radiation
3. The frequency of incident radiation
4. The photo metal used

Effect of potential difference and intensity:

When a positive potential is increased, the photoelectric current also increases. By further
increasing the potential the photoelectric current reaches a maximum value which is called
saturation current.

If potential of plate B is made negative, the photocurrent decreases and finally becomes zero
which is called as cut-off potential or stopping potential.

For all positive values of V, the photocurrent increases with increase in intensity with the same
ratio, where as if we decrease potential the photo electric current decreases sharply and reaches
zero at the stopping potential. This stopping potential is independent of incident radiation
intensity.
Effect of potential difference and frequency:

Effect of incident radiation frequency and photometal

The photo electric effect occurs on and above a frequency called threshold frequency. At this
frequency the electrons were liberated without additional energy.

The slope of th eline is same for different metals but the threshold frequencies are different for
different meterials which strongly depend on nature of the photometal.
Einstien’s explanation for Photoelectric effect:

According to Einstien, in photoelectric effect one phototn is completely absorbed by one

electron which thereby gains the quantum energy and may be emitted from the metal.

The photons energy is used in folowing two parts

1. A part of its energy is used to free the electron from the atom from the metal surface,
this energy is known as photoelectric workfunction of the metal. This is denoted with
Wo
2. The other part is used in giving kinetic energy ½ mv2 to the electron
Thus
ℎ𝜗 = 𝑊𝑜 + 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 …………………………..(1)
where v is the velocity of emitted electron
If the photons energy is sufficient to liberate the electron from metal, then the kinetic
energy of the lectron will be zero.

∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝜗0 = 𝑊𝑜 …………………………..(2)

Where 𝜗0 is called threshold frequency.

If the frequency of the photon is below threshold frequency, no emission of electrons takes
place

Substituting equaton (2) in equation (1)

ℎ𝜗 = ℎ𝜗0 + 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ(𝜗 − 𝜗 ) …………………………..(3)
2 0
This is another form of Einsteins photoelectric equation

From equation (1), we have

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝜗 − 𝑊
2 𝑜
For a particular emitter, work function Wo is constant and hence

𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 ∝ ℎ𝜗

𝑣2 ∝ 𝜗

Thus increase in frequency ν of incident light causes increase in velocity of photoelectrons

provided intensity of incident light is constant.

An increase in intensity of radiation is equivalent to an increase in the number of photons

falliing on the emitting surface. If the frequency of incidnet radiation is above the threshold
frequency (𝜗 > 𝜗0 ), then the number of emitted electrons is directly proportional to the
intesnity of incident radaition.

Since the energy of the fastest electron is just balanced when they fall through stopping
potential. If Vo is the stopping potential, then eqaution (3) becomes

𝑒𝑉𝑜 = ℎ(𝜗 − 𝜗0 )
ℎ𝜗 ℎ𝜗0
𝑉𝑜 = − …………………………..(4)
𝑒 𝑒

Where ℎ, 𝜗0 , 𝑒 are constants

This equation is in the form of y=mx+c, represents a straight line and it was experimetnally
verified by Millikan.

Corresponding to threshold frequency, we define long wavelength limit (λo). It represents the
upper limit of wavelength which indicates no emission of free electrons takes place. Its physical
significance is that radiations having wavelength longer than λo would not be able to eject
electrons from a given metals surface whereas those having λ < λo will ejects. The value of λo
is given by

𝑐 𝑐ℎ
𝜆0 = =
𝜈𝑜 𝑊𝑜

𝑐ℎ 3 × 108 × 6.625 × 10−34 19.85 × 10−26

= =
𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜

Expressing Wo in electron volts

19.85 × 10−26
𝜆0 =
1.6 × 10−19 × 𝑊𝑜

12400 0
𝜆0 = 𝐴
𝑊𝑜

De Broglies Hypothesis:
 Louis de Broglie extended the wave particle parallelism of optics to all the fundamental
entities of physics such as electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and molecules etc. De Broglie
suggested that as like radiation, matter also has dual characteristic.

A moving particle has always got a wave associated with it and the particle is controlled
by the wave in a manner similar to that in which a photon is controlled by waves.

IF radiation (light) can act like wave sometimes and like a particle at other times, then the
material particles (e.g., electron, neutron, etc) should act as wave at other times.

Thus for a moving particle, a wave is associated with it and is known as de-Broglie waves/
matter waves. The wavelength of the matter wave is given by

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝

Where m is the mass of the particle

v is the velocity of particle

p is the momentum

The expression for the wavelength associated with a particle be derived with Planck’s law and
Einstein’s mass-energy relation.

According to Planck’s theory of radiation the energy of the photon is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
Where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and

λ is the wavelength

According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Therefore

ℎ𝑐
𝑚𝑐 2 =
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑐
If we consider the case of a material particle of mass m and moving with a velocity v i.e.,
momentum mv, then the wavelength associated with this particle is given by

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
 𝑝2
(1) IF E is the kinetic energy of the material particle, then 𝐸 = 2𝑚

𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸

Therefore the de-Broglie wavelength associated for the material particle is

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸
(2) When a charged particle carrying a charge q, is accelerated by a potential difference V
volts then its Kinetic energy E is given by E=qV
Hence the de-Broglie wavelength associated with this particle is given by

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

(3) When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then E= 3/2 KT

Where K is Boltzmann constant 1.38*10-23 J/K
So the de-Broglie wavelength of a material particle at temperature T is given by

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚(3 𝑘𝑇)
2

ℎ
𝜆=
√3𝑚𝑘𝑇
Properties of matter waves:

1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associates with it

2. Smaller is the velocity of the particle greater is the wavelength
3. When v=0 then 𝜆 = ∞ wave becomes indeterminate and if 𝑣 = ∞ then 𝜆 = 0 This
shows that matter waves are generated by motion of particles
These waves are produced whether the particles are charged particle or they are
uncharged. This fact reveals that these waves are not electromagnetic but they are new
kind o f waves.
4. The velocity of matter eaves depends on velocity of matter particle i.e., it is not a
constant while the velocity of electromagnetic wave is constant.
5. The velocity of matter wave is greater than velocity of light.
A particle in motion with associated matter wave has two different velocities one
referring to the mechanical motion of the particle represented by v and second related
to the propagation by w.
We know 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ𝜗 = 𝑚𝑐 2
 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜗=
ℎ
The wave velocity 𝑤 = 𝜗 × 𝜆

𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
𝑤= ×
ℎ 𝑚𝑣
𝑐2
𝑤=
𝑣
As the particle velocity v cannot exceed c (velocity of light), hence w is greater than velocity
of light

This result can be understood by considering the wave velocity also known as phase velocity
and the other to be group velocity.

6. The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear together in the same
experiment – matter wave representation is only a symbolic representation
7. The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the position of
the particle because a wave cannot be said exactly at this point or exactly at that point
However, when the wave is large (strong) there is a good chance of finding the particle
while, where the wave is small (weak) there is very small chance of finding the particle.

DAVISSON and GERMER’s Experiment

The first experimental evidence of matter waves was given by Davisson and Germer in 1927.
They studied the reflection of electrons from nickel target, which was priorly subjected to heat
treatment and the reflection becomes anomalous. They also observed that the reflected intensity
showed striking maxima and minima. Thus, electrons are diffracted like X-rays i.e., they
behave like waves under certain conditions.

The experimental arrangement is shown in figure. The apparatus consists of an electron gun G
where the electrons are produced and obtained in a fine pencil of electronic beam of known
velocity. The electron gun consists of a tungsten filament F heated to dull red so that electrons
are emitted due to thermionic emission. Now the electrons are accelerated in the electric field
of known potential difference.
After this the electrons are collimated by a suitable slit to obtain a fine beam. The beam of
electrons are are directed to fall on a large single crystal of Nickel known as target T. The
electrons acting as waves, are diffracted in different directions. The angular distribution is
measured by an electron detector C which is connected to a galvanometer. The Faraday
cylinder can move on a circular graduated scale S between 29o to 90o to receive the reflected
electrons.

First, the accelerating potential V is given a low value and the crystal is set at an arbitrary
azimuth θ. Now the Faraday cylinder is moved to various positions on the scale S and
galvanometer current is noted for each position. The galvanometer current represents a measure
of intensity of diffracted beam.

Polar graphs are plotted between intensity of scattered electrons and incident electron beam.
The observations are repeated for different accelerated potentials. The corresponding curves
are shown in figure.
It is observed that a hump begins to appear in the curve for 44V electrons.

Following points are observed:

(i) With increasing potential, the hump moves upwards

(ii) The hump becomes most prominent in the curve for 54 V at θ = 50o
(iii) At higher potentials, the bumps gradually disappear

The hump in its most prominent state verifies the existence of electron waves. According to
de Broglie the wavelength associated with the electron accelerated through a potential V is
given by

12.26
𝜆= 𝐴𝑜
√𝑉
Hence the wavelength associated with 54 V electrons

12.26
𝜆= 𝐴𝑜 = 1.67 𝐴𝑜
√54
From X-ray analysis, it is known that a nickel crystal acts as a plan ediffraction grating with
grating space 𝑑 = 0.91 𝐴𝑜 . According to experiment we have diffracted electron beam at θ=50o
The corresponding angle of incidence relative to the family of Bragg plane.

′
180𝑜 − 50𝑜
𝜃 = = 65𝑜
2
Using Bragg’s equation (taking n=1), we have

𝜆 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 2 ∗ 0.91 ∗ sin 65

= 1.65 𝐴𝑜

Thus, it is in good agreement with the wavelength computed from deBroglie hypothesis, which
confirms the existence of matter waves.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

Heisenberg proposed a principle, which is a direct consequence of dual nature of matter known
as uncertainty principle. In classical mechanics, moving particle at any instant has fixed
position in space and a definite momentum which can b e determined if the initial values are
known.

According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, “It is impossible to measure both position and
momentum of a particle simultaneously to any desired degree of accuracy”.

Qualitatively this principle states that “the order of magnitude of uncertainties in the knowledge
of two variables must be atleast Planck’s constant h”.

Considering the pair of physical variables, a position and momentum, we have

Δ𝑝Δ𝑥 ≈ ℎ

Where Δ𝑝 is the uncertainty in determining the momentum,

Δ𝑥 is the uncertainty in determining he position

Time energy uncertainty principle:

Consider a free particle with rest mass m0 moving along x direction with velocity v. The kinetic
energy is given by

𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚
Let Δ𝑝 and Δ𝐸 are the uncertainties in momentum and energy respectively, then differentiating
the above equation

2𝑃 Δ𝑃
Δ𝐸 =
2𝑚
𝑃 Δ𝑃 = 𝑚0 Δ𝐸
𝑚
Δ𝑃 = Δ𝐸
𝑝
 1
= Δ𝐸
𝑣
Further, the uncertainty in the time interval for measurement at point x be ∆t then the
uncertainty ∆x in position is

Δ𝑥 = 𝑣 Δ𝑡

Δ𝑝Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑡Δ𝐸

We know

Δ𝑝Δ𝑥 ≈ ℎ

Therefore

Δ𝑡Δ𝐸 ≈ ℎ

Application to Heisenberg uncertainty principle: Electrons doesn’t exist within nucleus

The diameter of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10-14 m. IF any electron is confined
within the nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position (∆x) must not be greater than 10-14 m.

According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle,

Δ𝑝Δ𝑥 ≈ ℎ

The uncertainty in momentum is

ℎ
Δ𝑝 ≈
2𝜋Δ𝑥
ℎ
Δ𝑝 ≥
2𝜋Δ𝑥
6.625 × 10−34
Δ𝑝 ≥
2 × 3.14 × 10−14
Δ𝑝 ≥ 1.05 × 10−20 𝐾𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠

This is the uncertainty in the momentum of electron and then the momentum of the electron
must be in the same order of magnitude.

The kinetic energy of the electron is given by

𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚
Where p is the momentum of electron = 1.055*10-20 kg m/s
M is the mass of electron = 9.11*10-31 Kg

(1.055 × 10−20 )2
𝐸=
2 × 9.11 × 10−31
= 0.0610 × 10−9 𝐽

= 3.8 × 108 𝑒𝑉

The above value for the kinetic energy indicates that an electron with a momentum of
1.05 × 10−20 𝐾𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 and mass of 9.11 × 10−31 Kg to exist within nucleus, it must have
energy equal to or greater than this value. But the experimental results on β decay show that
the maximum kinetic energy of electron can have when it is confined within the nucleus is of
the order of 3-4 MeV. Therefore, the free electrons cannot exist within the nucleus.

BORN’s interpretation of wavefunction:

According to de-Broglie theory, a material particle is associated with a wave. So, a

mathematical formation describe the amplitude of matter waves with a complex quantity
Ψ(x,y,z,t)known as wavefunction (state of system) has been developed by Schrodinger.

According to Schrodinger if Ψ is the amplitude of matter waves at any point in space, then the
particle density at that point may be taken as proportional to Ψ2. But it is observed that in some
cases, Ψ is appreciably different from zero within finite region known as wave packet. To
explain it, Max Born suggested a new idea about the physical significance of Ψ.

According to Max Born ΨΨ ∗ = |Ψ|2 gives the probability of finding the particle in the state
Ψ i.e., Ψ2 is measure of probability density. The probability of finding the particle in volume
𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 is given by |Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧. For the total probability of finding the particle
somewhere is unity i.e., particle is certainly to be found somewhere in space.

∭|Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1

Ψ is satisfying the above requirement is said to be normalized.

Wavefunction Properties:
The wavefunction Ψ must fulfil the following requirements.

(i) It must be finite every where

If Ψ is infinite at a particular point, then it would mean an infinitely large
probability of finding the particle at that point. This is not possible. Hence Ψ must
have a finite or zero value at any point.
(ii) It must be single valued
Let us consider that Ψ has more than one value at any point. It means that there is
more that one value of probability of finding the particle at that point. This is
obviously ridiculous.
(iii) It must be continuous
 𝑑2 Ψ
For Schroedinger equation must be finite everywhere. This is possible only
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑Ψ
when has no discontinuity at any boundary where potential changes. This
𝑑𝑥
implies that Ψ too must be continuous across a boundary.

Schrodinger time independent wav equation:

- Equation of motion for matter waves

According to de-Broglie theory, a particle of mass m is always associated with a wave

whose wavelength is given by

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝

If the particle has wave properties, it is expected that there should be some sort of wave
equation which describes the behaviour of the particle.

Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x,y,z be the
coordinates of the particle and Ψ is the wavefunction associated with it. It is assumed that
Ψ is finite, single valued and periodic function. The classical differential equation of a wave
motion is given by
𝑑2 Ψ 𝑑2 Ψ 𝑑2 Ψ 𝑑2 Ψ
= 𝑣 2 ( 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 + ) = 𝑣 2 ∇2 Ψ …………………(1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑧 2

Where

𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
∇2 = + +
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2

Is the Laplacian operator

Where v is the wave velocity

The solution of equation (1) is given by

Ψ = Ψ0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Ψ = Ψ0 sin (2𝜋𝑓)𝑡 ……………(2)

Where ν is the frequency of stationary wave associated with the particle.

Differentiating equation (2) twice with respect to time, we get

𝑑2 Ψ
= −(2𝜋𝑓)2 Ψ0 sin (2𝜋𝑓)𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2

= −(2𝜋𝑓)2 Ψ
4𝜋 2 𝑣 2 𝑣
=− Ψ ………………(3) ∵ [𝑓 = 𝜆]
𝜆2
 𝑑2 Ψ
Substituting the value of from equation (3) in equation (1) we get
𝑑𝑡 2

4𝜋 2 𝑣 2
𝑣 2 ∇2 Ψ = − Ψ
𝜆2

4𝜋 2
∇2 Ψ + Ψ=0
𝜆2

ℎ
Now, from de-Broglie relation 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣

4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
∇2 Ψ + Ψ=0 …………….(4)
ℎ2

IF E and V be the total and potential energies of the particle respectively, then its kinetic energy

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐸 − 𝑉
2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ………………….(5)

From equation (4) and (5) we have

4𝜋 2
∇2 Ψ + 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
ℎ2

8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 Ψ + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
ℎ2

ℎ
⃗ = the equation becomes
Substituting ℎ 2𝜋

2𝑚
∇2 Ψ + ⃗2
(𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
ℎ

This is known as time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

For a free particle V=0, the Schrodinger equation can be expressed as

2𝑚𝐸
∇2 Ψ + ⃗2
Ψ =0
ℎ

Particle in 1D box:

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-axis between the two rigid walls A and
B at x=0 and x=L as shown in figure. The particle is free to move between the walls. The
potential energy of the particle between the two walls is constant because no force is acting on
the particle.
The constant potential energy is taken as zero for simplicity. When the particle strikes any one
of the walls, it is reflected back immediately as the walls are perfectly rigid. Now the force
acting on the particle abruptly changes from zero to a finite value F within a distance of zero
at the wall.
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
We know that |𝐹| = 𝜕𝑥 we should have ∆𝑉 → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0 such that 𝜕𝑥 has finite value |𝐹|

Thus, the potential function is defined in the following way

𝑉(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 𝐿

= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿

The Schrodinger wave equation for the particle is given by

𝑑2 Ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

As V=0

𝑑 2 Ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
+ Ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
Let

8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
= 𝑘2
ℎ2
then
𝑑2 Ψ
+ 𝑘 2 Ψ = 0 ……..(1)
𝑑𝑥 2

The general solution of equation(1) is of the form of sinkx or coskx. The general solution
is given by

Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥

Where A and B are constants. The values of these constants can be obtained by applying the
boundary conditions of the problem. Here the particle is enclosed between two rigid walls and
we know that Ψ2 represents the probability of finding the particle at any instant. The particle
cannot penetrate the walls, hence at x = 0, Ψ = 0 and at x = L, Ψ = 0.

Applying these boundary conditions, we have

For at x = 0, Ψ = 0

0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0

𝐵=0

∴ Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥

For at x = L, Ψ = 0

0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿

Here either A=0 or sin kL =0 but

𝐴 ≠ 0 or sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0

𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
Now the wavefunction becomes
𝑛𝜋
Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑥
𝐿

Eigen Values:

𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
And we have used

2
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘 =
ℎ2
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋 2
= ( )
ℎ2 𝐿
 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝐿2
Where n1,2,3…

It is clear that inside an infinitely deep potential well, the particle can have only descrete set of
values of energy i.e., the energy of the particle is quantized. The descree energy values are
given by

ℎ2
𝐸1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
8𝑚𝐿2
4ℎ2
𝐸2 = = 4𝐸1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
8𝑚𝐿2
9ℎ2
𝐸3 = = 9𝐸1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3
8𝑚𝐿2

According to classical mechanics, the particle may take any continuous range of values
between zero and infinity.

Wavefunction:

The constant A can be obtained by applying the normalization condition

𝐿

∫|Ψ(x)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0

𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
0
 𝐿
𝐴2 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2 𝐿
0

𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿
[𝑥 − sin ( ) ] =1
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿 0

𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝐿 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋(0)
{[𝐿 − sin ( ) ] − [0 − sin ( ) ]} = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿

𝐴2
=1
2

2
𝐴=√
𝐿

2 𝑛𝜋
Ψ𝑛 (𝑥) = √ sin 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

This gives the wavefunctions of the particle enclosed in infinitely deep potential well.

The wavefunctions Ψ1 , Ψ2 , Ψ3 corresponding to n=1,2, and 3 are shown in figure.

Between x = 0 and x = L there are points where the wavefunction has zero value. These points
are called nodes.

For n=1, there are two nodes at x = 0 and x = L

For n=2, there are three nodes at x = 0, x = L/2 and x = L.

For n=3, there are four nodes at x = 0, x = L/3, x = 2L/3 and x = L

Therefore, in general we have (n+1) nodes for wavefunction Ψn

Probability density:

The probability of finding the particle between positions x and x+dx is given by

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |Ψ(x)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
The probability density will be maximum, when

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= , , , … ..
𝐿 2 2 2
𝐿 3𝐿 5𝐿
𝑥 = , , , … ..
2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛
For n=1, the particle is most likely to be found at the middle of the box because |Ψ|12 is
𝐿
maximum at 𝑥 = 2.

𝐿 3𝐿
For n = 2, the particle is most likely to found maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 =
4 4

The variation of probability densities |Ψ|12 , |Ψ|22 and |Ψ|23 for n = 1, 2, 3 are shown in figure.

According to classical mechanics, a particle moving with a velocity v spends a time dx/v in
travelling distance dx and hence the probability distribution is constant.

At a particular point, the probability of the particle being present is different for different
quantum numbers.

Therefore, quantum mechanical results vary drastically from classical results

The classical mechanics predicts the same probability for the particle being anywhere in the
box while quantum mechanics predicts that the probability is different at different points.
 Unit - II Semiconductors and Devices

• Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

• Hall effect
• Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
• Construction, principle of operation and characteristics of
o P-N Junction diode,
o Zener diode
o Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• Structure, materials, working principle and characteristics.
o LED,
o PIN diode,
o Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)
o Solar cells
Solid state materials can be classified into three classes

1. Insulators:
Eg:Fused quartz, glass
Conductivity: 10-18 – 10-8 S/m
2. Semiconductors:
Eg: Si, Ge, GaAs, AlAs
Conductivity: 10-8 – 103 S/m
3. Conductors:
Eg: Aluminium, silver
Conductivity: 103- 108 S/m

The conductivity of a semiconductor is generally sensitive to temperature, illumination,

magnetic field and minute amounts of impurity atoms (typically about 1µg to 1 g of impurity
atoms in 1 Kg). This sensitivity in conductivity makes the semiconductors most important
materials for electronic applications.
Based on the number of elements in a semiconductor, the semiconductors are classified into
two types

1. Elemental semiconductors Eg; Si, Ge

2. Compound semiconductors Eg: GaAs (binary), AlGaAs (ternary), GaInAsP
(quaternary)
At low temperatures, the electrons are bound to respective tetrahedron lattice; consequently,
they are not available for conduction. At higher temperatures thermal vibrations may break the
covalent bonds.

When a covalent bond is broken an electron escape to the conduction band leaving behind an
empty site in the valence band called hole.

Hole carries a positive charge and moves under the influence of applied electric field in the
direction opposite to that of an electron. Therefore, both the electron and hole contribute to the
total electric current.

The concept of hole is analogous to that of bubble in a liquid. Although it is actually the liquid
that moves, it is much easier to talk about the motion of bubble in opposite direction.

In thermal equilibrium condition, ie., the steady state conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor
due to the continuous thermal agitation the excitation of electrons from the valence bond to
conduction bond leaves equal number of holes in valence bond.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconducting material in which charge carriers originate from impurity atoms added to
the material is called impure semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor.

The addition of impurity increases the carrier concentration and hence the conductivity of the
conductor.
N-type semiconductor:

Pentavalent atoms/elements such as phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), or antimony (Sb) have five
electrons in their outermost orbits. When any one such impurity is added to the intrinsic
semiconductor in small trace while the crystal bonding with four neighbouring pure
semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom.

Even for lower thermal energy this fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom positively
ionized. During this process no hole is generated. Since these pentavalent elements donate
negative charges (electrons) they are called n-type semiconductors. In the energy level diagram
the energy level of the fifth electron is called donar level.

If the thermal energy is sufficiently high, in addition to the ionization of donar impurity atoms,
breaking of covalent bonds may also occur giving rise to generation of electron-hole pairs.
Hence n-type semiconductors electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

P-Type semiconductor:

Trivalent impurities such as Al, Ga, In have three electrons in their outermost orbits. When
anyone such impurity say Al is added to the intrinsic semiconductor (Eg: Si) in small trace
while crystal is grown, all the three electrons of Al are engaged in covalent bonding with three
neighbouring Si atoms. Al needs one more electron to complete its bond.
The electron may be supplied by a Ge, thereby creating a vacant electron site or hole on the
semiconductor atom. Since Al accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this impurity atom
is called acceptor level.

These trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities and the semiconductors doped with
acceptor impurities are called p-type semiconductors.

If the temperature is sufficiently high, in addition to the ionization of acceptor atoms, electron-
hole pairs are generated due to breaking of covalent bonds. Thus, holes are more in number
than electrons and hence holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in p-
type semiconductors.

Hall Effect:

When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse

magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both
the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as the Hall effect and the
generated voltage is known as Hall voltage.

When electric and magnetic fields are applied right angle to each other, to a p-type
semiconductor then holes experience a force from right to left which is mutually perpendicular.
As a result, there is accumulation of charges (holes) on face1 of the slab as shown in figure.
This accumulation of holes on face1 produces a Hall voltage.
For the case of n-type semiconductor, electrons accumulate on face(1) and the polarity in
voltmeter indicates the type of charge carriers.

Let B be the magnetic field applied at right angles to the direction of current flow. If the
material is n type and v is the velocity of electrons then the electrons experience a Lorentz force
of Bev due to the magnetic field at right angle to both the flow direction and B. This causes the
electron current to be deflected causing a negative charge to accumulate on one face of the slab.

A potential difference is therefore established across faces (1) and (2) causing a field EH. This
field gives rise to a force eEH on electrons in the opposite direction. At equilibrium

𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣

𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣

If J is the current density, then 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣

Thus

𝐽
𝑣=
𝑛𝑒
Where n is the concentration of carriers.

𝐵𝐽
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
The Hall effect is described by means of the Hall coefficient

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐽

𝐸𝐻
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐵𝐽

Since all the three quantities EH, B and J are measurable, the Hall coefficient RH and hence the
carrier density n can be found out.
Generally for n-type material since the Hall field is developed in negative direction compared
to the field developed for a p type material, negative sign is used while denoting Hall coefficient
RH.

Hence

𝐸𝐻 1
𝑅𝐻 = − = −
𝐵𝐽 𝑛𝑒

For p-type material since the current is entirely by holes

𝐸𝐻 1
𝑅𝐻 = =
𝐵𝐽 𝑝𝑒

Where p is density of holes.

Determination of Hall coefficient:

If b is the width of the sample across which Hall voltage VH is measured

𝑉𝐻
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑏
Hence

𝐸𝐻 𝑉𝐻
𝑅𝐻 = =
𝐵𝐽 𝐵𝐽𝑏

𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐽𝑏

If t is the thickness of the specimen, then its cross-section is bt and current density

𝐼
𝐽=
𝑏𝑡
Hence
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐽
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐵
VH will be opposite for n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Experiment

A rectangular slab of semiconductor material of known thickness t and width b is taken. A

current I is passed through this sample by connecting it to a battery. The sample is placed
between two pole pieces of an electromagnet such that the field B is perpendicular to I.
The Hall voltage VH is then measured by placing two probes at the two side faces of the slab.
If the magnetic flux density is B weber/mt2 and Hall voltage VH volts, then RH is obtained from

𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐵
In m3 /coloumb.

For n-type of material, the conductivity is given by

𝜎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒
𝜎𝑛
𝜇𝑒 = = −𝜎𝑛 𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑒
For p-type
𝜎𝑝
𝜇ℎ = = 𝜎𝑝 𝑅𝐻
𝑝𝑒

Applications of Hall effect:

(i) Determination of type of semiconductor:

For an n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient is negative whereas for p-type
semiconductor it is positive. Thus from the direction of the Hall voltage developed,
one can find out the type of semiconductor.
(ii) Calculation of carrier concentration
Once Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carrier concentration n can be obtained
by

1
𝑛=
𝑒𝑅𝐻

(iii) Determination of mobility

We know conductivity

𝜎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒

Hence
𝜎𝑛
𝜇𝑒 == −𝜎𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑒
Thus measuring the conductivity and hall coefficient of a sample, the mobility of
charge carriers can be calculated.
(iv) Measurement of magnetic flux density:
Using a semiconductor sample of known Hall coefficient, the magnetic flux density
can be deduced from the formula

𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐵
 𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝐵=
𝐼𝑅𝐻

Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

We known that the energy spectrum of an electron moving in the presence of periodic
potential field is divided into allowed and forbidden zones.

In Crystals the inter atomic distances and the internal potential energy distribution vary
with direction of the crystal.

Hence the E-k relationship and hence energy band formation depends on the orientation of
the electron wave vector to the Crystallographic axes.

In few crystals like gallium arsenide, the maximum of the valence band occurs at the same
value of k as the minimum of the conduction band as shown in below, this is called direct
band gap semiconductor.

In few semiconductors like Silicon the maximum of the valence band does not always occur
at the same k value as the Minimum of the conduction band as shown in figure. This we
call indirect band gap semiconductor.

In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of motion of an electron during a transition
across the energy gap remains unchanged.

Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers across the band gap is more in direct
band gap than in indirect band gap semiconductors.

Direct Band Gap In direct band Gap

 1. In the band diagram the minimum1. 1.In the band diagram the minimum energy
energy of conduction band and of conduction band and maximum energy
maximum energy of valance band are of valance band are having different wave
having the same value of wave vector vector k
k
2. 2. In this an electron can recombine with a
2. In this an electron from the hole in the valance band indirectly through
conduction band can recombine with traps. But there is emission of phonon
a hole the valance band directly leading to the rise of temperature of
emitting a light photon of energy hν. material.
3. Life time (recombination time) is3. 3.Life time is more.
very less.
4.
4. Due to emission of light photon
5. 4. Due to longer life time of charge carriers,
during recombination of charge
these are used to amplify the signals as in
carriers, these are used to fabricate
the case of diodes and transistors.
LED’s and LASER diodes.
6. 5. These are mostly elemental
5. These are mostly from the compound
semiconductors
semiconductors.
7. 6. Ge= 0.7 eV, and Si = 1.12 eV
6. GaAs = 1.42 eV,
InP= 1.35 eV

PN junction diode:

A PN junction is a device formed by combining p-type ( doped with B, Al) and n-type (doped
with P, As, Sb) semiconductors together in close contact.

PN junction can basically work in two modes

forward bias mode (as shown below: positive terminal connected to p-region and negative
terminal connected to n region)

When external dc voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing.

The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage, it is eliminated altogether. And
the junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance) to current flow. The magnitude of
current depends on the applied forward voltage.

The free electrons from the negative terminal enter the n-region and move towards the junction.
When these electrons reach the junction, they combine with the holes and become valence
electrons

When these valence electrons reach the left end of the diode, they flow into the positive
terminal of the battery.
reverse bias mode (negative terminal connected to p-region and positive terminal connected
to n region)

when the external dc voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential
barrier is increased is called reverse biasing

In reverse biased condition, the potential barrier increases and the junction offers very high
resistance (called reverse resistance Rf) to current flow.

Although no current flows through the junction a very small current (order of µA) flows due
to the minority charge carriers. It is called reverse saturation current. The reverse current is due
to braking of covalent bonds at room temperature.

If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers)
may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this stage
breakdown of the junction occurs. Thus, a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This
may destroy the junction permanently.
The V-I characteristics of pn junction diode in forward and reverse bias are shown in figure.

Zero bias mode When no external voltage is applied across the pn junction it is said to be in
zero biased condition

Zener diode:
A properly doped diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as Zener diode.

If the diode is heavily doped, the depletion layer will be thin and consequently the breakdown
of the junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand a lightly doped diode
has a higher breakdown voltage.
A Zener diode is always reverse connected i.e., it is always reverse biased. When it is forward
biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode.

A Zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage called Zener voltage Vz. The VI characteristics
are shown in figure.

The Zener diode operated in this region will have a relatively constant voltage across it,
regardless of the value of current through the device. Therefore, it can be used as voltage
regulator

Bipolar Junction Transistor:

A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type

semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors,
namely

(i) n-p-n transistor

(ii) p-n-p transistor

A n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin

section of p-type as shown in Fig.
The transistor has three regions namely; emitter, base and collector. The base is much thinner
than the emitter while the collector is wider than both.

The transistor has two pn junctions i.e., it is like two diodes. The junction between emitter and
base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The junction between the
base and collector may be called collector-base diode or collector diode.

The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers (electrons
or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin, it passes most of the emitter
injected charge carriers to the collector. The collector is moderately doped.

The emitter diode is always forward biased and collector diode is always reverse biased.

The resistance offered at emitter diode is very small as compared to the collector diode (reverse
biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter diode is generally very small whereas
reverse bias on the collector diode is much higher.

Emitter: the emitter junction is always forward biased w.r.t base so that it can supply a large
number of majority carriers. The emitter of npn transistor is forward biased and supplies
electron charges to its junction with the base and vice versa for pnp transistor.

Collector: The collector collects the charge carriers from the junction and it is reverse biased.
Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. The collector of npn transistor
receives electrons from its base junction and vice versa for the npn transistor.

Base: The middle section which forms two pn junctions between the emitter and collector is
called base. The base emitter junction is forward biased allowing low resistance for the emitter
circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance in the
collector circuit.
The symbols used for npn and pnp transistors are shown in figure. The direction of
conventional current flow with forward bias. For npn connection it is clear that conventional
current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outgoing arrow in figure.

Working of npn transistor:

Figure shows the npn transistor with forward bias to emitter base junction and reverse bias to
collector-base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow
through the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.

As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the base
is lightly doped and very thin, therefore only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes
to constitute base current IB.

The remainder (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear
that emitter current is the sum of collector current and base currents i.e.,

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

Thus, the input emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, a
transistor transfers the input signal current from low resistance circuit to a high resistance
circuit. This is the key factor responsible for the amplifying capability of transistor.
Consequently, the name transistor is given to the device by combining the two terms given as

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

Principle:

A light emitting diode (LED) is a p-n junction semiconductor device which emits light when it
is forward biased. Light is emitted across the p-n junction when the recombination of electrons
and holes takes place. The energy gap present between the valence band and conduction band
determines the energy of photons which are emitted by the LED. When the recombination takes
place, the excess energy will be ejected out as light. This process is called as
electroluminescence.

Theory:

The figure shows the energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction. The p-n junction
has a large concentration of electrons in the conduction band of n-region and a large
concentration of holes in the valence band. Under forward biased condition, the electrons move
forward into the depletion region and occupy the energy levels in the conduction band and
viceversa will happen in p-type region. The situation is highly conductive for direct
recombination of electrons and holes which emits excess energy in the form of light photon.
Materials:

The colour of emitted light depends on the type of material used. The semiconducting materials
used for manufacturing LEDs are compound semiconductors like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) The colour or wavelength
of light emitted by LED depends on the percentage of doping of phosphide in GaAsP or GaP.

Semiconducting material Colour /Wavelength

Red – 7000 A0
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
Green – 5650 A0

Gallium Arsenide Yellow- 5850 A0

Phosphide (GaAsP) Red – 7000 A0

Gallium Nitride (GaN) Blue – 4800 A0

Gallium Nitride (GaAs) IR - 9000 A0

Construction:

LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the pn junction plane in the case of
surface emitting LEDs. The construction of a surface emitting LED is shown in figure. An n-
type layer is grown on a substrate and a p-type layer is grown on a substrate and a p-type layer
is grown on it by the process of diffusion.

The photons that are generated at he p-n junction must pass through the semiconducting
material to reach the surface and become visible. In the process some of them get absorbed and
others that reach the surface may not be able to leave the semiconductors owing to the total
internal reflection. The refractive index of LED materials is about 3.3 to 3.8. The critical angle
(which is given by sinθc = 1/θc) will be between 150 and 180. All the rays of light striking the
surface with θ > θc gets internally reflected. The light generated at the junction may not emerge
from the surface of the device as it is likely to suffer total internal reflection at the
semiconductor –air boundary. Therefore the device is encapsulated in a clear epoxy resin of
suitable refractive index.
 ➢ p-type layer is made very thin to prevent loss of photons due to the absorption of the
layer
➢ Metals connections are made at the edges of the p-layer in order to allow more central
surface to escape
➢ A metal film is deposited at the bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much light as
possible towards the surface for reflecting of the device and also to provide electrode
connection.

Working/Figure of Merit:

The circuit symbol of LED and a simple circuit to illustrate the working of an LED as
shown in the figure. LED must always forward biased. The forward voltage across an LED is
significantly greater than an ordinary diode. It is in between 1.2 V and 3.2 V then the amount
of light emitted is directly proportional to the forward current. The reverse breakdown voltage
of LED is of the order of 5 V and LED should never be connected in reverse biased

Figure of Merit is the quantity usually measured to characterize the performance of a device
relative to its alternatives. LEDs have many advantages over other sources.

➢ Output is bright and the intensity can be controlled easily by varying current
➢ They can be operated over a wide range of temperatures 0 to 70 C
➢ Very fast response time in the order of ns and hence very useful for optical
communication.
➢ Has long life about 105 hours and a high degree of reliability
➢ The viewing angle is not limited
PHOTO DETECTOR:
Photo detectors are semiconductor devices that can convert optical signals into electrical
signals. The operation of a photo detector involves three steps:

(i) Carrier generation by incident light

(ii) Carrier transport and/or multiplication with gain
(iii) Interaction of current with the external circuit
A photo diode is basically a p-n junction or a semiconductor contact operated under reverse
bias. When an optical signal impinges on the photo diode, the depletion region serves to
separate the photo generated electron-hole pair and an electric current flows in the external
circuit.

The charge separation can be utilized in two ways

(1) IF the diode is short circuited external, a current flows between p and n regions, it is
known as the photoconductive mode of operation. The diode is reverse biased for photo
conductive operation.
(2) IF the diode is left on open circuit, a voltage appears between p and n regions and is
known as the photovoltaic mode of operation. Solar cells use this mode of operation.
The structure of a photo diode is shown in figure. When a reverse bias is applied across the
junction, the depletion layer widens as mobile carriers are swept to their respective majority
sides. The motion of minority carriers causes the reverse leakage current of the diode.

When no light radiations present (zero light), a small leakage current exists. This leakage
current is called dark current (reverse leakage Current). The amount of dark current depends
on the reverse bias voltage, the series resistance and the ambient temperature.
Photo carriers in the depletion layer drift in the opposite directions under the action of electric
field and induce an electric current in the external circuit over and above the already existing
dark current. The photo current flowing in the external circuit is always in the reverse direction.

Increasing the level of illumination increases the reverse current flowing. The light incident in
the neutral region on either side of the depletion layer also produces electron hole pairs.

Therefore it is required that the depletion region be suitably wide to enable a large fraction of
incident light to be absorbed. The photo current is proportional to the incident light intensity.
Consequently the diode under a reverse bias voltage can be used as a photo detector.

The illumination characteristic of a photodiode is much similar to that of a p-n junction diode
and is shown in figure

Disadvantages of p-n photodiode:

(i) The depletion layer is a relatively small portion of the total volume of the diode.
Hence small photo current appears in the circuit.
(ii) To increase the width of the depletion region, the reverse bias applied across the
junction has to be increased which may not be possible beyond a certain value.
(iii) The electrons and holes generated by the photons in the bulk of the diode recombine
before they cause current in the circuit.
Characteristics of a photo detector:

Responsitivity, dark current and bandwidth are major characteristics of a photo detector.

The performance of a photo diode is characterized by the responsitivity R which specifies the
photo current generated per unit optical power.

𝐼𝑃
𝑅=
𝑃0

Where Ip is output photocurrent in A

Po is incident optical power in W

 𝜂𝑞 𝜂𝜆
The responsitivity R is related to quantum efficiency as 𝑅 = ℎ𝜈 = (𝜇𝑚)
1.24

The responsitivity is directly proportional to the wavelength.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛−ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑝 ⁄𝑞
Quantum Efficiency 𝜂 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑃0

Maximum photo current in a photo diode Ip (Max) = (q/hν)Po

The maximum photocurrent flows when each incident photon produces one electron-hole pair
contributing to the photocurrent.

These are two types of photodiode structures used as photo detectors

(i) Positive intrinsic Negative (PiN) diode

(ii) Avalanche Photo diode

PiN diode:
PiN photodiode is a device that consists of p and n regions separated by a very lightly doped
intrinsic region. In PiN photo diode the depletion region extends well into the intrinsic region,
as it is lightly doped. Under sufficiently large reverse bias, the depletion region could extend
through the intrinsic region, whereby the entire intrinsic layer widens the depletion region and
therefore increases area available for capturing light. The structure of a PiN photo diode is
shown in figure.

The PiN diode has a broad intrinsic semiconductor layer between p and n regions. As the
intrinsic layer has no free charges its resistance is high and the largest part of the bias voltage
drops across it. Incident photon produces free electron-hole pairs in the depleted intrinsic
region, where most light is absorbed.

The high electric field in the depletion region causes the free carriers to separate and move
across the reverse biased junction. This gives rise to a current flow in the external circuit. As
the intrinsic layer is wide enough, most of the photons are absorbed and larger photocurrent is
produced. Hence PiN photodiode is more sensitive than p-n photo diode.
PiN diodes are prepared in two ways

(1) Planar Structure

(2) Mesa structure
In planar structure an epitaxial film is grown onto the substrate material and p+ region is
introduced either by diffusion or ion implantation.

The mesa structures has layers grown onto the substrate. These layers have dopants to
control the thickness of the layers more accurately. This is ideal for high frequency
operation.

Advantages of PiN photodiode:

(i) The depletion region is very wide and extends throughout the intrinsic region and
hence the reverse bias need not be varied to widen the depletion region
(ii) The reverse bias applied is small of the order of 5 V.
(iii) As the depletion are is wider, most of the incident photons are absorbed in this
region and hence efficiency of this device is high
(iv) The dark current in this device is smaller.
Avalanche Photodiode:

An avalanche photo diode (APD) is more sophisticated than a PiN diode and incorporates the
internal gain mechanism so that the photo electric current is amplified within the detector. It
will be very much useful when very low-levels of light are to be detected. The structure of a
typical APD is shown in Figure. This configuration is known as p+πpn+ reach through structure.

The device is essentially a reverse biased p-n junction. The n+ and p+ are heavily doped
semiconductors and have very low resistance. The π region is very lightly doped and hence is
nearly intrinsic. Most of the incident light passes into the intrinsic region through the thin p+
region and electron hole pairs are generated in the intrinsic region. Under reverse bias, the
depletion region widens enough to reach through to the intrinsic layer.
Under reverse bias most of the applied voltage drops across the p-n+ junction. With increase in
the reverse bias voltage, the depletion region across this junction widens. Under sufficient
reverse bais the depletion region widens enough to reach through to the intrinsic layer.

In this condition, the internal field intensity near the junction becomes very high and the
junction approaches the breakdown condition. Therefore the electrons and holes photo
generated in the depletion layer acquire sufficient energy from the field to liberate secondary
electrons and holes within the layer by a process of impact ionization. The newly generated
carriers are also accelerated by the high electric field, thus gaining enough energy to cause
further impact ionization. In this device multiplication is initiated by electrons. Holes are
generated in the π region drift to p+ electrode and hence do not take part in the multiplication
process.

The avalanche action enables the gain of the diode to be increase many times, providing a very
much greater level of sensitivity.

SOLAR CELL:

A solar cell is basically a p-n junction that can generate electrical power when illuminated.
Solar cells are usually large area devices typically illuminated with sunlight and are intended
to convert the solar energy into electrical energy.

The schematic of a solar cell is shown in figure. It consists of a p type chip on which a thin
layer of n type material is grown. When the solar radiation is incident on the cell, electron-hole
pairs are generated in the n and p regions. The majority of them canot recombine in the regions.
They reach the depletion region at the junction where an electric field due to space charge
separates them. Electrons in the p-region are drawn into the n-region and holes in the n-region
are drawn into p-region. This gives charge accumulation on the two sides of the junction and
produces a potential difference called photo emf of magnitude of order of 0.5 V.
Generally power conversion efficiency of single crystalline solar cells is in the ranges of 10 to
30%. Current coming out of the cell is taken as positive as it leads to electrical power
generation. The power generated depends on the solar cell itself and the load connected to it.

I-V characteristic of a solar cell is shown in figure. The open circuit voltage VOC is the voltage
across the illuminated cell at zero current and the short circuit current, ISC is the current through
the illuminated cell if the voltage across the cell is zero. The short circuit current is close to the
photocurrent while the open circuit voltage is close to the turn on voltage of the diode. The
power equals the product of the diode voltage and current. The current first initially increases
linearly with the diode voltage but then rapidly goes to zero around the turn-on voltage of the
diode. The maximum power is attained at Vm with Im.
 Unit - III: Dielectric and Magnetic Materials

• Dielectric Materials: Types of polarizations

• Electronic & Ionic polarizabilities
• Internal field in Dielectrics and Clausius -Mossotti Relation
• Ferroelectric - Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric materials
• Applications:
o liquid crystal displays (LCD) and
o crystal oscillators.

• Magnetic Materials
• Origin of magnetic moment
• Classification of Magnetic materials
• Weiss theory of ferromagnetism
• Hysteresis curve
• Soft and Hard magnetic materials
• Applications:
o Bubble memory devices,
o magnetic field sensors.

Dielectrics:
Introduction:
Dielectric materials are non-conducting materials and when they are placed in electric
field, they undergo noticeable changes and stores electric charges,
Applications:
Insulating materials
Dielectric medium in between capacitor plates
Liquid insulation – Mineral/synthetic oil – cooling transformers
Cooking in microwave oven
Dielectric heating – dehydration of food, tobacco etc.
Dielectric polarization:
Let us consider an electrically neutral slab of an isotropic dielectric medium inserted
between the plates of a charged parallel plates capacitor as shown in figure
An internal field Ei directed opposite to the applied field E0 appears within the dielectric.
These bound charges are not free to migrate through the dielectric. The action of the field
E0 on the bound charge consists in displacing the bound charges relative to one another.
Negative charges displaces opposite to E0 and viceversa.
Thus within the action of electric field on a dielectric is to induce charges on its surface
which is called polarization.
The effect of polarization is to reduce the magnitude of the external field E0. The induced
surface charges on the dielectric give rise to an induced electric field Ei which opposes
the external field E0.
The net electric field E in dielectric has the magnitude given by
E= E0 - Ei

Dielectric Constant:
It is the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor containing the dielectric medium to the
capacitance of the same capacitor with air as medium.
𝐶
𝜀𝑟 =
𝐶0
ɛr is called dielectric constant (or) relative permittivity
ɛr describes the ability of the dielectric medium to store the electrical charges.
It can also be defined as the ratio between the permittivity of the medium and the
permittivity of the free space.
𝜀
𝜀𝑟 =
𝜀0
It has no units and it denotes the measure of polarization in the dielectric material.
ɛ0 is 8.85×10-12 F/m

Electric Polarization:
Let us consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive charge is
displaced along the applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is displaced
in the opposite direction. Thus a dipole is produced. When a dielectric placed inside an
electric field such dipoles are created in all atoms inside. This process of producing
electric dipoles which are oriented along the field direction is called polarization in
dielectrics.

Electric dipole:
The separation of positive and negative charges by a distance in an atom due to an
external electric field.
Dipole moment:
It is the product of the magnitude of the charges and the distance of the separation
𝜇 = (𝐴𝜎𝑃 )𝑑
= 𝜎𝑃 𝑉
Polarizability:
When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength of the induced dipole µ
also increases. Thus the induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the
electric field.
𝜇 = 𝛼𝐸
Where α is the constant of proportionality is called polarizability. It can be defined as
induced dipole moment per unit electric field.

Polarization Vector P:
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector
P. If µ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules per
unit volume the polarization vector
 P=Nµ
The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all the individual dipole
moments within that volume and is called the polarization P of the solid.

Electric Flux density D:

The electric flux density D at a point in a material is given by
𝐷 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸
Where E is the electric field strength, ɛ0 is the dielectric constant or permittivity of free
space (vacuum) and ɛr is the relative dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the
material.
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of the
material as compared to free space, it has the same units as D and is related to it as
𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃
But
𝐷 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸
Therefore
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃

𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝐸
Electric Susceptibility:
The polarization vector P is proportional to the total electric flux intensity E and is in the
same direction of E. Therefore the polarization vector can be written as
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
Where the constant χe is the electric susceptibility.
Therefore
𝜒𝑒 = (𝜀𝑟 − 1)

Types of Dielectric Polarization:

Dielectric polarization is classified into four types:
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization
4. Space charge Polarization

Electronic Polarization:
Electronic polarizability can be defined as the induced dipole moment due to the
displacement of positively charged nucleus and the (negative) electrons of an atom in
opposite directions on application of unit electric field.
Electronic polarization results from the displacement of electron cloud of atoms,
molecules and ions with respect to heavy fixed nuclei to a distance. The electronic
polarization sets in over a very short period of time (10-14 to 10-15 sec) and it is
independent of temperature.
Electronic Polarization in a unit volume of dielectric
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
Where 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarizability
Contribution of Pe to the dielectric constant may be obtained as follows
𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒
𝑃𝑒
= 1+
𝜀0 𝐸
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
=1+
𝜀0 𝐸
𝑁𝛼𝑒
=1+
𝜀0
Dielectric for nonpolar gas
= 1 + 4𝜋𝑁𝑅 3
Dielectric for monoatomic gas

Ionic Polarization:
The ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
directions and occurs in an ionic solid.
This type of polarization occurs in ionic crystals and it occurs due to the elastic
displacement of positive and negative ions from equilibrium positions.

A sodium chloride molecule consists of Na+ ions bound to Cl- ions through ionic bond. If
the interatomic distance is d the molecule exhibits intrinsic dipole moment equal to ed.
When a d electric field is applied to the total molecule,, the sodium and chlorine ions are
displaced in opposite directions.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the applied electric field
µ𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 𝐸
Where 𝛼𝑖 is the ionic polarizability
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼𝑖 𝐸
-11 -14
Ionic polarization takes 10 to 10 sec to build up and is not influenced by the
temperature
The ionic polarizability can be expressed as
𝑁𝑒 2 1 1
𝑃𝑖 = 2 [ + ] 𝐸
𝑤0 𝑀 𝑚
Thus the ionic polarizability 𝛼𝑖 is inversely proportional to the square of the natural
1 1 −1
frequency of the ionic molecule and to its reduced mass which is equal to [𝑀 + 𝑚]

Orientation polarization:
In methane molecule (CH4), the centre of the negative and positive charges coincide, so
that there is no permanent dipole moment. On the other hand, in certain molecules such as
CH3Cl, the positive and negative charges do not coincide. Since the electronegativity of
chlorine is more than that of hydrogen, the chlorine atom pulls the bonding electrons to
itself more strongly than hydrogen. Hence even in the absence of an electric field, this
molecule carries a dipole moment.
When an electric field is applied on such molecules which possess permanent dipole
moment, they tend to align themselves in the direction of applied field. The polarization
due to such alignment is called orientation polarization.
With increase of temperature the thermal energy tends to randomize the alignment and
thus it is strongly dependent on temperature and buildsup in time of the order of 10-10 sec
or more.
Total orientation polarization
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑁𝜇 2 𝐸
=
3𝑘𝑇
The orientation polarizability
𝜇2
𝛼0 =
3𝑘𝑇

Space Charge Polarization:

Space Charge polarization occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or
at the interfaces in a multiphase material. The ions diffuse over appreciable distances in
 response to the applied field, giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectric
medium.

The total polarization of a material is the sum of the contribution from various sources
seen above
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝑠
Since the space charge polarizability is very small when compared to the other types of
polarizabilities, the total polarizability of a gas can be written as
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼0
𝑒2 1 1 𝜇2
= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 + 2 [ + ] +
𝑤0 𝑀 𝑚 3𝑘𝑇
Hence the total polarization is given by
𝑒2 1 1 𝜇2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁𝛼𝐸 = 𝑁𝐸 {4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 + 2 [ + ] + }
𝑤0 𝑀 𝑚 3𝑘𝑇
This equation is known as Langevin-Debye equation.

Calculation of electronic and Ionic polarizabilities

VARIOUS POLARIZATION MECHANISMS INVOLVES IN DIELECTIC

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the action of the external
electric field. There are number of devices based on this concept. Those devices are rectifiers,
resonators, amplifiers and transducers, which converts electrical energy in to other forms of
energy.

Dielectric polarization occurs due to several microscopic mechanisms.

1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational polarization
4. Space-charge polarization

Electronic Polarization
Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons of an atom in the opposite directions on the application of an
electric field. This will result in the creation of dipole moment in the dielectric.

Dipole moment (μ) is proportional to the electric field strength (E).

𝜇∝𝐸
𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸
Where (𝛼𝑒 ) is proportionality constant and it is known as electronic polarizability.
Electronic polarization takes place in almost all dielectrics.

Calculation of electronic polarizability

Without Electric Field

Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge Ze, where Z is the atomic number.
The electrons of charge (-Ze) are distributed uniformly throughout the atom (sphere) of radius
R as shown in fig.

The centres of the electron cloud and the positive nucleus are at the same point and hence there
is no dipole moment.

Negative charge density of an atom of radius R is given by

 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 −𝑍𝑒 3 −𝑍𝑒
𝜌= = = [ 3]
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 4⁄ 𝜋𝑅 3 4 𝜋𝑅
3

With Electric Field

When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electric field of strength E, two phenomenon’s
occur.

Lorentz force (due to electric field) will tend to move the nucleus and electron cloud of that
atom from their equilibrium positions. The positive nucleus will move towards the field
direction and the electron cloud will move in the opposite direction of the field as shown in fig.
After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and the electron cloud
which will tend to maintain the original equilibrium position.

The electron cloud and the nucleus move in opposite directions and they are separated
by a distance x, where there is a formation of electric dipole in the atom.

When these two forces equal and opposite, there will be a new equilibrium between the nucleus
and the electron cloud of the atom.

Lorentz force between the nucleus and the electron FL

= charge x electrical field
= ZeE ---------(2)
Coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the electron cloud being separated at a
distance x,
1 𝑄𝑃 𝑄𝑒
𝐹𝐶 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2

Total number of negative charges enclosed

In the sphere of radius x = charge density x volume of the sphere of radius x
3 −𝑍𝑒 4
𝑄𝑒 = [ 3 ] × 𝜋𝑥 3
4 𝜋𝑅 3

−𝑍𝑒
𝑄𝑒 = [ ] × 𝑥3
𝑅3
Total positive charge of an atom present in the sphere of radius x,
Qp = + Ze
Therefore
−𝑍𝑒 3
1 𝑍𝑒 [ 𝑅 3 𝑥 ]
𝐹𝐶 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥2

1 −𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
𝐹𝐶 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3

At equilibrium, Coulomb force and Lorentz must be equal and opposite.

FL = - FC
Substituting for FL and FC
1 −𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
𝑍𝑒𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3

1 𝑍𝑒 𝑥
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3

4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
𝑥=( )𝐸
𝑍𝑒 𝑥

From the definition of dipole moment, induced dipole moment (μ ind) is given by
μind = magnitude of charge x displacement
μind = Ze x
Substituting the value of x
𝑍𝑒𝐸(4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 )
𝜇𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑍𝑒

𝜇𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 )𝐸

and dipole moment in terms of polarizability,

μind = αe E
On comparing equations
μind = αe E and
We obtain αe = 4πεoR3 is called electronic polarizability.

Electronic polarization is independent of temperature. It is proportional to the volume of atoms

in the material. Electronic polarization takes place in all dielectrics.

IONIC POLARIZATION
Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of catios (+ ve ions) and anions (- ve ions) in
opposite directions. (e.g. NaCl crystal) by the influence of external field.
When an electric field (E) is applied on an ionic dielectric, there is shift of one ion with

respect to another from their mean position. The positive ion displace in the direction of applied

electric field through the distance x 1. The negative ions displace in opposite direction trough
the distance x2 as shown in the fig.

We assume that there is one cation and one anion in each unit cell of that ionic crystal.

Hence, the net distance between two ions

x = x1 + x 2

When the ions are displaced from their mean position in their respective directions the restoring
forces appear which tend to ions back to their mean position. The restoring force produced is
proportional to the displacement.

For positive ion

Restoring1 force F α x
Or restoring force acting on positive ion F = β1 x1
For negative ion
Restoring force F α x2
Or restoring force acting on positive ion F = β2 x2

Where β1 and β2 are restoring force constants which depend up on the masses of ions and
angular frequency of the molecule in which ions are present.
If m is the mass of positive ion, M is the mass of negative ion and ωo is the angular frequency,
then
𝛽1 = 𝑚𝜔02
𝛽2 = 𝑀𝜔02
Substituting we obtain
𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝑥1
𝐹 = 𝑀𝜔02 𝑥2
At equilibrium condition the restoring force is equal to Lorentz force

𝑒𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝑥1
(For positive ion)
𝑒𝐸
𝑥1 =
𝑚𝜔02
Similarly for negative ion

𝑒𝐸
𝑥2 =
𝑀𝜔02
Therefore, the net distance between two ions
x = x1 + x 2

𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2+
𝑚𝜔0 𝑀𝜔02

𝑒𝐸 1 1
𝑥= 2 [𝑚 + 𝑀 ]
𝜔0

The dipole moment is equal to the product of charge and distance of separation between
the charges.
𝜇 =𝑒×𝑥

Substituting for x, we have

𝑒𝐸 1 1
𝜇=𝑒× 2 [𝑚 + 𝑀 ]
𝜔0

𝑒 2𝐸 1 1
𝜇= [ + ]
𝜔02 𝑚 𝑀
We know

𝜇 = 𝛼𝑖 𝐸
Where 𝛼𝑖 is the ionic polarizability

𝑒2 1 1
𝛼𝑖 = 2 [ + ]
𝜔0 𝑚 𝑀
Conclusion
➢ Ionic polarizability (αi) is inversely proportional to the square of angular frequency of
the ionic molecule.
1 1
➢ It is directly proportional to its reduced mass given by [𝑚 + 𝑀].
➢ It is independent of temperature.

OREINTAIONAL POLARIZATION

Orientational polarization takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics have molecules
with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of external electric field.
When the polar dielectrics are subjected to external electric field, the molecular dipoles are
oriented in the direction of electric field.

The contribution to polarization due to orientation of molecular diploes is called

orientational polarization.

Orientational polarization depends upon temperature when the temperature is increased,

thermal energy tends to disturb the alignment.
From the Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism, net intensity of magnetization
𝑁𝜇 2 𝐵
=
3𝑘𝑇

Since the same principle can be applied to the application of electric field in dielectrics, we
may write
𝑁𝜇 2 𝐸
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜 =
3𝑘𝑇
But, orientational polarization is proportional to applied field (E) and it is given by
Po = Nα o E
Comparing equations, we get
𝜇2
𝛼𝑜 =
3𝑘𝑇
Where 𝛼𝑜 is called orientational polarizability
Conclusion
The orientation polarizability is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of the material.

SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION

Space-charge polarization occurs due to accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at the

interfaces of multiphase dielectric material.

When such materials subjected to an electrical field at high temperature, the charges get
accumulated as shown in fig. these charges create diploes.
 As a result, polarization is produced. This kind of polarization is known as space-charge
polarization. Space-charge polarization is very small when compared to other
polarization mechanisms and it is not common in most of the dielectrics.
e.g- ferrites and semiconductors.

TOTAL POLARIZATION
The total polarization is
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼𝑜
Since the space- charge polarization is very small and it is negligible.

Substituting the corresponding expressions, we have

𝑒2 1 1 𝜇2
𝛼 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 + 𝜔2 [𝑚 + 𝑀] + 3𝑘𝑇
0

We know that the total polarization P = N E α

𝑒2 1 1
3
𝜇2
𝑃 = 𝑁𝐸 [4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 + 2 [ + ] + ]
𝜔0 𝑚 𝑀 3𝑘𝑇
This equation is known as Langevin –Debye equation

Internal Field (Lorentz field):

Let us consider a dielectric slab kept in a uniform electric field E. Let a molecule be at a point
O and be surrounded by a spherical cavity of radius r. Let r be arbitrary but sufficiently large
compared to the dimensions of the dielectric slab. The spherical cavity contains many
molecules within it.
The molecule at O experiences
(i) E at O due to the charge density on plates (E1)
(ii) E at O due to the polarized charges on the surface of the dielectric (E2)
(iii) E at O due to polarized charges inside the spherical cavity (E3)
(iv) E at O due to induced charges on the surface of the spherical cavity (E4)
The total field intensity E = E1+E2+E3+E4
Field E1:
E at O due to charge density on plates
𝐷 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃
𝐸1 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑃
𝐸1 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
Field E2:
E at O due to the polarized charges on the surface of the dielectric
As induced field is opposite in direction
𝑃
𝐸2 = −
𝜀0
Field E3:
E at O due to polarized charges inside of the spherical cavity
𝐸3 = 0
Symmetrical distribution of molecular dipoles around the molecule at O with in the cavity,
their contributions cancel each other.
Field E4:
E at O due to induced charges on the surface of the spherical cavity
To calculate E4, let us imagine that the dielectric is removed from the sphere
The electric field on the surface of the sphere. The electric field is given as
1 𝑑𝑞
𝐸4 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
This electric field is resolved into two components, one component dE4cosθ parallel to the
direction of E and the other dE4sinθ perpendicular to the direction of E.
Since the electric field is acting only in +ve x direction 𝑑𝐸4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is resposible for the overall
electric field. And it is obvious that the perpendicular component of the upper half and lower
half of the sphere cancel each other and only the perpendicular components contribute to the
total intensity E4.
1 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
To calcualate dq consider two rings as shown in the figure

Consider the polarization vector P which is acting normal to the considered surface.
𝑞
𝑃=
𝐴
Since polarization is also acting only in +ve x direction
𝑑𝑞
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑑𝑆
Where dS is the small surface of the ring considered
And θ is the angle between radius vector r
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑆
The dS can be obtained by
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑆 × 𝑅𝑆
Consider the two triangles

From the triangles, 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 and 𝑄𝑆 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑑𝑆 = 2𝜋 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (𝑟𝑑𝜃)
Therefore
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃)

Thus
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃(2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃)
∴ 𝑑𝐸4 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

E4 is obtained by integrating the dE4

𝑃 𝜋
𝐸4 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜀0 0
Let cosθ = x, therefore –sinθdθ = dx
𝑃 1 2
𝐸4 = − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜀0 −1
−1
𝑃 𝑥3
=− ⌈ ⌉
2𝜀0 3 1
2𝑃
=
6𝜀0
𝑃
=
3𝜀0
Hence the total internal field is given by
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4
 𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
3𝜀0
This field is called Lorentz field/local field.
In general it can be expressed as
𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
Clausius Mossotti Equation:
It is relation between the polarizability α of a molecule and the dielectric constant ɛ of a
dielectric substance made up of molecules with this polarizability.
Consider a sample case of an elemental solid dielectric, which exhibits only electronic
polarizability. Solids such as diamond, silicon and germanium crystals are made up of single
type of atoms. If αe is the electronic polarizability per atom, it is related to the bulk
polarization P through the relation.
𝑃
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑁𝐸𝑖
3
Where N is the number of atoms per m .
Ei is the local field
Using Ei we get
𝑃
𝛼𝑒 =
𝛾𝑃
𝑁 [𝐸 + 𝜀 ]
0
If the internal field is assumed to be Lorentz field
𝛾 = 1⁄3 and
𝑃
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑃
𝑁 [𝐸 + 3𝜀 ]
0
Using equation
𝑃
𝐸=
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
Therefore
𝑃
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑃 𝑃
𝑁[ + ]
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3𝜀0
𝑁𝛼𝑒 1
=
𝜀0 1 1
[ + ]
(𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3
1
=
𝜀 +2
[ 𝑟 ]
3(𝜀𝑟 − 1)
Thus
𝜀𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝛼𝑒
=
𝜀𝑟 + 2 3𝜀0
This is known as Claussius Mossotti relation.
Ferro Electric Materials:
They constitute very important group of dielectrics, they are anisotropic crystals that exhibit
spontaneous polarization. In the absence of electric field, they exhibit polarization which is
called spontaneous polarization. The centres of gravity of the positive and negative charges
do not coincide, it results in a dipole moment which cause spontaneous polarization.
Ferro electricity was first discovered in Rochelle salt (Na KC4H4O6 4H2O). It exhibits
spontaneous polarization over a range of temperature -18 oC to 22 oC. Barium titanate,
potassium phosphate and potassium niobate are examples of ferro electrics.
Along with spontaneous polarization, the ferro electric polarization can be reversed with the
application of electric field.
Characteristics:
They possess very high values of permittivity ɛr of the order of 1000 to 10000
The static dielectric constant changes with temperature according to Curie-Weiss law
𝐶
𝜀= (𝑇 > 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐
Where C is called Curie constant, Tc is Curie temperature
Up to Tc, Curie temperature spontaneous polarization exists without external electric field.

Ferro electric Hysteresis:

In a ferro electric hysteresis, the dielectric polarization depends nonlinearly on the
applied electric field. They exhibit hysteresis under the action of an alternating voltage. The
polarization verses electric field curve is known as a ferro electric hysteresis loop.
The polarization increases nonlinearly and reaches saturation at a certain value P5. The
polarization will not increase further even if electric field is increased.
When electric field is switched off, the value of polarization does not return to zero and the
crystal retains a residual polarization Pr
Inorder to bring back the polarization to zero, an electric field Ec must be applied in the
opposite direction. Ec is known as coercive field.

Applications:
Capacitors, Generation of ultrasonic waves, vibrators, detectors, pyroelectric detectors, gas
ignitors, accelerometers, piezoelectric transformers, Impact printer head, Ferro electric
memories.
Piezoelectric materials:
Peizo electricity is the ability of certain materials to generate AC voltage when subjected to
mechanical stress or vibration, or to vibrate when an AC voltage is applied.
In piezo electric effect, when a mechanical stress is applied accumulation of electric charge
takes place in certain solids. The most common piezoelectric material is quartz
Once a pair of opposite faces of certain symmetric crystals such as quartz is compressed,
opposite electric charges emerge on the other pair of opposite faces of the crystal. If the
crystals are subjected to tension, the polarities of the charges are reversed.
Piezoelectric coefficient is the charge developed per unit force. A change in sign of σ
reverses the sign of polarization. The value of d should be high for practical applications.
The electro mechanical coupling factor is defined as follows
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
The development of electrical charges and electric polarization when subjected to stress is
called “Piezoelectric effect”. This phenomenon was discovered by “Curie Brothers in 1880”.
➢ Crystals like quartz, Tourmaline, Rochelle salt when subjected to compression or
tension then opposite charges develop on their surfaces.
➢ The materials also exhibit “Inverse Piezo Electric Effect”. That is on these substances
when electric field is applied, they get strained. That means the dimensions gets
changed. The crystals either expand (or) contract.
➢ All Ferro electrics are Piezo electric. But all Piezo electric materials need not
necessarily be Ferro electric.
Example: - Barium Titanate exhibits both Ferro electricity and Piezo electricity. But Quartz is
only Piezo electric.

Piezo electricity in quartz crystal

Quartz is silicon dioxide (SiO2). The atoms are arranged in the form of Hexagon. The quartz
consists of three axes: X-axis known as Electrical axis; Y-axis known as Mechanical axis & Z-
axis known as Optical axis. When external stress is not applied, all the charges get balanced.
Hence net polarization is zero. When external stress is applied, the balance is disturbed. Hence
crystal is polarized. As a result, electrical charge is developed on the faces. The structure of
quartz is shown in the figure below.
 Fig. Piezo electric effect in quartz crystal
Applications of Piezo electric materials
➢ In case of Inverse Piezo electric effect, if a quartz plate is subjected to an alternating
electric field, the quartz crystal expands or contracts. This also undergoes vibrations.
If the frequency of vibration of quartz crystal is equal to ultrasonic frequency, then the
ultrasonic waves are produced. Hence quartz oscillator is used to produce ultrasonic
waves.
➢ Rochelle salt- a dielectric material is used in gramophones, ear phones, hearing aids,
microphones etc.
➢ Barium titanate, lead zirconate, lead titanate is used for high voltage generation.
➢ A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another. Piezo
electric effect can be utilized to convert force, pressure and strain into electrical
voltages.
➢ Acceleration transducers are used to measure acceleration.
➢ Piezo electric crystals are used to produce radio frequency waves for broad casting.
➢ They are used in quartz watches to maintain accurate time.

Pyroelectric materials:

Pyro Electricity

Definition: Pyro electric effect is the change in spontaneous polarization when the
temperature of the specimen is changed.

Explanation

➢ Many Piezo-electric materials, such as tourmaline, have the tendency to exhibit a

change in internal electrical polarization as a response to temperature changes.
➢ An electric field develops in a pyro-electric crystal as a result of temperature change.
➢ Pyro-electricity requires the pressure of permanent electric dipoles (whose magnitude
is affected as a result of temperature changes).
 ➢ It is possible to detect a change of 10−16coulomb with a suitable electrometer,
temperature changes as small as 10−6 °C can be measured using the pyro electric effect.

Applications

➢ The Pyro- electric materials such as BaTiO3, LiNibO3 etc are used to make very good
Infra-red detectors which can operate at room temperature.
➢ Materials such as TGS, NaNO2 and PZT ceramics are used in the construction of
pyroelectric image tubes.
➢ Used in burglar alarms, which detect the thermal radiation from Human body.

Figure: Pyro electric effect

Figure:

Applications:

Liquid Crystal Displays

A theory of the relationship between curvature strains and electric polarization in liquid crystals
is developed in analogy to piezoelectric theory in ordinary crystals. The theory may explain
some recently observed phenomena in nematic liquid crystals.
Crystal Oscillators

A crystal oscillator is an electric oscillator type circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a
crystal, as its frequency-determining element. Crystal is the common term used in electronics
for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes
connected to it. A more accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator. Crystals are also used in
other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.

Working of a Quartz Crystal

In order to make a crystal work in an electronic circuit, the crystal is placed between two metal
plates in the form of a capacitor. Quartz is the mostly used type of crystal because of its
availability and strong nature while being inexpensive. The ac voltage is applied in parallel to
the crystal.

The circuit arrangement of a Quartz Crystal will be as shown below −

Quartz Crystal

If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the frequency of the applied voltage.
However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is made equal to the natural frequency of the
crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations reach a maximum value. This natural
frequency is almost constant. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and
the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a
simple rectangle or circular disk. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches,
are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing,
a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. As like many other
mechanical resonators, crystals exhibit several modes of oscillation, usually at approximately
odd integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
 Figure: Crystal Oscillation Modes

Magnetism and Magnetic Properties of materials

Let us first consider the terms and definitions used in Magnetism

Magnetization:
It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside a solid and is denoted
by M. It is measured in ampere/meter (A/m).
The magnetization is induced by the field and it is directly proportional to intensity of
magnetic field H
𝑀∝𝐻
𝑀 = 𝜒𝐻
Where χ is the proportionality constant, and it is called magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic Susceptibility:
The magnetic susceptibility of a material is a measure of ease with which the material can be
magnetized. Materials having high χ value are easily magnetized.
It is defined as magnetization produced in the material per unit area.
𝑀
𝜒=
𝐻
Units: No units
Magnetic Induction B:
The number of field lines passing through unit area of cross section is called the magnetic
flux density.
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙
𝐵= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
2
Units: Wb/m or T in SI units and Gauss in CGS units
1 Gauss = 10-4 T

The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density (B) in any material is the number of lines of
magnetic force passing through unit area perpendicularly. Its unit is Wb/m2 or T.
The magnetic field intensity (H) at any point in the magnetic field is the force experienced by
an unit north pole placed at that point. Its unit is A/m.
The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic field of intensity H applied in vacuum is related
by
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
Where µo is the permeability of free space (vacuum). The permeability of free space has a
value of 4π × 10-7 H/m.

Permeability :
In vacuum if the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by
𝐵 = µ𝑜 𝐻
Where µ is the permeability of the solid material through which the magnetic lines of force
pass.
𝐵
µ=
𝐻
Units: Henry/meter
Hence the magnetic permeability µ of any material is the ratio of magnetic induction in the
µ
sample to the applied magnetic field intensity. The ratio of ⁄𝜇𝑜 is called the relative
permeability of the solid
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇𝑜
Units: No units, as µr is just a number.
Bohr Magneton:
Bohr magneton is the elementary electron magnetic moment. No electron have a magnetic
moment below it and is the natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic moments.
It is denoted with µB
𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝐵 = = 9.28 × 10−24 𝐴𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚

𝜇𝑚 = 𝜇𝐵 𝜇𝑙

Relation between the terms:

We know
𝐵 = µ𝐻
 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
Adding and subtracting 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
= 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 + 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 − 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
= 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝜇𝑜 𝐻(𝜇𝑟 − 1)
= 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝜇 𝑜 𝑀
Where magnetization M is equal to H(𝜇𝑟 − 1)
i.e., 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
The first term in the above equation is due to external field and second term is due to
magnetization.
Thus the magnetic induction (B) in a solid is
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
𝐵
Hence 𝜇𝑜 = (𝐻+𝑀)
We know the relative permeability
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇𝑜

𝐵⁄
= 𝐻
𝐵⁄ + 𝑀
𝐻
𝐻+𝑀
=
𝐻
𝑀
= 1+
𝐻
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
Origin of magnetic moment (Or) Sources of magnetic moment
In atoms, the permanent magnetic moment arises due to
a) Orbital motion of electrons and its magnetic moment is called orbit magnetic moment of
electrons (𝜇𝑙)
b) The spin of electrons and its magnetic moment is called spin magnetic moment of
electrons (𝜇𝑠)
c) The spin of nucleus (due to protons) and its magnetic moment is called spin magnetic
moment of the nucleus. (𝜇𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑝).
Explanation
a) Magnetic moment due to orbital motion of the electrons (𝝁𝒍)
Let us consider an electron of charge ‘e’ revolving around a nucleus in time period ‘T’ in a
circular orbit of radius ‘r’. Then a magnitude of circular current ‘I’ is given by
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒
𝐼= =𝑇
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
2𝜋
But 𝑇 = 𝜔
Where 𝜔 = angular velocity of electron
Therefore
𝑒𝜔
𝐼=
2𝜋
But magnetic moment of electron is 𝜇𝑙 = 𝐼 × 𝐴
𝜇𝑙 = current area of circulating orbit
𝑒𝜔
𝜇𝑙 = × (𝜋𝑟 2 )
2𝜋

𝑒𝜔𝑟 2
𝜇𝑙 =
2

Figure: Orbital magnetic moment of electrons

We know that angular momentum of any particle 𝐿 = 𝑚𝜔𝑟 2
Substituting we get
Orbital magnetic moment
−𝑒
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐿
2𝑚
Where -ve sign indicates 𝜇𝑙 and L are in opposite directions
But from Bohr’s atomic model
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋

𝑙ℎ
𝐿=
2𝜋
Where l is orbital quantum number
L is orbital angular momentum
The values of l = 0,1,2,3….(n-1)
−𝑒 𝑙ℎ
)( )
𝜇𝑙 = (
2𝑚 2𝜋
−𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑙 = ( )𝑙
4𝜋𝑚
𝑒ℎ
Where (4𝜋𝑚) = 𝜇𝐵 is a constant called Bohr magneton and its value is 9.27 × 10−24 𝑎𝑚𝑝 −
𝑚2 .

𝜇𝑙 = 𝑙 𝜇 𝐵
Bohr magneton is the fundamental unit of magnetic moment.
It is clear form the above equation that electron can take only specified values of magnetic
moment depending on the value of l.
Bohr suggested that both magnitude and direction of l are quantified. It is known as spin
quantization.
The spatial quantization introduces a new set of quantum numbers.
1. Orbital magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝑙 )
2. Spin magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝑠 )
For example: If electron is in p shell. Then n=2, L=0 to n-1 L=0,1
If electron is placed in external magnetic field then 𝜇𝑙 becomes
−𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑙 = ( ) 𝑚𝑙
4𝜋𝑚
Hence for p-shell electron
𝑚𝑙 = 0 𝑡𝑜 ± 𝐿
The values are 𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, 1
−𝑒ℎ 𝑒ℎ
Hence 𝜇𝑙 becomes (4𝜋𝑚) , 0, (4𝜋𝑚)
Therefore we have three possible orientations for electron in d-shell which is shown in figure

Figure: Three possible orientations of electron

‘OC’ represents the orientation of electron if 𝑚𝑙 = 0
‘OB’ represents the orientation of electron if 𝑚𝑙 = +1
‘OD’ represents the orientation of electron if 𝑚𝑙 = −1

b) Magnetic moment of electrons due to spin of electrons (𝜇𝑠 )

According to quantum theory; electrons should have intrinsic angular momentum due to spin.
Spin is also quantized both in magnitude and direction spin can take only one value i.e., ½ or
– ½. The magnetic moment produced due to spin of electrons is called spin magnetic moment
(𝜇𝑠 ).
It is given by
𝑒
Spin magnetic moment 𝜇𝑠 = −2 (2𝑚) 𝑆
Where S = spin angular momentum
e = charge of electron
m= mass of electron
𝑠ℎ
𝑆=
2𝜋
Where S = spin quantum number
h is Planck’s constant
 Figure: Spin magnetic moment of electrons
From equation
𝑒
𝜇𝑠 = −2 ( )𝑆
2𝑚
𝑠ℎ
And 𝑆 = 2𝜋
𝑒 𝑠ℎ
𝜇𝑠 = −2 ( ) ×
2𝑚 2𝜋
Since
1
𝑠=±
2
Therefore
𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑠 = ±
4𝜋𝑚
𝑒ℎ 𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑠 = + ,−
4𝜋𝑚 4𝜋𝑚
𝜇𝑠 = +𝜇𝐵 , −𝜇𝐵
Hence spin magnetic moment of electron is equal to 𝜇𝐵 . Which is one Bohr magneton
Hence there are two possible orientations of electron.
Conclusion: Para magnetism, Ferromagnetism, is due to spin magnetic moment
Diamagnetism is due to orbital magnetic moment.
(c) Magnetic moment due to Nuclear spin or spin of all protons (𝜇𝑛 )
The magnetic moment of the nucleus is given by
𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑛 =
4𝜋𝑚𝑝
Where 𝑚𝑝 is the mass of proton
𝑒ℎ
The constant 4𝜋𝑚 is called nuclear magneton.
𝑝
𝑒ℎ
The value of nuclear magneton 4𝜋𝑚 = 5 × 10−27 𝐴 − 𝑚2.
𝑝

This is small when compared to Bohrmagneton.

Classification of Magnetic Materials:

Solids are classified basing on the magnitude and sign of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 exhibited
by them,
1) Dia magnetic materials (𝜇𝑟 < 1)
2) Paramagnetic materials (𝜇𝑟 > 1)
3) Ferro magnetic materials (𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1)
Based on the magnetic dipole moment solids are classified into two groups.
1. Atoms do not possess permanent magnetic dipole moment - diamagnetic
2. Atoms having permanent dipole moment. These are further classified into four types
They are
(i) If the interaction is negligible - paramagnetic
(ii) If they orient in one or single direction – ferro magnetic
(iii) If the neighbouring dipoles orient in opposite direction and are equal in
magnitude – anti ferro magnetic
(iv) If dipoles are of different magnitude and orient antiparallel – Ferri
magnetic

Dia Magnetism:
An electron moving around the nucleus results in magnetic moment. Due to different
orientations of various orbits of an atom, the net magnetic moment is zero in diamagnetic
materials.
When an external magnetic material is applied the motion of electrons in their orbits changes
resulting in induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the direction of applied field.
Properties of diamagnetic materials:
1. Permanent dipoles are absent
2. Effect is weak and often masked by other kinds of magnetism.
3. When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of force are repelled.
4. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field strength
5. Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
Para Magnetism:
Each electron in an orbit has an orbital magnetic moment and a spin magnetic moment. When
shells are unfilled there is net magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic moment
the net moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions because of thermal
fluctuations. Hence there is no magnetization.
When external magnetic field is applied, there is a tendency for the dipoles to align with the
field giving rise to an induced positive dipole moment. This induced dipole moment is
proportional to the field, which is the source of para magnetism.
Properties of paramagnetic materials:
1. Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipoles
2. In the absence of an external applied field, the dipoles are randomly oriented. Hence
the net magnetization in any given direction is zero.
3. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force.
4. Paramagnetic susceptibility is positive and depends greatly on temperature and
follows Curie law 𝜒 = 𝐶⁄𝑇, where C is curie temperature, but it is independent of
temperature when χ is small.
5. Spin alignment is zero.
6. Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied magnetic field strength
7. Paramagnetic atoms form a collection of non-interacting magnetic dipoles

Ferromagnetism:
The permanent magnetic moment is mainly due to the spin magnetic moment. The net spin
magnetic moment of ferromagnetic atoms is of the same order as magnetic moment of
paramagnetic atoms.
The spontaneous magnetization exists in ferromagnetic materials which leads to large
magnetization. This is because of special form of interaction between the atoms, called
exchange coupling which leads the magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.
Properties of Ferro magnetic materials:
1. Due to exchange coupling exists between the atoms, even in the absence of external
applied field, exhibits strong magnetization.
2. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force very
strongly.
3. Each ferromagnetic material has a characteristic temperature called the ferro-magnetic
Curie temperature θf. Ferromagnetic susceptibility depends greatly on temperature
𝐶
as 𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃. Above θf its properties are different as
(i) For T > θf the material shows paramagnetic behaviour
(ii) For T < θf the material shows ferromagnetic behaviour
4. Spin alignment is parallel in the same direction
5. Exhibits Hysteresis
6. Consists of number of small regions which are spontaneously magnetized called
domains

Antiferromagnetism:
In ferromagnetism, the parallel alignment of electron spins is due to the exchange coupling of
atoms. Whereas in antiferromagnetism, the distance between the interacting atoms is small,
which leads to a tendency of antiparallel alignment of electron spins of neighbouring atoms.
In χ vs T graph, unlike a sharp curve at the Curie temperature for ferromagnetic materials, the
anti-ferromagnetic materials follows a maximum which occurs at Neel temperature TN.
Above the Neel temperature, the susceptibility follow the equation
𝐶
𝜒=
𝑇+𝜃
Where C is the Curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature.
Properties of antiferromagnetic materials:
1. Electron spin of neighbouring atoms are aligned antiparallel
2. Antiferromagnetic susceptibility depends greatly on temperature
𝐶
(i) When T > TN, 𝜒 = 𝑇+𝜃
(ii) When T < TN, 𝜒 ∝ 𝑇
3. Initially, susceptibility increases slightly with temperature and beyond Neel
temperature the susceptibility decreases with the temperature
4. Spin alignment is antiparallel

Ferrimagnetism:
The net magnetization of magnetic sub-lattices is not zero since antiparallel moments are of
different magnitudes. Hence ferromagnetic materials possess a net magnetic moment. This
moment disappears above a curie temperature TC analogous to Neel temperature. Above TC,
thermal energy randomizes the individual magnetic moments and the material becomes
paramagnetic.
Properties of ferrimagnetic materials:
1. Ferrimagnetic materials possess nonmagnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature it becomes paramagnetic while below it behave as
ferrimagnetic material.
3. If the magnitude of susceptibility is very large and positive, it follows the temperature
𝐶
dependence of 𝜒 = 𝑇±𝜃 for T > TN and shows paramagnetic behaviour for T < TN.
4. Ferromagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act as memory elements.
5. Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes.
Ferromagnetism:
Even without the application of external magnetic field, if a material exhibits high degree of
magnetization then those materials are called ferromagnetic materials. The phenomena
undergoes to exhibit ferromagnetic properties are called ferromagnetism. Although the net
spin magnetic moment for ferromagnetic materials is same as paramagnetic materials, due to
exchange coupling occurring between adjacent atoms leads to ferromagnetic properties. They
couple their magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism. Each ferromagnetic material has
a characteristic temperature called the ferromagnetic Curie temperature θf.

Now two cases may arise when T> θf and T< θf.
(i) When T> θf:
 In this region, the susceptibility depends on temperature in accordance with the
Curie-Wiess law.
𝐶
𝜒 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 =
𝑇−𝜃
C is the curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature
(ii) When T< θf:
Below the ferromagnetic Curie temperature, ferromagnetic materials exhibit the
hysteresis in the B versus H curves as illustrated in the figure.
Initially, the flux starts building up from the origin as the value of H is increased from zero.
To start with, B is nearly proportional to H giving rise to constant permeability of the
material which is called initial permeability. As H is increased further the rate of increase of
B i.e. dB/dH falls ultimately becomes zero and the flux density B reaches a saturation value
Bsat denoted by a.

On reducing the value of H from saturation region to zero, it is observed that there remains a
flux density called remnant flux density Br and this phenomena is called retentivity.
Thus retentivity of a specimen is defined as the magnetization retained by the specimen when
the magnetizing field is reduced from saturation value to zero. Though H=0, still the material
is magnetized spontaneously. The occurrence of spontaneous magnetization is characteristic
of ferromagnetic materials. When the field H is applied in the opposite direction, the field –
Hc is required to reduce the flux density to zero. This force is called coercive force denoted
by c.
Coercive force or coercivity of a magnetic specimen is the magnitude of the demagnetizing
field required to reduce the residual magnetism to zero after saturation. On increasing H
further B reaches saturation in the opposite direction denoted by d. Then reducing H to zero
B reaches c and then increasing H in the positive direction B reaches a thus completing one
full cycle. The path traced by this B-H plot hysteresis loop. The phenomenon of B lagging H
is called hysteresis.

Weiss theory of Ferromagnetism:

According to Weiss, ferromagnetic material consists of a number of regions or domains (≈
10-6 m or larger) which are spontaneously magnetized. In each domain spontaneous
magnetization is due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of
spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain. The resultant magnetization may
hence be zero or nearly zero. When an external field is applied there are two possible ways of
alignment of a random domain.
1. By motion of domain walls: The volume of the domains that are favourably oriented
with respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that are
unfavourably oriented as shown in figure.
2. By rotation of domains: When the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of
magnetization occurs in the direction of the field as shown in figure.

The domain concept is well studied to explain the phenomena of hysteresis. When a weak
magnetic field is applied, the domains that are aligned parallel to the field and in the easy
direction of magnetization grow in size at the expense of less favourably oriented ones. This
results in Bloch wall movement and when the weak field is removed the domains reverse
back to their original state. This reversible wall displacement is indicated by OA of the
magnetization curve. When a field becomes stronger the Bloch wall movement continues and
it is mostly irreversible movement. This is indicated by the path AB of the graph. The
phenomena of hysteresis is due to this reversibility.

At point B all domains have got magnetized along their easy directions. Application of still
higher field rotates the domains into the field direction which may be away from the easy
direction thereby storing anisotropy energy. Once the domain rotation is complete the
specimen is saturated at C as shown in above figure.
Hard and soft materials

Based on the area of hysteresis, magnetic materials can be classified into hard and soft
materials.
Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

1. Hard magnetic materials have large

Soft magnetic materials have low hysteresis
hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis
loss due to small hysteresis loop area
loop area

2. In these materials the domain wall

In these materials the domain wall
movement is difficult because of
movement is relatively easier. Even for
presence of impurities and crystal
small changes in the magnetizing field,
imperfections and it is irreversible in
magnetization changes by large amounts.
nature

3. The coercivity and retentivity is large. The coercivity and retentivity is small.
Hence these materials cannot be easily Hence these materials can be easily
magnetized and demagnetized magnetized and demagnetized

4. These materials have small values of These materials have large values of
permeability and susceptibility permeability and susceptibility

5. They are used to make permanent

They are used to make electromagnets
magnets

6. Examples: Iron –Nickel-Aluminium

Examples: Iron –silicon alloys, soft iron
alloys, steels

7. Applications: Production of permanent

magnets used in magnetic detectors, Applications: mainly used in
microphones electromagnetic machinery. They are also
 used in switching circuits, microwave
isolators and matrix storage of computers

Applications of Magnetic materials:

1. Magnetic recording:
In some of the magnetically soft materials, the electrical resistance changes when the
material is magnetized. The resistance goes back to its original value when the
magnetizing field is turned off. This is called magneto resistance or MR effect. Giant-
Magneto –resistance or the GMR effect, is much larger than the MR effect and is
found in specific thin film material systems. Best examples for magnetic recording
device materials are Fe3O4 and CrO2.
2. Magnetic memories:
Random access storage in computers, Ferrite –core memories are used. Ferrimagnetic
material, having nearly a square shaped hysteresis loop and a low coercivity is taken
in shape of toroid (a small ring). A current carrying wired is sent through this. When a
sufficiently high current pulse is sent through this wire, the core becomes
magnetically saturated in a particular direction.
Another current pulse of sufficient strength in the opposite direction magnetizes the
ferrite core in the opposite direction. The magnetization directions constitute the two
possible values (0 and 1) in a binary system.
Examples: Yttrium-iron-Garnet (Y3Fe5O12) or antiferromagnetic oxides (BaFe12O9,
YFeO3).
3. Permanent magnets:
These materials are characterized by a high coercive force and high resistivity. The
high coercive force allows these materials to be used where there are strong
demagnetizing fields. The high resistivity permits their use as permanent magnets.
Examples: Barium Ferrite (BaFe12O19) and strontium ferrite (Sr Fe12O19)
4. Soft ferrites:
These ferrites are used in inductor cores, transformer cores, and output transformers in
television sets. The essential requirements are high permeability, low coercive force
and low eddy current losses. Moreover the materials must be capable of operating
1000 MHz frequencies.
Examples: manganese zinc ferrite, and nickel zinc ferrite
5. Magnetic Ceramics:
Magnetic ceramics have anisotropic properties and have high resistivity and low eddy
current losses. These materials can be manufactured in the form of pressed and
sintered ceramic powders. By applying magnetic field during firing and cooling
process the anisotropic properties can be achieved. These materials can be used for all
applications of metallic targets.
Applications:

1. Magnetic bubble memories

 Bubble memory is a type of non-volatile computer memory that uses a thin film of a
magnetic material to hold small magnetized areas, known as bubbles or domains, each
storing one bit of data.
This is referred to as volatile RAM, and has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Bubble memory is used in some computers in order to store data in between operating
sessions – particularly in portable machines. It is considerably slower than other types
of RAM technology.
Bubble memory found uses in niche markets through the 1980s in systems needing to
avoid the higher rates of mechanical failures of disk drives, and in systems operating in
high vibration or harsh environments.

2. Magnetic field sensors

Unlike inductive or capacitive sensors, magnetic field sensors react to the presence of
a magnetic field. It does not matter whether this field is generated by an electromagnet
or a permanent magnet. This makes magnetic field sensors especially tamper-proof and
resistant to interference. Compared to the near-field sensors mentioned above, magnetic
field sensors offer higher operating distances with a small housing design.

Special technical features of magnetic field sensors at a glance:

➢ Detection of components equipped with magnets
➢ Large operating distance (depending on the magnets used)
➢ Variable operating distance: By selecting and installing the magnet, the required
operating distance can be easily adjusted
➢ Tamper protection and immunity: The sensor reacts exclusively to magnetic
fields
➢ Detection through non-magnetic walls
➢ Typical applications include:

i. Door monitoring
ii. Component query
iii. Detecting components through metal walls, provided the walls are non-
magnetic
The limitations of magnetic field sensors are:
➢ Components to be detected must be equipped with at least one magnet
➢ The sensing range depends on the mounting direction of the magnet
Magnetic field sensors are noncontact. They detect objects that generate a magnetic
field.
 Unit - IV: Nanotechnology

• Nanoscale – Properties of Nanomaterials

• Surface to volume ratio
• Quantum confinement
• Top-down fabrication:
o ball milling
• Bottom-up fabrication:
o sol-gel,
o Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) and
o Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
• Characterization techniques:
o X-Ray Diffraction (XRD),
o Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and
o Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
• Applications of nanomaterials.

Nanotechnology means any technology done on a nanoscale that has applications in the real
world. Nanotechnology encompasses the production and application of physical, chemical and
biological systems at scales ranging from individual atoms or molecules to submicron
dimensions. Nanotechnology promises breakthroughs in areas such as materials and
manufacturing, nanoelectronics, medicine and healthcare, energy, biotechnology, information
technology and national security. Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique
optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge.

Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is less than
approximately 100 nanometres. A nanometer is one millionth of a millimetre approximately
100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Nanoparticle is an aggregate of atoms
bonded together with a radius between 1 and 100 nm. It typically consists of 10 to 105 atoms.

The properties of materials at the nanoscale can be very different from those at a larger scale.
When the dimension of a material is reduced from a large size, the properties remain the same
at first, then small changes occur, until finally, when the size drops below 100 nm, dramatic
changes in properties can occur. If only one length of a three-dimensional nanostructure is of
nano dimension, the structure is referred to as a quantum well; if two sides are of nanometer
length, the structure is referred to as a quantum wire. A quantum dot has all three dimensions
in the nonorange. The word quantum is associated with these three types of nanostructures
because changes in properties arise from the quantum-mechanical nature of physics in the
domain of the ultra-small. Materials can be nanostructured for new properties and novel
performance. This field is opening new venues in science and technology.
Classification of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one dimension 100 nm or less.
Nanomaterials can be nanoscale in one dimension (eg. surface films), two dimensions (eg.
strands or fibres), or three dimensions (eg. particles). They can exist in single, fused, aggregated
or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes. Common types of
nanomaterials include nanotubes, dendrimers, quantum dots and fullerenes. Nanomaterials
have applications in the field of nano technology, and displays different physical chemical
characteristics from normal chemicals (i.e., silver nano, carbon nanotube, fullerene,
photocatalyst, carbon nano, silica). According to Siegel, Nanostructured materials are
classified as Zero dimensional, one dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional
nanostructures.

Figure:- Classification of Nanomaterials (a) 0D spheres and clusters, (b) 1D nanofibers,

wires, and rods, (c) 2D films, plates, and networks, (d) 3D nanomaterials.

Nanomaterials are materials which are characterized by an ultrafine grain size (< 50 nm) or by
a dimensionality limited to 50 nm. Nanomaterials can be created with various modulation
dimensionalities as defined by Richard W. Siegel: zero (atomic clusters, filaments and cluster
assemblies), one (multilayers), two (ultrafine-grained overlayers or buried layers), and three
(nanophase materials consisting of equiaxed nanometer sized grains) as shown in the above
figure.

These materials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual
mechanical, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Some examples are given below:

(i) Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at elevated
temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics.

(ii) Nanostructured semiconductors are known to show various non-linear optical properties.
Semiconductor Q-particles also show quantum confinement effects which may lead to special
properties, like the luminescence in silicon powders and silicon germanium quantum dots as
infrared optoelectronic devices. Nanostructured semiconductors are used as window layers in
solar cells.

(iii) Nanosized metallic powders have been used for the production of gas tight materials, dense
parts and porous coatings. Cold welding properties combined with the ductility make them
suitable for metal-metal bonding especially in the electronic industry.
(iv) Single nanosized magnetic particles are mono-domains and one expects that also in
magnetic nanophase materials the grains correspond with domains, while boundaries on the
contrary to disordered walls. Very small particles have special atomic structures with discrete
electronic states, which give rise to special properties in addition to the super Para magnetism
behaviour. Magnetic nanocomposites have been used for mechanical force transfer
(ferrofluids), for high density information storage and magnetic refrigeration.

(v) Nanostructured metal clusters and colloids of mono- or plurimetallic composition have a
special impact in catalytic applications. They may serve as precursors for new type of
heterogeneous catalysts (Cortex-catalysts) and have been shown to offer substantial advantages
concerning activity, selectivity and lifetime in chemical transformations and electrocatalysis
(fuel cells). Enantioselective catalysis was also achieved using chiral modifiers on the surface
of nanoscale metal particles.

(vi) Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films are receiving a growing attention for the realization
of gas sensors (NOx, CO, CO2, CH4 and aromatic hydrocarbons) with enhanced sensitivity and
selectivity. Nanostructured metal-oxide (MnO2) finds application for rechargeable batteries for
cars or consumer goods. Nanocrystalline silicon films for highly transparent contacts in thin
film solar cell and nano-structured titanium oxide porous films for its high transmission and
significant surface area enhancement leading to strong absorption in dye sensitized solar cells.

(vii) Polymer based composites with a high content of inorganic particles leading to a high
dielectric constant are interesting materials for photonic band gap structure.

Surface to volume ratio

The surface-to-volume ratio, also called the surface-area-to-volume ratio and variously denoted
sa/vol or SA:V, is the amount of surface area per unit volume of an object or collection of
objects.

SA:V is an important concept in science and engineering. It is used to explain the relation
between structure and function in processes occurring through the surface and the volume.
Good examples for such processes are processes governed by the heat equation, i.e., diffusion
and heat transfer by conduction. SA:V is used to explain the diffusion of small molecules, like
oxygen and carbon dioxide between air, blood and cells, water loss by animals, bacterial
morphogenesis, organism's thermoregulation, design of artificial bone tissue, artificial lungs
and many more biological and biotechnological structures.
let us consider different shapes to calculate the SA:V ratio

Sphere Cube Cylinder

Shape

Surface
4πr2 l*l*6 2πr2+2πrh
Area
Volume 4/3πr3 l3 πr2h
SA:V 3/r 6/l 2/h+2/r
For r=1, SA:V =3 For l=1, SA:V =6 For h=1, r=1, SA:V =4
For r=2, SA:V =1.5 For l=2, SA:V = 3 For h=2, r=2, SA:V = 2
Example
For r=3, SA:V =1 For l=3, SA:V =2 For h=3, r=3, SA:V =1.32
For r=4, SA:V =0.75 For l=4, SA:V =1.5 For h=4, r=4, SA:V =1

From the above table it is well understood that SA:V ratio is decreasing with increasing the
dimensions and viceversa.

When an object/cell is small, it has large surface to volume ratio while a large object/cell has a
small surface area to volume ratio.

Therefore, materials made of nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit volume
ratio compared with the materials made up of bigger particles. This leads to nanoparticles being
more chemically reactive. As chemical reactions occur between particles that are on the
surface, a given mass of nanomaterial will be much more reactive than the same mass of
material made up of large particles. This means that materials that are inert in their bulk form
are reactive when produced in their nanoparticle form.

In other words the materials having High SA:V Ratio: Heats/cools quickly similarly, low SA:V
Ratio: Heats/cools slowly.

1. What is the relationship between size and S.A.:V Ratio: Bigger size = smaller ratio

2. Which cube would heat up the fastest? Cube having lowest dimension (S.A.:V Ratio higher)

3. Which cube would remain warm the longest? Cube having highest dimension (lowest S.A.:V
ratio – heat energy takes longer to get out)

4. Why is an advantage for polar bears to be large? If they are large, they will have a small
surface area to volume ratio, therefore they will not cool down as fast in the Arctic.
5. Why is being large a disadvantage for African elephants? Since they are large, they will have
small surface area to volume ratio, this means it takes them a long time to cool down, which is
a disadvantage in a hot climate.

6. Why do African elephants have large, flat ears? To increase their surface area, so that their
surface area to volume ratio can be higher, and therefore that they can cool down faster.

Quantum Confinement:

When the length of a semiconductor is reduced to the same order as the exciton radius, i.e., to
a few nanometres, quantum confinement effect occurs and the exciton properties are modified.
Depending on the dimension of the confinement, three kinds of confined structures are defined:
quantum well (QW), quantum wire (QR) and quantum dot (QD).

The reduction in dimensionality produced by confining electrons (or holes) to a thin

semiconductor layer leads to a dramatic change in their behaviour.

This principle can be developed by further reducing the dimensionality of the electron’s
environment from a two-dimensional quantum well to a one -dimensional quantum wire and
eventually to a zero-dimensional quantum dot.

The dimensionality refers to the number of degrees of freedom in the electron momentum in
fact, within a quantum wire, the electron is confined across two directions, rather than just the
one in a quantum well and so therefore reducing the degrees of freedom to one.

In a quantum dot, the electron is confined in all three dimensions, thus reducing the degrees of
freedom to zero.

If the number of degrees of freedom are labelled as Df and the number of directions of
confinement are labelled as Dc then clearly:

Df + Dc = 3

Degree of Degree of
Structure
confinement (Dc) freedom (Df)
Bulk material 3D 0D
Quantum well 2D 1D
Quantum wire 1D 2D
Quantum dot 0D 3D
In an unconfined (bulk) semiconductor, an electron-hole pair is typically bound within a
characteristic length called the Bohr exciton radius. If the electron and hole are constrained
further, then the semiconductor's properties change. This effect is a form of quantum
confinement, and it is a key feature in many emerging electronic structures. The quantum
confinement effect is observed when the size of the particle is too small to be comparable to
the wavelength of the electron. The word confinement means to confine the motion of
randomly moving electron to restrict its motion in specific energy levels (discreteness) and
quantum reflects the atomic realm of particles. So as the size of a particle decrease till we a
reach a nano scale the decrease in confining dimension makes the energy levels discrete and
this increases or widens up the band gap and ultimately the band gap energy also increases.

Quantum confinement is responsible for the increase of energy difference between energy
states and band gap. A phenomenon tightly related with the optical and electronic properties of
the materials

Consider electronic systems that exist in three dimensions of large macroscopic size.
Conduction electrons are delocalized and move freely throughout the entire conducting
medium such as copper wire (dimension of wire is much larger than atomic spacing). When
dimension of wire becomes so small and it approaches atomic spacing dimensions, the
electrons experience confinement. The quantum well experience confinement in one
dimension, quantum wire in two dimensions whereas quantum dots in all three dimensions.
The properties of good conductors are explained by treating valence electron of metal
dissociate themselves from atoms and become delocalized conduction electron that can move
freely through the background of positive ions. These electrons acts like a gas called the fermi
gas in their ability to move with very little hindrance throughout the metal.

The Fermi gas model leads to energies and density of states that differed quite significantly for
delocalized electrons. This means that the electronic and other properties changes dramatically
with dimensionality changes.

Figure: Quantum confinement of different nanostructures as 0-D, 1-D, 2-D and 3-D with their
density of states (DOS) effects.

Zero-dimensional nanostructures:

➢ Zero-dimensional nanostructure is called quantum dot (QD) nanocrystal. Generally,

nanocrystal is a semiconductor crystal whose size is on the order of just a few
nanometers.
➢ They contain anywhere from 100 to 1,000 electrons and range from 2 to 10 nanometers,
or 10 to 50 atoms in diameter. QDs are unique because of their size and properties.
➢ Almost all materials system including metal, insulators and semiconductors show size
dependent electronic or optical properties in the quantum size regime.
➢ Among these, the modification in the energy band gap of semiconductors is the most
attractive one because of the fundamental as well as technological importance.
➢ Semiconductors with widely tunable energy band gap are considered to be the materials
for next generation flat panel displays, photovoltaic, optoelectronic devices, laser,
sensors, photonic band gap devices, etc.

One-dimensional nanostructures:

➢ One-dimensional nanostructures are called nanowires.

➢ Nanowires are attracting much interest from those seeking to apply nanotechnology
especially in solid-state electronics and diagnosis tool in medical sciences.
 ➢ Unlike other low-dimensional systems, nanowires have two quantum-confined
directions but one unconfined direction (degree of freedom) available for electrical
conduction.
➢ This makes nanowires to be used in applications where electrical conduction, rather
than tunnelling transport, is required.

Two-dimensional nanostructures:

➢ Two-dimensional nanostructure is referred as quantum well in nanoscience and

nanotechnology.
➢ A quantum well is a particular kind of heterostructure in which one thin "well" layer is
surrounded (sandwiched) by two "barrier" layers.
➢ Both electrons and holes perceive lower energy in the "well" layer, hence the name (by
analogy with a "potential well").
➢ This layer, in which both electrons and holes are confined, is so thin (typically about
100 Å, or about 40 atomic layers) that we cannot neglect the fact that the electron and
hole are both waves.
➢ In fact, the allowed states in this structure correspond to standing waves in the direction
perpendicular to the layers. Because only particular waves are standing waves, the
system is quantized, hence the name "quantum well".
➢ Quantum wells are thin layered semiconductor structures in which we can observe and
control many quantum mechanical effects.
➢ They can be made to a high degree of precision by modern epitaxial crystal growth
techniques.

Excitons

An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are attracted to each other
by the electrostatic Coulomb force. It is an electrically neutral quasiparticle that exists in
insulators, semiconductors and in some liquids. An exciton can form when a photon is absorbed
by a semiconductor. This excites an electron from the valence band into the conduction band.
In turn, this leaves behind a positively charged electron hole. The electron in the conduction
band is then effectively attracted to this localized hole by the repulsive Coulomb forces from
large numbers of electrons surrounding the hole and excited electron. This attraction provides
a stabilizing energy balance.

The excitons radius can be taken as an index of extent of confinement experienced by a

nanoparticles. If the dimension of nanoparticles (d) is greater that radius of exciton (aeff), it is
the weak confinement region, And if d< aeff, it is strong confinement region. And if d>>aeff,
no confinement. Under weak confinement conditions, the excitons can undergo unrestricted
translational motion. But for strong confinement this translational motion is restricted. There
is an increase in overlap of electron and hole wavefunctions with decrease in particle size and
thereby enhanced electron hole interaction. An optical index of confinement is the blue shift
(shift to higher energies) of optical absorption edge and exciton energy with decrease in
nanoparticles size.
Differnces between topdown and bottom up approaches:

Top-down fabrication: Ball milling

A ball mill is a device used to grind and blend materials for use in mineral dressing processes,
paints, pyro techniques, ceramics, and selective laser sintering. I tis a physical method of
synthesis of nanoparticles and is an example of top down approach of producing nano
materials.

The ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell which rotates about its axis. The axis of the
shell may be either horizontal or inclined at a small angle to the horizontal. It is partially filled
with the balls which may be made of chrome steel, stainless steel, ceramic or rubber. These
balls form the grinding media of the ball mill. The inner surface of the cylinder is genrally lined
(coated) with an abrasion resistant material. Eg: Rubber or manganeses steel. Rubber is
preferred for this purpose due to less wear in mills lined with rubber. The length and diameter
of the ball mill are nearly equal.

Principle:

It works on the principle of impact and attrition (i.e., friction). The size reduction is carried out
by impact as the balls drop from near the top of the shell.

The grinding works on the principle of critical speed which is the speed after which the steel
balls start rotating along the direction of the cylindrical device thus causing no further grinding.
Grinding media:

Many types of grinding media are suitable for use in a ball mill, each material having its own
specific properties and advantages. The key properties of grinding media which would be taken
into consideration at the time of their selection are its size, density, hardness and composition.

1. Size: The smaller the media particles, the smaller the size of the particles of the final
product. However, the grinding media particles should be substantially larger than the
largest pieces of the material which is to be ground by the mill.
2. Density: The density of the grinding media should be more than the density of the
material being ground. The grinding media should not float at all on the top of material
to be ground.
3. Hardness: The grinding media should be hard enough to grind the material but its
toughness should not wear down the tumbler at a fast pace.
4. Composition: Various grinding applications have special requirements. Where the
colour of the finished product is important, the colour and materials of the grinding
media must be taken into consideration. In the case of low contamination requirement,
the grinding media may be selected for ease of separation from the finished product.

Some of the common ball mills are

(i) Vibrating ball mill

(ii) Low energy tumbling ball mill
(iii) High energy ball mill

Besides common ball mills, there is also a planetary ball mill which is smaller than a
common ball mill used in laboratories for research purpose.

Advantages of ball mill:

Ball mills have several advantages over other systems used for making material in the
powder form. These are
 1. The cost of installation and grinding medium is low hence inexpensive process
2. Ball milling is suitable for both batch and continuous operation.
3. Ball milling is suitable for both open and closed circuit grinding
4. Material of any hardness can be grounded
5. Small particles with narrow size distribution (2 to 20 nm) can be produced.

Drawbacks of high energy ball milling

1. Low surface,
2. highly polydisperse size distribution and
3. partially amorphous state of the powder.
4. Shape of the nanomaterial is irregular.
5. Contamination of the product may occur as a result of wear and tear.

Applications:

1. Used for the synthesis of nanostructured metal oxides for gas detection
2. Used for grinding materials such as ores, chemicals, ceramic, raw materials and paints
etc
3. Grinding can be carried out either wet or dry but wet grinding is performed at low speed
4. Ball mills are used in pyrotechnics and the manufacture of black powder.

Sol-Gel Process:

The sol-gel process, involves the evolution of inorganic networks through the formation of a
colloidal suspension (sol) and gelation of the sol to form a network in a continuous liquid phase
(gel). The precursors for synthesizing these colloids consist usually of a metal or metalloid
element surrounded by various reactive ligands. The starting material is processed to form a
dispersible oxide and forms a sol in contact with water or dilute acid. Removal of the liquid
from the sol yields the gel, and the sol/gel transition controls the particle size and shape.
Calcination of the gel produces the oxide.

Sol-gel processing refers to the hydrolysis and condensation of alkoxide-based precursors such
as Si(OEt) 4 (tetraethyl orthosilicate, or TEOS). The reactions involved in the sol-gel chemistry
based on the hydrolysis and condensation of metal alkoxides M(OR)z can be described as
follows:

MOR + H2O → MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)

MOH + ROM → M-O-M + ROH (condensation)

Sol-gel method of synthesizing nanomaterials is very popular amongst chemists and is widely
employed to prepare oxide materials. The sol-gel process can be characterized by a series of
distinct steps.
Figure: Schematic representation of sol-gel process of synthesis of nanomaterials.

1. Formation of different stable solutions of the alkoxide or solvated metal precursor.

2. Gelation resulting from the formation of an oxide- or alcohol- bridged network (the gel)
by a polycondensation reaction that results in a dramatic increase in the viscosity of the
solution.
3. Aging of the gel (Syneresis), during which the polycondensation reactions continue
until the gel transforms into a solid mass, accompanied by contraction of the gel
network and expulsion of solvent from gel pores. Ostwald ripening (also referred to as
coarsening, is the phenomenon by which smaller particles are consumed by larger
particles during the growth process) and phase transformations may occur concurrently
with syneresis. The aging process of gels can exceed 7 days and is critical to the
prevention of cracks in gels that have been cast.
4. Drying of the gel, when water and other volatile liquids are removed from the gel
network. This process is complicated due to fundamental changes in the structure of the
gel. The drying process has itself been broken into four distinct steps:
a. the constant rate period,
b. the critical point,
c. the falling rate period,
d. the second falling rate period.
If isolated by thermal evaporation, the resulting monolith is termed a xerogel. If the
solvent (such as water) is extracted under supercritical or near super critical conditions,
the product is an aerogel.
5. Dehydration, during which surface- bound M-OH groups are removed, there by
stabilizing the gel against rehydration. This is normally achieved by calcining the
monolith at temperatures up to 800 oC.
 6. Densification and decomposition of the gels at high temperatures (T>800 0C). The
pores of the gel network are collapsed, and remaining organic species are volatilized.
The typical steps that are involved in sol-gel processing are shown in the schematic
diagram.

Advantages of sol-gel technique

➢ Sol-Gel method of thin film deposition is a cheap and low temperature technique with
fine control on the chemical composition of the product.
➢ It is able to produce high purity products because the organo-metallic precursor of the
desired ceramic oxides can be mixed, dissolved in a specific solvent and hydrolyzed
into a sol, and subsequently a gel.
➢ By this process we can get a low temperature, high density glass without high
temperature recrystallization.
➢ Smaller particle size and morphological control in powder synthesis.
➢ It can produce thin bond coating to provide excellent adhesion between the metallic
substrate and the top coat.
➢ This process is able to coat onto large or complex shape objects.
➢ Sol-gel process can produce thick coating to provide corrosion protection performance.
➢ This process can have low temperature sintering capability, usually in the range 200-
600 oC.
➢ Sol-gel is a versatile process as it can produce aerogels, xerogels, ceramic materials,
nano powders, nanorods and nanostructured thin films etc.

Disadvantages of Sol-Gel Technique

➢ Products would contain high carbon content when organic reagents are used in
preparative steps and this would inhibit densification during sintering.
➢ There is often a large volume shrinkage and cracking during drying due to the
generation of large capillary stresses.
➢ It is difficult to avoid residual porosity and OH- groups
➢ Being a multi - step process, close monitoring is required
➢ The process is not very clean. It contains undesired atoms, molecules, ions etc. This
deteriorates electrical and optical properties of deposited material.

Applications

➢ Sol-gel process has been extensively used for forming coatings on window glass
➢ It can be used to produce powders and fibers
➢ Sol-gel technique can be used to deposit films and coatings on a range of different
surfaces, enabling a flexibility which is not available in many vapour phase
methods
➢ It is used in drug delivery systems
➢ In making ultraviolet (UV) protection gels
➢ For producing lubricants and scratch free paints
➢ In developing new fire retardant materials.
PVD(Physical vapour deposition technique):

Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) is a collective set of processes used to deposit thin layers
of material, typically in the range of few nanometers to several micrometers. PVD processes
are environmentally friendly vacuum deposition techniques consisting of three fundamental
steps :

➢ Vaporization of the material from a solid source assisted by high temperature vacuum
or gaseous plasma.
➢ Transportation of the vapor in vacuum or partial vacuum to the substrate surface.
➢ Condensation onto the substrate to generate thin films.

Different PVD technologies utilize the same three fundamental steps but differ in the methods
used to generate and deposit material. The two most common PVD processes are sputtering
and thermal evaporation.

Sputtering is a plasma-assisted technique that creates a vapor from the source target through
bombardment with accelerated gaseous ions (typically Argon).

Thermal evaporation is a deposition technique that relies on vaporization of source material by

heating the material using appropriate methods in vacuum.

Figure: Schematic drawing of two conventional PVD processes: (a) sputtering and (b)
evaporating using ionized Argon (Ar+) gas

In both evaporation and sputtering, the resulting vapor phase is subsequently deposited onto
the desired substrate through a condensation mechanism to give nanofilms(thin-films).

Applications:

PVD is used in a variety of applications, & used in

(i) including fabrication of microelectronic devices,

(ii) interconnects, battery and fuel cell electrodes,
(iii) diffusion barriers,
(iv) optical and conductive coatings,
 (v) surface modifications.

Advantages:

(i) This method consists good strength and durability

(ii) It is environment friendly vapor deposition technique.

Disadvantages:

(i) Cooling systems are required, to get nanomaterials.

(ii) Mostly high temperature and vaccum control needs skill and experience.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) refers to the formation of a non-volatile solid film of nano
dimension on a substrate from the reaction of vapor phase chemical reactants containing the
right constituents. A reaction chamber is used for this process, into which the reactant gases
are introduced to decompose and react with the substrate to form the film of nano dimension.
Chemical vapor deposition is used in a multitude of semiconductor wafer fabrication processes,
including the production of amorphous and polycrystalline thin films (such as polycrystalline
silicon), deposition of SiO2 (CVD SiO2) and silicon nitride, and growing of single-crystal
silicon epitaxial layers.

A basic CVD process consists of the following steps:

➢ A predefined mix of reactant gases and diluents inert gases are introduced at a specified
flow rate into the reaction chamber;
➢ The gas species move to the substrate;
➢ The reactants get adsorbed on the surface of the substrate;
➢ The reactants undergo chemical reactions with the substrate to form the film; and
➢ The gaseous by- products of the reactions are desorbed and evacuated from the reaction
chamber.
➢ During the process of chemical vapor deposition, the reactant gases not only react with
the substrate material at the wafer surface (or very close to it), but also in gas phase in
the reactor's atmosphere. Reactions that take place at the substrate surface are known
as heterogeneous reactions, and are selectively occurring on the heated surface of the
wafer where they create good- quality films of nano dimension.

Reactions that take place in the gas phase are known as homogeneous reactions.
Homogeneous reactions form gas phase aggregates of the depositing material, which
adhere to the surface poorly and at the same time form low-density films with lots of
defects. In short, heterogeneous reactions are much more desirable than homogeneous
reactions during chemical vapor deposition.

A typical CVD system consists of the following parts:

1) sources of and feed lines for gases

2) mass flow controllers for metering the gases into the system;
 3) a reaction chamber or reactor;
4) a system for heating up the wafer on which the film is to be deposited; and
5) temperature sensors.

In this technique, the precursor vapor is passed through a hot walled reactor. The precursor
decomposes and nano particles nucleate in the gas phase. The nano particles are carried by
the gas stream and collected on a cold finger. The size of the nano particles is determined
by the particle residence time, temperature of the chamber, precursor composition and
pressure.

Advantages of CVD

➢ Producing uniform films with good reproducibility and adhesion at reasonably high
deposition rates
➢ Non-line of sight process with good throwing power. Can coat complex-shaped
components
➢ It has the ability to control crystal structure, surface morphology by process
parameters
➢ Versatile- any pure element or compound can be deposited
➢ Purity and density – nearly 100% of theoretical value achievable
➢ Metal formation well below the melting point (SiC of 2700 oC can be deposited
below 1050 oC).
➢ Economical in production, since many parts can be coated at the same time.

Disadvantages of CVD

➢ Chemical and safety hazards caused by the use of toxic, corrosive, flammable
and/or explosive precursor gases
➢ The use of more sophisticated reactor and/or vacuum system by CVD varaints are
not scalable because of high cost, size limitations and narrow applications.
 Applications of CVD

➢ Coatings wear, corrosion, heat resistance coatings

➢ Solar panels conversion by use of selective absorbers and of thin film solar cells of
Si and GaAs.
➢ Microelectronics and semiconductors films dielectrics (low and high k),
conductors, passivation layers, diffusion barriers, oxidation barriers i.e., IC,
Processors (nm), sensors.
➢ Carbon nano tubes, synthetic diamonds and graphene for advance electronic,
biological and chemical devices and detectors
➢ Optical fibers for telecommunication are produced by coating inside of a fused
silica tube with oxides of silicon, germanium, boron, etc to get correct refractive
index profile

Differences between PVD and CVD

Physical Vapor Deposition Chemical Vapor Deposition

Definition Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
a series of vacuum deposition is a vacuum deposition method. In
methods used to produce films and a typical CVD, the wafer
coatings. PVD is characterized by a (substrate) is exposed to one or
process in which the material more volatile precursors that react
changes from a condensed phase to and/or decompose on the surface
a gas phase and then back to the of the substrate to produce the
condensed phase of the film desired deposit. Volatile by-
(physical process). The most products are also typically
common PVD processes produced which are removed by
are sputtering and evaporation. the gas stream through the
reaction chamber.
Application PVD is used to make articles that Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
require films for mechanical, is used to produce high quality,
optical, chemical or electronic high-performance solid materials.
functions. For This process is commonly used in
example, semiconductor devices, the semiconductor industry to
thin-film solar panels, glass produce thin films.
coatings, and etc.
Temperature Relatively low The process temperature of CVD
method is very high, usually
exceeds the tempering
temperature of the high speed
steel. Thus in order to restore the
hardness, the tools must be
subjected to vacuum heat
treatment after coating.
Cleaning High Low
Requirement
 Film about 2.5 μm about 7.5 μm
thickness
Surface The PVD coating well reflects the The surface of the CVD coating is
surface of the tool and has a good slightly rougher than the surface
metallic luster without grinding. of the substrate.
Crafting Nearly all PVD technologies have CVD occurs in a low-vacuum
Process poor coating performance both on gaseous environment and has
the back and sides of the tool due to good coating performance.
low air pressure. The PVD reactor Therefore, except for the support
must reduce the loading density to points, all the surfaces of the
avoid shadow formation, and the cutters sealed in the reactor, even
loading and fixing are complicated. deep holes and inner walls, can be
completely coated.
Cost More expensive Less expensive
Safety PVD is a kind of “green The reactive gas and reaction tail
engineering”, which produces little gas of CVD may have certain
pollution during the process corrosiveness, flammability and
because it is “physical”. toxicity, and there may be
powdery and fragmented
substances in the reaction tail gas.

Characterization of Nano-particles:

Characterization refers to the study of material features such as its composition, structure and
its properties like physical, electrical, magnetic etc.

For characterization of nano particles both X-ray diffraction (XRD) & electron microscope are
the most widely used techniques.

Electron microscope: It is an instrument by using we can study & analysis of small particles
& crystal structures. It’s magnification is high i.e. 106 times greater than the size of given
particle (or) object. In electron microscopes, current carrying coils produce magnetic fields that
act as lenses to focus an electron beam on a specimen.

They are two types of electron microscopes

1. SEM (Scanning electron microscope)

2. TEM (Transmission electron microscope)

X-ray diffraction:

An atom can scatter x-rays, and if many atoms are together then the scattered waves from all
the atoms can interfere. If the scattered waves are in phase (coherent), they interfere in a
constructive way and we get diffracted beams in specific directions. These directions are
governed by the wavelength (λ) of the incident radiation and the nature of the crystalline
sample. Bragg's law, formulated by W. L. Bragg.in 1913, relates the wavelength of the x-rays
to the spacing of the atomic planes.
To derive Bragg's law, we begin by assuming that each plane of atoms partially reflects the
incident wave much like a half-silvered mirror. The x-rays are not really being reflected they
are being scattered-but it is very convenient to think of them as reflected, and we often call the
planes the reflecting planes and the diffracted beams the “reflected beams”. Because of this
reflection analogy, the peaks that occur in an x-ray diffraction pattern are often called
reflections.

Consider the diffracted wave as shown in figure. It is assumed to make the same angle, θ, with
the atomic planes as does the incident wave. Now the criterion for the existence of the diffracted
wave is that the scattered (reflected) x-rays should all be in phase across a wavefront such as
BB'. For this to be so, the path lengths between wavefronts AA' and BB' for the rays shown
must differ by exactly an integral number (n) of wavelengths λ. Therefore, the path difference,
δ, must be

δ =nλ

where n is an integer which is order of reflection.

Now since lines CC' and CD in Figure are also wavefronts, we can write

δ = DE + EC' = 2EC'

From elementary trigonometry,

δ = 2CE sinθ

and because CE is the interplanar spacing d' we can write

Figure: Diffraction of X-rays by a crystal

δ= 2d' sinθ

By combining Eqs. we get

nλ = 2d sinθ

This equation is known as Bragg's law and is extremely important in indexing x-ray diffraction
patterns.
The integrated intensity, I, of a diffracted beam is

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 −2𝑀
𝐼 = 𝐹2𝑝 ( 2 )𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

where F is called structure factor, p is the multiplicity factor, the term in parentheses is the
Lorentz polarization factor, and e-2M is the temperature factor

X-ray diffraction patterns from amorphous Si02 (silica glass) and a crystalline form of Si02
(cristobalite) are shown in Figure. The crystalline material shows a series of sharp peaks, or
reflections, due to diffracted beams arising from different lattice planes. The glass shows one
broad peak centered in the range in which the strong peak was seen in the diffraction pattern
of the crystalline material of the same composition.

Figure: X-ray diffraction patterns from (a) crystalline cristobalite and (b) silica glass samples.

The three basic components of an x-ray diffractometer are the

➢ X ray source
➢ Specimen
➢ X ray detector

and they all lie on the circumference of a circle, which is known as the focusing circle. The
angle between the plane of the specimen and the x-ray source is θ, the Bragg angle.
 Figure: Geometry of X-ray diffractometer.

On modern instruments peak searches are performed on a computer. The computer computes
the 2θ angles, the FWHM, and integrated intensities for each peak. Each peak, or reflection, in
the diffraction pattern corresponds to x-rays diffracted from a specific set of planes in the
specimen, and these peaks are of different heights (intensities). From this one can do

➢ Determine lattice strain

➢ Calculate crystallite size
➢ Refine calculation of lattice parameter(s) (Rietveld method)
➢ Calculate diffraction patterns, and other operations

In addition, the peak shape can be defined, and overlapping peaks de convoluted. From this
Powder x-ray diffraction is used in a wide variety of disciplines, and on the structures of all
classes of materials: metals, ceramics, semiconductors, and polymers.

Studies well suited to powder x-ray diffraction include

➢ Identification of crystalline phases of nanomaterials

➢ Qualitative and quantitative analysis of mixtures and minor constituents
➢ Distinction between crystalline and amorphous states of nanomaterials
➢ Following solid-state reactions -Identification of solid solutions
➢ Identification of polymorphism
➢ Phase diagram determination
➢ Lattice parameter measurements
➢ Detection of preferred orientation
➢ Microstructural characterization
➢ In situ temperature and pressure studies.
 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

The image of the sample in SEM is produced by scanning the sample with a focused electron
beam and detecting the secondary/back scattered electrons.

When electron beam is incident on surface of bulk material, scattered electrons carries
information.

Working:

➢ Electron source produces a stream of monochromatic electrons.

➢ Electrons are attracted and travel through anode there by attains directionality.
➢ Condenser lens eliminates high angled electrons from the beam so electron beam
becomes thin and coherent.
➢ A set of coils acts as electro static lens, scans and weeps the beam in grid fashion and
allowed to pass through objective lens in wide way.
➢ Then such a beam of electrons strikes the sample, interaction takes place in smooth way
and this process is displayed on CRT.
➢ This process is repeated several times i.e., 30times/sec to get accurate results.

Applications: SEM gives useful information on

1. Topography: Surface features of the object.

2. Morphology: Shape, Size and arrangement of particles.
3. Composition: Composition and their relative ratio.
4. Crystallographic Information: Arrangement of atoms and their order.

Energy Dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDAX/EDX) :

This technique is used for identifying the Elemental composition of the sample. EDX system
works an integrated feature of SEM.

Principle:
 ➢ During EDX analysis, the sample is bombarded with electron beam inside the SEM.
The bombarded electrons collide with the specimen atoms and show the alignment of
the sample in the form of spectrum.
➢ The spectrum intensity depends on energy and speed of the electrons used for collision
with the sample.
➢ During the collisions between electrons and sample atom own electrons, some of the
inner shell electrons are ejected and those places are occupied by outer electrons
➢ Thus the transfer of outer electrons gives some of its energy by emitting an X-ray

Applications of EDX:

1. Classification of materials.
2. Structural analysis
3. Composition investigation.
4. Failure and defect analysis.
5. Identification of corrosion and oxidation problems.
6. Examination of surface Morphology

TEM (Transmission electron microscope):

TEM is a powerful tool to investigate the lattice structure and defects on materials directly.The
first TEM invented by Ruska in April 1932 could hardly compete with optical microscope with
only 14.4 (3.6 × 4.8) magnification.

The basic components in TEM are:

➢ Electron gun
➢ Condenser system
➢ Objective lens (most important lens in TEM which determines the final resolution)
➢ Diffraction lens
➢ Projective lens (all lens are inside the equipment column, between apertures)
➢ Image recording system (used to be negative films, now is CCD cameras)
 ➢ Vacuum system

Working:

1. The virtual source at the top represents the electron gun which produces of high energy
monochromatic electron beam.
2. The beam strikes the ultra thin specimen(usually thinner than 10 nm) and parts of it are
transmitted.
3. The image formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample is magnified
and focused onto an imaging device, such as photographic film, a fluorescent screen,
or detected by CCD camera.
4. The darker areas of the image represents those areas of the sample that fewer electrons
were transmitted through (they are thicker or denser).
5. The lighter areas of the image represents those areas of the sample that more electrons
were transmitted through( they are thinner or less dense).

Applications:

TEM gives the following useful information:

1. Morphology: The size, shape and arrangement of particles as well as their relationship
to one another on the scale of atomic diameters.
2. Crystallographic information: The arrangement of atoms in the specimen and their
degree of order, detection of atomic-scale defects a few nanometers in diameter.
3. Composition: To study the elements & compound ratio in a sample.
Differences between SEM and TEM:

Applications of Nano materials or Nano technology:

Nano materials are ‘small materials with big future’ because of their extremely small size, they
have many applications and advantages.

1. Material technology:

➢ Nano materials used in cutting tools made up of nano crystalline materials which are
much harder, much more wear-resistant and last longer.
➢ Nano materials used as sensors.
➢ They are used as smoke detectors, ice-detectors on air craft wings.

2. Information-technology:

➢ Nanoparticles are used for information storage.

➢ Nan photonic crystals are used in chemical/l computers.
➢ Nano thickness –controlled coating are used in optoelectronic devices.
➢ Nanoscale-fabricated magnetic materials are used in data storage.
➢ Used in opto electronic devices, mobiles and laptops etc.

3. Electronic industry: Nano materials used in

 ➢ Glass fibres.
➢ Used to prepare laser diodes.
➢ Optical switches
➢ data memory

4. Medical field:

➢ Nano materials used in drug delivery systems.

➢ Used as agents in cancer therapy.
➢ Used as active agents.
➢ Used to reproduce or repair damaged tissues.
 Unit - V: Lasers and Fiber Optics

• Lasers: Characteristics
• Spontaneous and Stimulated emissions
• Einstein coefficients
• Population Inversion
• Pumping mechanisms
• Lasers:
o Ruby laser,
o Nd:YAG laser,
o He-Ne laser,
o CO2 laser,
o Semiconductor laser
• Applications of lasers.

• Fiber Optics: Introduction to optical fibers

• Advantages of optical Fibers over conventional communications
• Principle of light transmission through optical fiber
• Structure of optical fiber
• Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture
• Classification of optical fibers: Step index and Graded index fibers
• Attenuation mechanism in optical fibers
• Block diagram of optical fiber communication system
• Applications.

Lasers - Introduction:
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser
radiation is due to the stimulated emission of radiation process which improves (amplifies) the
intensity of radiation.

In general, when an electron moves from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit, it emits
radiation. This emission of radiation can be explained in terms of energy levels as when the
electron transits from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits radiation.
According to Planck’s quantum theory, the emission of radiation will be in the form of photon
of energy hν. The frequency (ν) term in the energy of photon indicates the wave characteristics
of the photon. The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the energy differences between the
energy levels. This loss of energy is attributed to the entire atom. As a result, it can be thought
that the atom is moving from a higher energy state to a lower energy state.

When a large number of atoms transit to lower energy level, then each transition emits photons
𝐸2 −𝐸1
of same energy, same frequency and same wavelength |ν = |. All photons are in phase,
ℎ
and after reinforcement emit a high intensity monochromatic coherent radiation i.e., LASER
radiation.

Characteristics of LASER:

1. Monochromacity:
In laser radiation, all the photons emitted between discrete energy levels will have same
wavelength. As a result, the radiation is monochromatic in nature. If the higher energy
level has closely spaced levels then from the transition from each level to lower energy
level emits photons of different frequencies and wavelengths. Let the spread in frequency
and wavelength be ν+Δν and λ+Δλ. The frequency spread Δν is related to its wavelength
spread Δλ as
𝑐
∆𝜆 = − | 2 | Δν
ν
For laser, Δλ = 0.001 nm. It is clear that laser radiationis highly monochromatic.

2. Directionality:
In ordinary light, divergence of light takes place as is propagates through medium. For
laser radiation also, this divergence takes place as it propagates through the medium.

The laser light of wavelength λ, emerges through a laser source aperture diameter ‘d’, then
it propagates as a parallel beam upto d2/λ (small value) and gets diverged. The angle of
divergence of a laser beam is expressed as
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
𝜙= =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑠2 − 𝑠1

Where d1, d2 are the diameters of the laser spots measured at a distances s1 and s2 from
the laser aperture. For laser light 𝜙 = 10−3 radians. Thus it is clear that the divergence is
low and it is highly directional.

3. Coherence:
Coherence is a property of a wave being in phase with itself and also with another wave
over a period of time, and space or distance. Coherence is the predictability of the
amplitude and phase at any point on the wave knowing the amplitude and phase at any
other point either in the same wave or on a neighbouring wave.
Coherence is of two types:
Temporal Coherence:
If it is possible to predict the amplitude and phase at a point on the wave with respect to
another point on the same wave, then the wave is temporal coherence. For laser radiation,
 as all the emitted photons (waves) are in phase, the resultant radiation has temporal
coherence.
Spatial Coherence:
If it is possible to predict the amplitude and phase at a point on a wave with respect to
another point on a second wave then the waves are said to be spatially coherent. The
emitted photons (waves) in the laser radiation satisfies spatial coherence.
Thus, laser radiation is highly coherent.

4. Intensity or brightness:

Let there be ‘n’ number of coherent photons of amplitude ‘a’ in the emitted laser radiation.
These photons reinforce with each other and the amplitude of the resulting wave becomes
‘na’ and hence the intensity is proportional to n2a2. Thus, due to coherent additions of
amplitude and negligible divergence the intensity or brightness increases enormously.

Interaction of radiation with matter:

When the incident radiation (photon) interacts with the matter (atoms) in the energy levels
then three distinct process can takes place:

1. Stimulated absorption of radiation

2. Spontaneous emission of radiation
3. Stimulated emission of radiation

Stimulated absorption of radiation:

Consider two energy levels of energies E1 and E2 such that E1 > E2 for an atom. Let N1 and N2
are the number of atoms per unit volume in the energy levels E1 and E2 shown in Figure.

The incident radiation consists of photons of energy equal to the energy difference between E1
and E2. The number of photons per unit volume of incident radiation is known as incident
radiation density ρ(υ). The incident photon stimulates the atom in the lower energy level E1 to
absorb its energy. After absorbing energy, the atom transits to E2. This process of exciting the
atom to higher energy level by absorbing the stimulating incident photon is known as
stimulated absorption of radiation. The number of stimulated absorptions depend upon the
number of atoms per unit volume N1 in E1 and the number of photons per unit volume if
incident radiation i.e., incident radiation density ρ(υ).

The number of stimulated absorptions ∝ 𝑁1

∝ 𝜌(υ)

∝ 𝑁1 𝜌(υ)

= 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌(υ)

Where B12 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated absorption of radiation.

If this excited atom transits to lower energy level E1 then it emits radiation. The emitted
radiation are of two types, i.e.,

Spontaneous emission of radiation

Stimulated emission of radiation
Spontaneous emission of radiation

The excited atom in the higher energy level E2 can stay upto 10-8 second. This average time
upto which an excited atom can stay at E2 is known as the lifetime of the excited atom. After
the lifetime of the excited atom, it transits to the lower energy level E1 by itself emitting a
photon of energy

𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

ℎυ = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

𝐸2 − 𝐸1
υ=
ℎ

This process where emission of radiation takes place by the transition of an excited atom by
itself to lower energy level is known as spontaneous emission of radiation. The number of
spontaneous emission of radaiton depends on the number of atoms per unit volume in E2 i.e.,
N2.

Number of spontaneous emissions ∝ 𝑁2 = 𝑁2 𝐴21

Where A21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation.

Stimulated Emission of Radiation

The excited atom after being stimulated by the incident photon transits to a lower energy level
E1 in a time less than the lifetime (10-8 second) of an excited atom. This transition emits a
photon of energy.

𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

ℎυ = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

𝐸2 − 𝐸1
υ=
ℎ

The process where the excited atom after getting stimulated by the incident photon transits to
lower energy level by emitting photons is known as stimulated emission of radiation.

The number of stimulated emissions depends on the number of atoms in the higher energy
level E2 i.e., N2 and the incident radiation density ρ(υ).

The number of stimulated emissions ∝ 𝑁2

∝ 𝜌(υ)

∝ 𝑁2 𝜌(υ)

= 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(υ)

Where B21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation. In this

process, in addition to emitted photons, there will be incident photons. All these photons have
same energy and same frequency and are in phase. As they reinforce together, it results in high-
intensity monochromatic and coherent radiation, i.e., laser radiation.

Distinction between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation:

Spontaneous Emission Stimulated emission

 Simulated emission takes place when
Spontaneous emission takes place when
the atom in higher energy state gets
1 an atom in higher energy state transits to
stimulated by the incident photon and
lower energy state by itself
transits to lower energy state

Spontaneous emission is independent of Stimulated emission is dependent on

2
incident radiation density incident radiation density

Spontaneous emission takes place after Stimulated emission takes place within
3
10-8 second. a time of 10-3 second.

Stimulated emission is a fast process

Spontaneous emission is a slow process
4 when compared to spontaneous
when compared to stimulated emission
emission

A21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of B21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of

5
spontaneous emission stimulated emission

Einstein’s Coefficients

Consider two energy levels of energies E1 and E2 such that E2>E1. Let N1 and N2 be the number
of atoms per unit volume of E1 and E2. In the presence of incident radiation (photon), the atoms
in E1 get excited and we have stimulated absorption of radiation.

The number of stimulated absorption of radiation = 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌(υ).

The excited atom while transiting to lower energy level E1 get excited and we have stimulated
absorption of radiation.

The number of spontaneous emission of radiation = 𝑁2 𝐴21

The number of stimulated emission of radiation = 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(υ)

The upward and downward transitions are continuous and at thermal equilibrium state, both
the transitions are equal

𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌(υ) = 𝑁2 𝐴21 + 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(υ)

𝜌(υ)[𝑁1 𝐵12 − 𝑁2 𝐵21 ] = 𝑁2 𝐴21

 𝑁2 𝐴21
𝜌(υ) =
[𝑁1 𝐵12 − 𝑁2 𝐵21 ]

Dividing the numerator and denominator of RHS of the above equation by N2, we get

𝐴21
𝜌(υ) =
𝑁
[𝑁1 𝐵12 − 𝐵21 ]
2

𝐴21
𝜌(υ) =
𝑁 𝐵
𝐵12 [𝑁1 − 𝐵21 ]
2 12

From Boltzmann’s equation, we get

𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1)/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑁2
= 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1 )/𝑘𝐵𝑇
𝑁1

𝑁1
= 𝑒 (𝐸2−𝐸1 )/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁2

But E2-E1=hυ

𝑁1
= 𝑒 ℎ𝜐/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁2

On substituting we obtain

𝐴21
𝜌(υ) =
𝐵
𝐵12 [𝑒 ℎ𝜐/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 𝐵21 ]
12

From Planck’s Radiation law, we get

8𝜋ℎ𝜐 3 1
𝜌(υ) = 3 ℎ𝜐/𝑘
𝑐 [𝑒 𝐵 𝑇 − 1]

Where h is Planck’s constant, υ is frequency of radiation and c is velocity of light.

Comparing the above two equations, we get

𝐵21
=1
𝐵12

𝐵21 = 𝐵12

And
 𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜐 3
=
𝐵12 𝑐3

8𝜋ℎ𝜐 3
𝐴21 = 𝐵12 [ 3 ]
𝑐

8𝜋ℎ𝜐 3
𝐴21 = 𝐵21 [ 3 ]
𝑐

The above equations represents the relation between Einstein’s coefficients.

Population Inversion:

Consider a two-level energy system of energies E1 and E2. Let N1, N2 be the number of atoms
per unit volume of energy levels E1 and E2. The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy
level is known as population of that energy level. That means N1 and N2 are the populations of
E1 and E2.

The population of any energy level E, at temperature T is given by Boltzmann’s distribution as

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Where N0 is the population of the lower energy level or ground state and kB is the Boltzmann’s
constant. Using the above relation, the population of E1 and E2 are given by

𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸1/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸2/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

From the above relation, we have

 𝑁2
= 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1 )/𝑘𝐵𝑇
𝑁1

𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1)/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Since E2>E1 so N2<N1

To get laser emission (stimulated emission) N2>N1, i.e., the population of the higher energy
level (E2) should be greater than the population of the lower energy level (E1). In general, the
population of a lower energy level will be greater than that of the higher energy level. The stage
of making the population of the higher energy level to be greater than the population of the
lower energy level is known as population inversion. The process of sending atoms from E1 to
E2 to get population inversion is known as pumping.

Principal Pumping schemes

Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of energy levels. Among them only the
three or four levels are significant to the pumping process. Two energy levels scheme is not
generally feasible for lasing action. Since as the probability of upward transition (absorption)
is equal to the probability of downward transition (stimulated emission). Therefore it is not
possible in general to pump more than half of the atoms into the excited state.

A typical three level pumping scheme is shown in figure 1. The state E1 is the ground state, E2
is the upper lasing level (metastable state) and the E3 is the pump state. When a medium is
exposed to pump frequency, large number of atoms will be excited to E3 level. The atoms stay
at E3 level for only about 10-8 seconds and quickly drop to metastable state E2 with a non-
radiative transition. 0020

When a population inversion condition is achieved i.e., more than half of the ground state atoms
accumulate at E2, a chance photon can trigger stimulated emission. This scheme requires very
high pump power.

Once stimulated emission commences the metastable state is quickly emptied and the
population of the ground state increases rapidly. As a result, the population inversion ends. One
has to wait again the population condition is re-established. Thus, the three level lasers operate
in pulsed mode.

Figure 1: A typical three level pumping scheme and lasing action

A typical four level pumping scheme is shown in the figure 2. The state E1 is the ground state,
E2 (lower lasing level), E3 (metastable upper lasing level) and E4 (pumping level) are the
excited states. When a light of pump frequency is incident on the lasing medium the active
centres are excited from the ground state to the pumping level E4. The atoms stay at the E4 level
for about 10-8 seconds and quickly drop down to the metastable state E3. The population
inversion is achieved between the states E3 and E2. From the state E2, the atoms subsequently
undergo non-radiative transitions to the ground state E1 and will be once again available for
excitation, making it possible for light to be emitted continuously with typically low powers
itself.

Figure 2: A typical 4 level pumping scheme and lasing action

Types of lasers

Lasers are divided into different types basing on materials used as

1. Solid state lasers Ex: Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser

2. Gas lasers Ex: He-Ne laser, CO2 laser
3. Semiconductor lasers Ex: GaAs laser

Most of the lasers emit red or IR region wavelengths either in continuous or pulsed modes.

Ruby laser:

Construction:

Ruby laser belongs to class of solid-state lasers. Ruby is basically Al2O3 crystal containing
about 0.05% of chromium Cr3+ atoms. Ruby rod is taken in the form of about 4 cm in length
and 1 cm in diameter. The end faces of ruby rod are silvered so that they form the optical
resonator. The rear face is made totally reflecting while the front face is made partially
reflecting. The laser rod is surrounded by a helical photographic flash lamp filled with xenon.
 Figure: The ruby laser

Working:

Whenever activated by the power supply the lamp produces flashes of white light. The Cr3+
atoms are the active centers and have absorption bands in the blue (4000 Å) and green (6600
Å) regions. The excited Cr3+ atoms goes to the energy bands E2 and E3 from E1. These ions get
transited to the metastable state M after staying for upto 10-8 seconds with a non-radiative
transition. Since lifetime of Cr3+ atoms is more of 10-3 seconds in the metastable state M, the
accumulation of ions takes place. The transition of Cr3+ ions to E1 emits a photon which
stimulates the other ions to transit to E1, resulting in the stimulated emission of radiation of
6943 Å (red color).

Figure: The energy levels of ruby laser

Drawbacks:

1. Laser requires a high pumping power because the laser transition terminates at the
ground state and more than one half of the ground state atoms must be pumped to the
higher state to achieve population inversion.
2. The efficiency is very low. Only the blue and green components of the flash lamp are
utilized and the remaining are unused.
3. The laser output is not continuous but occurs in the form of pulses of microsecond
duration.

Helium – Neon laser:

Construction:

Helium neon laser consists of a large and narrow discharge tube which is filled with a helium
and neon gases in the ratio of 10:1 with partial pressures of 1 torr and 0.1 torr. The actual lasing
atoms are neon atoms and helium is used for selective pumping of the upper laser levels of
neon. The gas mixture will serve as active medium. A discharge is created using the two
electrodes exciting the helium atoms and in turn Ne atoms will act as a source of energy. The
discharge tube is enclosed between fully and partially reflective mirrors which serve as optical
cavity or resonator. The two end windows are set at Brewster’s angle, so that the reflected
radiations from the mirror entering into the tube become polarized.

Figure: The He-Ne laser system

Working:

While discharge takes places through the gas mixture, the electrons collide with the helium
atoms which are more in number raising them to the energy levels F2 and F3 as shown in the
figure.
Helium atoms after transferring their energies to neon atoms by inelastic collisions, get de-
excited to F1. Now neon atoms are excited to E4 and E6 which have nearly the same energy as
the levels F2 and F3 of helium. This results in sizeable populations of the levels E4 and E6. The
population in these levels happens to be more than those in the lower levels E3 and E5. Thus a
state of population inversion is achieved and any spontaneous emitted photon triggers laser
action in any one of the three transitions.

The transitions from E6 to E5, E4 to E3 and E6 to E3 result in the emission of radiation having
wavelengths 3.39 µm, 1.15 µm and 6328 Å respectively. The radiations of wavelength 3.39
µm and 1.15 µm are invisible, whereas the radiation with 6328 Å is red in color. The transition
from E3 to E2 is spontaneous and from E2 the neon atoms get de-excited by collision with the
walls of the discharge tube. The excitation and de-excitations of helium and neon atoms is a
continuous process and thus the continuous emission of laser radiations.

Figure: Energy level diagram of He-Ne laser

Advantages:

1. Gas lasers emit more monochromatic and directional laser radiations when compared to solid
state lasers.

2. He-Ne lasers emits continuous laser radiations

3. Due to the setting of end windows at Brewster’s angle, the output power is linearly polarized.

Carbon dioxide laser:

Construction:

CO2 laser consists of a bore of cross section of about 1.5 mm2 and a length of about 260 mm.
The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases in
1:4:5 proportions respectively. CO2 molecules are the active centres and the lasing action
occurs between the vibrational levels of the electronic ground state.

Figure: Schematic of carbon dioxide laser

CO2 molecule is a linear molecule consisting of a central carbon atom with two oxygen atoms
attached one on either side. It undergoes three independent vibrational oscillations known as
the vibrational modes. These vibrational degrees of freedom are quantized and are represented
with three quantum numbers (m n q). These numbers stand for the amount of energy related to
each mode (stretch mode, bending mode and asymmetric mode). The nitrogen molecule N2 is
also characterized by similar vibrational levels.

Figure: Vibrational modes of CO2 molecule

Working:
When current passes through the mixture of gases, the N2 molecules get excited to the
metastable state. The excited N2 molecules cannot spontaneously lose their energy and
consequently the number of N2 molecules at the metastable level builds up. The N2 molecules
undergo inelastic collisions with the ground state CO2 molecules and excite them to E5 level.
The population inversion builds up between the E5 and the levels E4 and E3, the (100) and (020)
states respectively. Chance spontaneous photon triggers the stimulated emission through the
gas mixture. The laser transition occurs between the E5 to E4 and E5 to E3 levels by emitting a
wavelengths of 10.6 µm and 9.6 µm respectively.

The helium atoms de-excite the CO2 molecules through inelastic collisions and decreases the
population density of CO2 at E2 level. It also aids cooling the gaseous mixture through heat
conduction. Thus the CO2 molecules are once again available for excitation to higher state and
participate in lasing action.

Thus the CO2 laser uses four level pumping scheme and operates in continuous wave mode. It
has high efficiency of ≈ 40% and high power output (several kilo watts).

Figure: Energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules and transitions between the
levels

SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

A semiconductor laser is specifically made of p-n junction diode that emits coherent light
under forward bias. PN junction lasers emits light in the spectral region from UV to IR
regions. N. Hall and his coworkers made the first semiconductor diode laser in 1962

Broadly there are two types of semiconductor diode lasers. They are known as

(i) Homo junction semiconductor laser

(ii) Hetero junction semiconductor laser
Homojunction Semiconductor Laser:

A diode laser which has same semiconductor material on both sides of the junction
(e.g., GaAs). A pair of parallel planes (of facets) are cleaved or polished perpendicular to the
<110> axis. Under appropriate biasing conditions laser light will be emitted from these planes.
The two remaining sides of the diode are roughened to eliminate lasing in the directions other
than the main ones. This structure is called a Fabry-Perot cavity, with a typical cavity length L
of about 300 µm.

Working:

The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction is shown in figure. Because of the
heavily doped on n-side the donor levels are broadened and extend into the conduction band.
The Fermi level is pushed into conduction band and electrons occupy the levels lying below
the Fermi level is uniform across the junction. When sufficiently large bias is applied high
injection occurs i.e., large concentration of electrons and holes are injected into the transition
region.

As a result the region “d” contains a large concentration of electrons in the conduction band
and large concentration of holes in the valance band; which is a required condition for
population inversion.

Chance recombination leads to emission of spontaneous photons which stimulate the

conduction electrons to jump into the vacant sites of the valance band. Thus the stimulated
electron-hole recombination produces a coherent radiation. GaAs laser emits laser light at a
wavelength of 9000 A0 in IR region.

Photons released by the stimulated emission are likely to cause further stimulations as long as
there is population inversion. This phenomena is called optical gain. This gain obtained in a
single travel of an optical wave down a laser cavity of small. To increase gain, multiple passes
of wave must occur which can be achieved by mirrors.

For GaAs, cleaving along <110> plane creates two parallel identical mirrors. Sometimes the
back mirror of the laser is metallized to enhance the reflectivity.

One of the most important parameter for laser operation is the threshold current density Jth ie.,
minimum current density required for lasing to occur. The actual current density is given by

𝐴 𝐽𝑛𝑜𝑚 × 𝑑
J ( 2) =
𝑐𝑚 𝜂

Where‘d’ is the thickness of the active layer in µm.

Jnom is the nominal current density (no. of carriers generated per photon)

η is the quantum efficiency.

The threshold current density for GaAs at 300 K for Fabry-Perot cavity L=300 µm is ≈ 5× 104
A/cm2.

Drawbacks of homo junction lasers:

➢ The active region is not well defined due to the diffusion length of the carriers
➢ The semiconductor has nearly uniform refractive index throughout. Therefore light can
diffuse from active layer into the surrounding medium. As a result cavity losses
increase.
➢ High threshold currents are required and the laser cannot be operated at room
temperature.

Hetero Junction lasers:

In a double hetero junction semiconductor lasers a thin layer of semiconductors (GaAs) is
sandwiched between layers of a different semiconductors (eg AlxGa1-xAs). Under appropriate
biasing conditions, these structures emits lasing action in broad area because the entire area
along the junction plane can emit radiation.

Working:

The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n hetero junction semiconductor laser is shown
in figure. Because of heavily doped and forward biased condition the conduction band level
protrudes bit lower side towards the valence band due to the hetero junction present and vice
versa happens.

After achieving the population inversion condition i.e., large concentration of electrons in
conduction band and large concentration of vacancies in valance band, initially a chance
recombination takes place.
This chance recombination releases a photon which is helpful in triggering the stimulate
demission

Photons released by stimulated emission are likely to cause further stimulations as long as
population inversion sustains which is called optical gain.

The gain obtained in a single travel of an optical wave in a laser cavity is small. To increase
the gain, multiple passes of wave must occur. This is achieved by using the mirrors placed at
either end of the cavity.

In double hetero junction semiconductor lasers are confined on both sides of the active region
by the hetero junction barrier. The optical field is also confined within the active region by the
abrupt reduction of the refractive index outside the active region. The optical confinement is
achieved when the refractive index in the active layer is larger than the index of surrounding
layers (n2 > n1 ≥ n3). Therefore the optical radiation is confined (guided) in a direction parallel
to the layer interfaces.

In a semiconductor laser, the gain ‘g’ the incremental optical energy flux per unit length
depends on the current density. The threshold current density for GaAlAs/GaAs/GaAlAs.
Hetero junction laser at 300 K is ≈ 103 A/cm3. Due to the lower threshold densities (≈5×104
A/cm2) they can be operated continuously at room temperature.

This characteristic has led to the increased use of semiconductor lasers, especially in optical
fiber communication systems.

Applications of lasers:

The most significant applications of lasers include:

Lasers in medicine, communications, industries, science and technology. military

Lasers in Medicine

Lasers are used for bloodless surgery.

Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.

Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections.

Lasers are used in fiber-optic endoscope to detect ulcers in the intestines.

The liver and lung diseases could be treated by using lasers.

Lasers are used to study the internal structure of microorganisms and cells.

Lasers are used to produce chemical reactions.

Lasers are used to create plasma.

Lasers are used to remove tumors successfully.

Lasers are used to remove the caries or decayed portion of the teeth.

Lasers are used in cosmetic treatments such as acne treatment, cellulite and hair removal.

Lasers in Communications

Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information over large distances
with low loss.

Laser light is used in underwater communication networks.

Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites.

Lasers in Industries

Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.

Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components of Integrated Circuits
(ICs).

Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.

Laser light is used to collect the information about the prefixed prices of various products in
shops and business establishments from the bar code printed on the product.

Ultraviolet lasers are used in the semiconductor industries for photolithography.

Photolithography is the method used for manufacturing printed circuit board (PCB) and
microprocessor by using ultraviolet light.

Lasers are used to drill aerosol nozzles and control orifices within the required precision.

Lasers in Science and Technology

A laser helps in studying the Brownian motion of particles.

With the help of a helium-neon laser, it was proved that the velocity of light is same in all
directions.

With the help of a laser, it is possible to count the number of atoms in a substance.

Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc (CD).

Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-ROM.

Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the atmosphere.

Lasers helps in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.

Lasers are used in computer printers.

Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space without the use of lens.

Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and underwater nuclear blasts.

A gallium arsenide diode laser can be used to setup an invisible fence to protect an area.

Lasers in Military

Laser range finders are used to determine the distance to an object.

The ring laser gyroscope is used for sensing and measuring very small angle of rotation of the
moving objects.

Lasers can be used as a secretive illuminators for reconnaissance during night with high
precision.

Lasers are used to dispose the energy of a warhead by damaging the missile.

Laser light is used in LIDAR’s to accurately measure the distance to an object.

FIBER OPTICS
Introduction:

Optical Fiber:

“Optical fiber is a thin transparent guiding medium or material which guides the information
carrying light waves.”

Principle of Optical Fiber

The propagation of light through the optical fiber is in the form of multiple total internal
reflections.
Consider a denser and rarer media of refractive indices n1 and n2 respectively (n1>n2).
Let a light ray move from denser medium to rarer medium with ‘i’ as the angle of incidence
and ‘r’ as the angle of refraction. The refracted ray bends away from the normal as it travels
from denser to rarer medium with increase of angle of incidence.
Three cases arise
Case – 1: When i < θc, the light ray refracts into rarer medium
Case – 2: When i = θc, then the ray transverse along the interface of the two media, θc
is known as critical angle and the refracted ray as critical ray
 Case – 3: When i > θc, then the light ray will be reflected back into the denser medium
and is known as Total internal reflection.

` `

For the two media, applying Snell’s law, we get

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
When i = θc, (critical angle) then r = 90o
Therefore 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 where 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
1

−1
𝑛2
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑛1
If the rarer medium is air, then n2 =1
1
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
1
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑛1
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
1. The light ray should move from denser to rarer medium
2. When the angle of incidence i = θc,(critical angle) then the light ray transverse along
the interface of two media
 3. When i > θc, the light ray is reflected back into the denser medium and we get total
internal reflection
𝑛
4. The critical angle 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛2 )
1
1
5. If the rarer medium is air, then 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛 )
1

Advantage of optical fibers over conventional communications:

Generally, communication is transferred through carrier waves in any communication system.

When frequency of the carrier waves is high then the information carrying capacity also
enhances. As the propagation of light takes place in the form of high frequency waves, these
light waves can be used to carry information, i.e., as carrier waves. For the proper guiding of
information carrying light waves, we need a proper guiding medium or material. That material
is the optical fiber.

Optical Fiber Structure and Construction:

An optical fiber is a very thin, flexible thread of transparent plastic or glass in which light is
transmitted through multiple, total internal reflection. It consists of a central cylinder layer
known as core surrounded by a second layer called cladding. These layers are known as optical
fiber.

Light is transmitted within the core and cladding keeps the light within the core because the
refractive index of the cladding is less than of the core. i.e., core acts as a denser medium and
cladding acts as rarer medium. The propagation of light in the optical fiber in the form of
multiple total internal reflections is as shown in Figure

Silicon coating is provided upon the cladding layer in order to improve the quality of
transmission of light. The buffer jacket is laid on the silicon coating which protects the fiber
from moisture and abrasion. To provide necessary toughness and tensile strength, a layer of
strength members is arranged surrounding the buffer jacket. Finally, it is covered with a black
polyurethane outer jacket.
Fiber dimensions

Optical fibers are typically made in lengths of 1 km. Optical fibers can be joined with suitable
connectors. Its outer diameter ranges from 0.1 to 0.15 mm. Core diameters range from 5 to 600
μm whereas cladding diameters vary from 125 to 750 μm. To keep the light within core, the
cladding must have a minimum thickness of wavelength of light. The protective jackets may
add as much as 100 μm in the diameter to the fiber’s total diameter. The fiber dimensions are
such that inside the fiber, light gets total internal reflection at core cladding interface.

Acceptance angle and Acceptance Cone

Consider a cross-sectional view of an optical fiber having core and cladding of refractive
indices n1 and n2 respectively such that n1 > n2. Let the fiber be in air medium (no). The incident
light while entering into the core at point A makes an incident angle of θi with the fiber axis as
shown in the figure. In the core it travels along AB and is incident at point B on core cladding
interface. Let θr be the angle of refraction at point ‘A’ and θ be the angle of incidence at B.
When θ is greater than the critical angle (θc) then the total internal reflection takes place into
the core and light takes the path BD. Due to multiple total internal reflection the propagation
of light ray takes place through the fiber.

Applying Snell’s law at point A (air – core interface)

 sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑛1
=
sin 𝜃𝑟 𝑛0

𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑟 (1)

Let a normal BC be drawn from the point B to fiber axis. Then from ΔABC, we get

𝜃𝑟 + 𝜃 = 90𝑜

𝜃𝑟 = 90𝑜 − 𝜃 (2)

Substituting the above value in equation 1

𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 sin(90𝑜 − 𝜃)

𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃 (3)

To get the total internal reflection at point B (core, cladding interface the incident angle θ
should be greater than or equal to θc (critical angle).

Let the maximum angle of incidence at point A be θa for which 𝜃 ≥ 𝜃𝑐

From equation 3, we get

𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑐
𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑐 (4)
0

𝑛2
Applying Snell’s law at core cladding interface, sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛1

𝑛22 𝑛12 −𝑛22 √𝑛12 −𝑛22

cos 𝜃𝑐 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 = √1 − 𝑛2 = √ =
1 𝑛12 𝑛1

Substituting the cosθc value in equation (4)

𝑛1 √𝑛12 −𝑛22
sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛 ×
0 𝑛1

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝜃𝑎 =
𝑛0

For air medium, n0 =1

sin 𝜃𝑎 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝜃𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

In the above expression, 𝜃𝑎 is the maximum incidence angle of light at the core so that light
can be guided through the fiber. This angle is known as acceptance angle.

Acceptance angle:

It is the maximum angle of incidence at the core of an optical fiber so that the light can be
guided through the fiber, and is given by equation 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 .

Acceptance Cone:

Rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis, we get an incident cone with semi-vertical
angle as θa. This incident light cone at core of an optical fiber will be accepted by that inside
the incidence through the fiber is known as acceptance cone.

Numerical Aperture:

Numerical aperture represents the light gathering power of an optical fiber. Numerical aperture
is proportional to the acceptance angle. So, numerical aperture is equal to the sine of acceptance
angle.

Numerical aperture NA= sin θa = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑁𝐴 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )

𝑁𝐴 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )𝑛1 ∆

Where Δ is the fractional change in the refractive indices of core and cladding

(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
𝛥=
𝑛1

For all optical fibers, 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 so 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 2𝑛1

𝑁𝐴 = √2𝑛12 ∆ = 𝑛1 √2∆

NA can be increased by increasing the Δ and thus enhancing the light gathering capacity of the
fiber.

Types of Fibers

Based on the material utilized for preparing fibers, fibers are divided into two types.

The core as well as cladding is made up of either glass or plastic. Thus we have two types of
optical fibers.

1. Glass fiber
 2. Plastic fiber

Glass fibers:

If the optical fibers are made by fusing mixture of metal oxides and silica glasses, then it is
known as glass fiber. The resulting material is randomly connected by molecular network
rather than well-defined ordered structures as found in crystallite materials.

The most common material used in glass fiber is silica (oxide glasses). It has a refractive index
of 1.458 at 850 nm. To produce two similar materials having slightly different indices of
refraction for the core and cladding, either fluorine or various oxides such as B2O3, GeO2 or
P2O5 are added to silica.

Examples of fiber compositions:

1. GeO2-SiO2 core: SiO2 cladding

2. P2O5-SiO2 core: SiO2 cladding
3. SiO2 core: P2O5-SiO2 cladding
Another type of silica glasses are the low-melting silicates. Such optical fibers are made
of soda lime silicates, germanosilicates and various borosilicates.

Plastic Fiber

The plastic fibers are typically made of plastics, are of low cost and can be handled without
special case due to their toughness and durability.

Examples of plastic fibers

1. A polystyrene core (n1=1.60) and a methylmethacrylate cladding (n2=1.49)

2. A polymethylmethacrylate core (n1=1.49) and a cladding of its copolymer (n2=1.40).

Based on the variation of refractive index of core of an optical fiber, fibers are classified into
two types

1. Step index optical fiber

2. Graded Index optical fiber

Again based on the number of paths (modes) available for the light rays inside the core,
these optical fibers are further divided into

1. Single mode optical fiber

2. Multi mode optical fiber

In single-mode optical fiber, the width or diameter of the core is smaller when compared
to the width of the cladding. As a result, only a single path (mode) is available for the light ray
through the fiber.
 When the width of the core. Is greater than the cladding then large number if paths
(modes) are available for the light ray through the fiber and it is known as multimode optical
fiber.

Step Index optical fiber- refractive index profile:

In a step index fiber, the refractive index of the core remains constant throughout the core and
decreases from step n1 to n2 at the core cladding interface. Thus it is known as step index optical
fiber. The transmission of information will be in the form of signals or pulses. For a single-
mode, step-index optical fiber, a single light ray from the signal enters into the fiber and
traverses a single path and forms the output signal. In this case, twosignals match with each
other

In a multimode step index fiber, due to large width of core, greater number of light rays from
the input signal enters into the core and takes multi paths as shown in figure. The light ray (1)
which makes greater angle with the fiber axis suffers more reflections through the fiber and
takes more time to transverse the optical fiber, whereas light ray (2) makes less angle with the
axis, suffers less number of reflections and within a short time, it transverses the optical fiber.
At the output end we receive ray (2) first and later we get ray (1). Due to the path difference
between the light rays when they superimposed to form the output signals, the signals are
overlapped. In this we get signal distortion known as intermodal dispersion. It is difficult to
retrieve the information carried by the output signal. In a step index fiber the propagation of
light ray is due to multiple reflections, so it is reflective type. The number of possible
propagation modes in the core is given by the V-number as
 2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 (𝑁𝐴)
𝜆
Where λ is the wavelength of light

a is radius of the core

NA is numerical aperture
𝑉2
Number of modes through step index fiber = 2

Graded index optical Fiber – Refractive index profile:

In graded index optical fiber, the refractive index of the core decreases from the fiber axis to
the cladding interface in a parabolic manner. When light ray enters into core and moves towards
the cladding interface, it encounters a more and more rarer medium due to decrease of refractive
index. As a result, the light ray bends more and more away from the normal and finally bends
towards the axis and moves the core-cladding interface at the bottom. Again, it bends in the
upward direction. Thus the light due to refraction takes sinusoidal paths. This fiber is refractive
type. When two light rays (1) and (2) making different angles with the axis enters into the fiber,
they adjust their velocities (due to variations of refractive index) and come to focus at the same
point. As a result, all the light rays will be received at the output end at the same time. There is
no intermodal dispersion and the output signals match with input signal. It is easy to retrieve
the information from the signals. In this fiber, we get a refocussing effect of light rays. The
𝑉2
number of possible modes through graded index fiber = 4

Differences between Step and Graded index Optical fibers

Step Index Graded Index

1 Refractive index of the core remains Refractive index of the core decreases
constant and decreases a step at parabolically from the axis of the fiber to
cladding cladding
 2 It is reflective type It is refractive type

3 Signal distortion is high in multimode Signal distortion is very low in graded index
step index fiber fiber

4 NA is more for multimode step index NA is less for graded index fiber
fiber

5 No focussing of light rays takes place Focussing of light rays takes place

Losses in Optical Fibers:

Losses in optical fibers are categorized into two types

1. Distortion losses
2. Attenuation losses or transmission losses

Distortion losses:

In general, when a light pulse is injected at one end of the fiber and collected at the other end
of the fiber, the shape and size of the pulse should not change. If the light pulse changes its
shape and size (broadens) then the signal is said to be distorted. Since the axial ray pulse
following the direct path and hence travels slowly as refractive index is high and the light ray
travels slowly. Because of this distortion the output pulses no longer matches with the input
pulse.

When the different wavelengths or a polychromatic light travels with different velocities. All
portions are of the input pulses will not arrive simultaneously at the output. This distortion is
called chromatic distortion.

Transmission Losses:

These losses may be broadly classified into two categories:

a. Absorption losses b. Scattering losses

Absorption losses:

Almost every material in the universe absorb few suitable wavelengths as they incident on the
material or passed through the material. In the same way core material of a fiber absorbs few
wavelengths as the optical pulses or wavelengths pass through it.

Scattering losses:

The core medium of fibers is made of glass or silica crystalline material. Since there is no ideal
crystal in the universe, this medium possesses few crystal defects. In the passage of optical
signals in the core medium, if crystal defects are encountered, they deviate from the path and
total internal reflection is discontinued, hence such signals will be destroyed by entering into
cladding.

Attenuation mechanism in optical fibers

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber, caused by absorption,
scattering, and bending losses. Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power
(Pi) to the optical output power (Po). The following equation defines signal attenuation as a
unit of length:

This is the rendered form of the equation. You can not edit this directly. Right click will give
you the option to save the image, and in most browsers you can drag the image onto your
desktop or another program.

Factors of Attenuation

Absorption Loss

Absorption is caused by basic fiber-material properties as well as the impurity of transition

metals and the presence of (OH-). Absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic
absorption bands. The main cause of Absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic
vibration frequency of atomic bonds.

If during fabrication transition metal impurities are introduced in the fiber material, such as
iron, nickel, and chromium. Presence of (OH-) also increase absorption of light.

The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fiber should be less than a few parts per
billion. Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level of impurities
(OH-) present in the fiber. If the amount of impurities in a fiber is reduced, then fiber
attenuation is reduced.

Scattering Loss

scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber.
Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured. During manufacturing,
regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average density of the fiber,
are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the density areas and light is then
partially scattered in all directions.
According to Rayleigh scattering loss is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength i.e., 1/ λ4.

Microbend Loss

Microbend losses are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber
is cabled. These bends occur due to external forces, ueven coating applications and improper
cabling procedures. Microbends change the path that propagating modes take, as shown in
figure.

Macrobend Loss

Macrobend loss are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter.

Mode Coupling Loss

Coupling loss in fiber optics refers to the power loss that occurs when coupling light from one
optical device or medium to another.
Fiber optic communication system:

Fiber opptics essentially deals of with the communication (including voice signals, video
signals or digital data) by transmission of light through optical fibers. Optical fiber
communication system essentially consists of three parts:

(a) transmitter
(b) optical fiber and
(c) receiver.

The transmitter includes modulator, encoder, light source, drive circuits and couplers. The
receiver includes amplifier and decoder, binary electrical signal and light decoder

Advantages of Optical Fibers in Communication

1. Extremely Wide bandwidth: The rate at which information can be transmitted is directly
related to signal frequency. Light has very high frequency in the range of 10 14 to 1015
Hz (wide band width) so the optical signal can transmit information at a higher rate.
2. Smaller diameter, lighter weight cables: Optical fibers due to light weight and flexibility
can be handled easily than copper cables
3. Lack of cross talk between parallel fibers: In ordinary cables, signals often stray from
one another resulting in cross talk. But in optical fibers this is negligible
4. Immunity to inductive interference: fiber cables are immune to interference caused by
lightning and other equipment’s
5. Potential of delivering signals at low cost
6. Much safer than copper cables
7. Longer life span
8. High temperature resistance
9. Optical fibers are more reliable and easy to maintain than copper cables
Applications of Optical fibers:

1. Optical fibers are extensively used in optical communication system

2. Optical fibers are used in exchange of information between different terminals in a
network of computers
3. They are used for exchange of information in cable television, space vehicles,
submarine
4. Optical fibers are used in industry in security alarm systems, process control and
information.
5. Optical fibers are widely used in electronic fields to produce the required delay in delay
lines
6. They are optical fiber gyroscopes used in automotive navigation systems
7. Optical fibers are used in strain sensors for smart structures, high temperature pressure
sensors and ultra-sensitive accelerometers
8. They are used in pressure sensors in biomedical and engine control applications
9. They are used in medicine, in the fabrication of fiberscope in endoscopy for the
visualization of internal portions of the human body. Fiberscope is also used for
selective cauterization of tissues using a laser beam.