CHAPTER THRE

RELATIVIZATION IN AWO MBIERI

3.1 Introduction

Relativization, which is a fundamental aspect of syntax and semantics, plays a pivotal

role in constructing complex sentences and conveying meaning in any language. This chapter

delves into the phenomenon of relativization within the Awo-Mbieri linguistic framework.

Through a systematic exploration, this chapter seeks to elucidate the various facets of

relativization, unraveling its features, functions, and structural manifestations in Awo-Mbieri. By

examining the intricacies of relative clauses and their types, this study aims to provide a

comprehensive understanding of how relativization operates within the dialect, with the ultimate

goal of contributing to the broader discourse on syntactic typology and linguistic diversity.

3.2 Relativization

Relativization, as described by contemporary linguistic scholars, involves a syntactic and

semantic process wherein a constituent within a sentence is made dependent on a relativizing

element, typically a relative pronoun or adverb.

According to Fox & Thompson (2007), relativization is defined as "a syntactic operation

that forms a clause modifying an NP." Similarly, Bárány (2017), characterizes relativization as

"the embedding of a clause within another clause for the purpose of forming a relative clause."

Moreover, Alexiadou & Schäfer (2014) elaborate on relativization, stating that it involves

"the syntactic operation that creates a subordinate clause specifying a referent of an element in

the main clause." Through the insights provided by these scholars and others in the field,

relativization is recognized as a fundamental linguistic mechanism essential for expressing

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complex relationships and among sentential constituents within and across languages, and

dialects, Awo-Mbieri inclusive.

3.3 Relative Clause Marker in Awo-Mbieri

While there are several ways through which relative clauses are marked or introduced in

different languages, including the use of affixes, nominalization, relative particles, and even zero

marking, the most common means of marking relative clauses is the use of relative pronouns

such as “who, which, that” in English.

Awo-Mbieri uses this convention also to mark and/or introduce relative clauses through

the morpheme “nke” which can translate to “who, whom or that” depending on the context of

the sentence.

3.4 Relativization in Awo-Mbieri

For a simple sentence to be transformed into a relative clause in Awo-Mbieri, there must

be an “embedding of a clause within another clause,” as rightly noted by Bárány (2017). This

suggests that a relative clause must consist of at least 2 other clauses that share a similar referent

or sense (Alexiadou & Schäfer 2014). Consider example (i) (ii) and (iii) below:

i. Nwa-Eketi bia.ra unyahu

child-Eketi come.PST yesterday
Eketi’s daughter came yesterday

ii. Nwa-Eketi bu ime

child-Eketi is pregnant
Eketi’s daughter is pregnant

Both sentences presented above have the same referent Nwa-Eketi ‘Eketi’s daughter’,

despite each sentence conveying different bits of information about the same person.

Relativization thus helps to merge both sentences into one, transforming the sentences from

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being 2 simple sentences into a compound sentence using the relative marker “nke” as presented

in (iii) below:

iii. Nwa-Eketi nke biara unyahu bu ime

child-Eketi who come.PST yesterday is pregnant
Eketi’s daughter who came here yesterday is pregnant

CP

SPEC C’

C’ VP
NP
V Adj
C VP
N N

V Adv
Nwa Eketi
child Eketi bu
is ime
nke biara unyahu pregnant
REL
came yesterday

‘Eketi’s daughter who came here yesterday is pregnant’

The resultant sentence is thus as a result of relative clause taking up the role of

Coordination in Awo-Mbieri. This is one of the main structural typologies of relative clauses.

Others are considered in the subsequent section.

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3.4 Structure and Types of Awo-Mbieri Relative Clauses

Several structures and types of relative clauses are identified in different languages of the

world, namely; adjunction, complementation and coordination. Each of these are also attested in

Awo-Mbieri, in addition to the broad typology of externally headed, and internally headed

relative clauses. In the analyses that follow, we began with the structure and end discussion with

types of relative clauses in the dialect under study.

3.4.1 Adjunction

Adjunction is a syntactic operation referring to a rule which places certain elements of

structure in adjacent position, with the aim of specifying how these structures fit together in

larger units (Crystal 2007, Cook & Newson 2010). In simpler words, Adjunction, within the

context of relativization, refers to the syntactic process of attaching a relative clause to a specific

position within a sentence structure, typically adjacent to a noun phrase (NP) or a clause. This

attachment allows the relative clause to provide additional information about the referent

introduced by the NP. This is adequately represented in (vi):

iv. Nwanuyi ahu [nke nwe uwe ahu] chefu.go ya

lady the [REL own cloth the ] forget.PST it
The lady who owns the cloth forgot it

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 CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP VP
I’
C VP
N Det
TNS ASP V NP
V NP
N Det
Nwanyi ahu
girl the PRO
efe
nke cloth ahu go
nwe the echefu
REL e PERF ya
own forget it

echefugoya
forgotten it

‘The girl who owns the cloth has forgotten it’

From (vi) above, the relative clause element is placed adjacent the matrix NPs and the

structure fit together in a larger unit of a complex sentence. The relative clause nke new uwe

ahu ‘who has that cloth” is adjacent the matrix NP Nwanyi ahu ‘the lady’. Considering it from

the above example, the matrix NP dominates the relative clauses (the adjoined elements), hence

fulfilling the function of relativization as a means of adjunction in Awo-Mbieri.

3.4.2 Complementation

Newmeyer (1980), defines complementation as "the phenomenon whereby a verb or

other element selects another clause, phrase, or word to complete its meaning." Aarts (2011),

breaks it into simpler bit as he describes complementation as "the occurrence of a clause or a

phrase that is required by a verb or an adjective and that functions as an argument of that verb or

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adjective." Complementation is another structural typology of relativization in Awo-Mbieri,

proven in (v) below:

v. Akpa ahu nke m.jiga ka ogbako bu efuefu

bag the REL I.take to meeting is missing
‘The bag I took to the meeting is missing’

CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP VP
I’
C VP
N Det
V Adj
SPEC V’ C
ahu V PP
Akpa
the C
bag PRO
P N
N jiga
nke take bu efuefu
REL ka is missing
m
to ogbako
I
meeting
‘The bag I took to the meeting is missing’

In (vi) above, the NPs of the matrix clauses correspond to the head of the relative clause,

which also serve as complements of the noun phrase. The relative clause nke m.jiga ka ogbako

“that I took to the meeting” corresponds to and completes the intended essence of the referent

akpa ahu ‘the bag’, thus serving as a complement. Despite being constituting a separate clause,

the main clause akpa ahu bu efuefu relies on it to have a fuller and more complete meaning.

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3.4.3 Externally Headed Relativization in Awo-Mbieri

In Awo-Mbieri, an externally headed relative clause is the type of clause in which the head

noun occurs outside the modifying clause, whether before or after. According to Kroeger (2005),

most SVO languages are amenable to post-nominal relative clauses. This suggests that in

languages with Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order, it is common for relative clauses to

occur after the noun they modify. Awo-Mbieri, is a perfect example of this as presented in (vi).

vi. Ata.ra.m apu nke Ada nyere Uche

eat.PST.I apple REL Ada give Uche
‘I ate the apple that Ada gave to Uche.’

IP

SPEC I’
I
VP

NP V’ CP
’
V NP IP
C
PRO
N SPEC I’
m ata.ra
nke I VP
I eat.PST
REL

apu V N
NP
Ata.ra.m apple
eat.PST.I
nyere Uche
Ada give Uche
Ada

‘I ate the apple that Ada gave to Uche.’

The head of the relative clause is apu –‘apple’ and not Ada ‘Ada’. Apu ‘apple’ is outside

the modifying clause nke Ada Nyere Uche ‘that Ada gave Uche’, showing an external

headedness.

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3.4.4 Internally Headed Relativization in Awo-Mbieri

In this type of relative clauses, the head noun appears inside the modifying clause (Kroeger

2005). Awo-Mbieri also possesses this type of relative clauses as exemplified below:

vii. Nwoke ahu nke nwanyi ahu kpariri gara Onitsha

woman the REL woman the insult go Onitsha
‘The man whom the woman insulted went to Odeaje.’

CP

SPEC C’

C
VP
NP VP
C V N
N Det
SPEC V

Nwoke ahu nke kpariri

NP
man the REL insult gara Onitsha
N Det go.PST Onitsha

nwanyi ahu
woman the
‘The man whom the woman insulted went to Odeaje.’

In the example above the head of the relative clause nwanyi ahu ‘the woman’ is inside the

modifying clause; nke nwanyi ahu kpariri ‘whom the woman insulted’. Since the relative

clause is headed internally, there would be no need to look for the head elsewhere, proving that

Awo-Mbieri is amenable to internally headed relative clauses.

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3.5 Features of Relativization in Awo-Mbieri

This section delves into the distinctive features that characterize how Awo-Mbieri

structures and expresses relative clauses with the aim to unravel the unique properties and

mechanisms and shed light on the specific strategies and patterns that characterize relative

clauses in Awo-Mbieri relativization.

3.5.1 Relativization in Awo-Mbieri is not Sensitive to Number

Relativization in Awo-Mbieri is not sensitive to number distinction. This means that the

same relative marker that would be used for singular subject will remain unchanged in the case

of plural subject also. Consider example (viii) and (ix):

viii. Ndi [nke o kporo] bia.go

Those [REL PRON call] arrive.PERF
‘Those whom s/he called have arrived’

CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP
I’ VP
C VP
TNS
ASP
SPEC V
V
Ndi
those PRO
-go
PERF
nke bia
REL o kporo come
call
3SG

biago
have arrived

‘Those whom s/he called have arrived’

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 The subject within the main clause in (vii) above "Ndi" (Those) is in plural form. It is

important to point out that the relative clause marker "nke" (who) that refers to the plural subject

remains unchanged in its form, despite the subject being plural. Even if the subject is altered to

singular, the relative marker "nke" (who) will retain its original form as demonstrated in the (ix)

below:

ix. Nwanyi [nke o kporo] abia.go

woman [REL PRON call] arrive.PERF
‘The woman whom s/he called has arrived’

CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP
I’ VP
C VP
TNS
ASP
SPEC V
V
Nwanyi
woman PRO
-go
PERF
nke bia
REL o kporo come
call
3SG

biago
has arrived
‘The woman whom s/he called has arrived’

As seen above, the subject of the matrix sentence is “Nwanyi” ‘the woman’ is singular.

This singular subject maintains the same form of relative marker “nke” as the plural subject in

(viii).

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3.5.2 Relativization in Awo-Mbieri is Sensitive to Aspect

In Syntax, an "aspect" refers to the way in which an action or event is viewed or

experienced in relation to time. It primarily deals with how the speaker or writer chooses to

portray the temporal structure of an action or event, focusing on its duration, completion,

repetition, or ongoing nature. Aspect is often conveyed through verb forms or constructions,

indicating whether an action is ongoing, completed, repeated, or viewed from a specific temporal

perspective and are often categorized as simple (indicating a basic action), continuous (indicating

ongoing action), perfect (indicating completion or result), and perfect continuous (indicating

ongoing action with a focus on completion). Relativization in Awo-Mbieri is sensitive to aspect

as indicated in (x) and (xi)

x. Enye.go.m nwanyi [nke Tola huru] n’ahu olaaka

give.PERF.I woman [REL Tola see] the ring
‘I have given a ring to the lady whom Tola saw’

IP

SPEC I’

I VP
NP
V’ CP
TNS ASP ’
PRO V NP C VP
PEF
SPEC V’
enye N
MI nke NP
give V
REL
N
go nwanyi Det N
PERF lady
huru
Tola see
enyegom Tola n’ahu olaaka
I have given the ring
‘I have given a ring to the lady whom Tola saw’

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 In (x) above, despite the morpheme "enye" ‘give’ indicating both present and past tense

in the language's grammar, the action of the verb is considered perfective, considering the suffix

“-go”. The example illustrates that the ring was presented to the recipient whom the speaker had

seen earlier. In the progressive form of the verb, additional morphemes such as "-rem," would be

used before the verb. This concept is demonstrated in (ix) below:

xi. Na.enye.m nwanyi [nke Tola huru] n’ahu olaaka

PROG.give.I woman [REL Tola see the ring
‘I am giving the ring to the woman whom Tola saw’

IP

SPEC I’

I VP
NP TNS ASP V’ CP
’
PRO V NP C VP
PROG

SPEC V’
N
le REL V NP
enye
MI N
na giving nwanyi Det N
lady
huru
Tola see
Na-enyem Tola n’ahu olaaka
I am giving the ring

‘I am giving the ring to the woman whom Tola saw’

The provided data in (xi) illustrates the progressive aspect of a verb within Awo-Mbieri

relative clauses. The prefix "na-" functions as a progressive marker, indicating that the verb's

action is ongoing or in progress. In this context, the progressive marker "na-" pre-modifies the

verb "enye" (give). This emphasizes the point that the relative clause marker in Awo-Mbieri is

attuned to the aspect of the action being described.

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3.6 Relativization as a Means of Modifying Subject NPs in Awo-Mbieri

In Awo-Mbieri, relativization functions as a process of modifying nouns. As such, it

serves as a subordinate to a noun phrase (NP), with the relative marker positioned within the NP,

which serves as the head of the clause. This structure is illustrated in (viii) below:

xii. Nwoke ahu [nke ta.ra mkpuru] nwuru onwu ike

Man the [REL eat.PST fruit] die sudden death
The man who ate the fruit died a sudden death’

CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP
I’ VP
C VP
N Det
V NP
V NP
ahu V Adv
Nwoke
man the N N
tara
ate
nke nwuru onwu
REL mkpuru fruit die sudden
ike
death
‘The man who ate the fruit died a sudden death’

In (xii) above, the clause nke tara mkpuru (who ate the fruit) is embedded in the main

clause; Nwoke ahu nwuru onwu ike — (the man died a horrible death) as a modifier of Nwoke

ahu – (the man), and the relative pronoun nke – ‘who’ is co- referent with Nwoke ahu — ‘the

man’. Another example is presented in (xiii) below:

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 xiii. Nwoke ahu [nke m.huru] bu ogologo
‘Man the [REL I.saw] is tall’
The man whom I saw is tall

CP

SPEC C’

C’ IP
NP
I’ VP
C VP
N Det
V AdjP
SPEC V
Nwoke ahu
the bu
man PRO Adj
is

nke
REL m huru
saw ogologo
I tall

‘The man whom I saw is tall’

In (xiii), the phrase Nwoke ahu (the man) functions as the subject of the main clause,

while the corresponding pronoun nke (whom) serves as the object of the verb huru (see) within

the subordinate clause. The subordinate clause "nke.m huru" (whom I saw) relates back to

“Nwoke ahu” (the man). In this context also, the relative pronoun "nke.m huru" (whom I saw)

functions as the modifier of the subject NP “Nwoke ahu” (the man).

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3.6.1 Restrictive Relative Clauses

According to Halliday (2005), a restrictive relative clause serves as a further explanation

of the noun phrase it modifies. This means that the information conveyed in the relative clause is

crucial for identifying or specifying the referent of the noun phrase. In other words, a restrictive

relative clause is needed for the proper identification of the referent of the NP that it modifies, or

there might be some sort of ambiguity as exemplified in (xiv) and (xv):

xiv. Uwuji ahu na.acho nwoke ahu [nke gbapuru si nga]

Police the PROG.find man the [REL escape from prison]
‘The police are looking for the man that escaped from prison’

IP

SPEC I’
I
VP

NP V’ CP
’
N Det V NP VP
C
N Det
V PP
Uwuji ahu
Police na.acho
the nke P N
finding
REL

ahu gbapuru
the escape
nwoke
man nga
si
from prison

‘The police are looking for the man that escaped from prison yesterday’

In (xv) above, the relative clause: nke gbapuru si nga ‘who escaped from prison’,

specifies the actual man that the police are looking for, thereby further explaining the matrix

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clause. The absence of this relative clause would have in some way rendered the matrix clause

Uwuji ahu na.acho nwoke ahu ‘the police are finding the man’ somewhat ambiguous.

3.6.2 Non- Restrictive Relative Clauses

A non- restrictive relative clause in Awo-Mbieri as in many other languages is the types

of clauses which merely add further information about the NP that it modifies without being

required for its identification or specification (Kroeger 2005). Such types of relative clauses

identified and separated from the main clause by commas as they are not essential to the meaning

of the sentence, and can be removed without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. This is

explained using example (xv) below:

xv. Uwuji ahu na.acho Eze [nke gbapuru si nga]

Police the PROG.find Eze [REL escape from prison]
‘The police are looking for Eze, who escaped from prison’

IP

SPEC I’
I
VP

NP V’ CP
’
N Det N C VP
V
V PP
Uwuji ahu Eze
naacho P N
Police the Eze
finding
gbapuru
nke escape
REL

si nga
from prison
‘The police are looking for Eze, who escaped from prison’

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 In the example above, the relative clause; nke gbapuru si nga ‘who escaped from prison

yesterday’, is a non - restrictive relative clause which only gives further information about the

NP, Eze, showing that the referent is Eze who escaped from prison and none other, who is sought

by the police. The occurrence of the comma before the relative clause defines it as a non-

restrictive relative clause.

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