Some materials are from Environmental Science, 6th Edition, Cunningham, W.P. and Saigo, B.W.

, McGraw Hill, 2001.

INTRODUCTION

- About 265 million metric tons of officially classified hazardous wastes each
year, slightly more than 1 ton for each person in the country

- At least 40 million metric tons of toxic and hazardous wastes are released into
the air, water, and land in the U.S. each year

- Chemical and petroleum industries are the biggest sources

Definition

- Definition by UN Environment Program in 1985 (textbook, page 2):

Wastes (solids, sludges, liquids, and containerized gases) other than radioactive
(and infectious) wastes which by reason of their chemical activity or toxic,
explosive, corrosive, or other characteristics, cause danger or likely will cause
danger to health or the environment, whether alone or when coming into contact
with other waste

- Hazardous waste is any discarded material, liquid or solid, that contains

substances known to be:
(1) fatal to humans or laboratory animals in low doses,
(2) toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic to humans or other life-forms,
(3) ignitable with a flash point less than 60oC,
(4) corrosive, or
(5) explosive or highly reactive (undergoes violent chemical reactions either by
itself or when mixed with other materials)

- Wastes that (1) cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or in

serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness; or (2) pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported, or disposed or otherwise managed

History

- Leading environmental issue in the early 1980s

- Incidents/Cases to advance public awareness, heighten public concern: DDT
(page 11), mercury (page 12), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated

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biphenyls (PBBs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), Love Canal (page
13), Times Beach, MO (dioxins, waste oil spray), Woburn, MA (TCE and PCE,
leukemia), Bhophal, India (methyl isocyanate), Exxon Valdez

Federal Legislation

- Two important federal laws regulate hazardous waste management and disposal
in the United States: the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA,
pronounced "rickra") of 1976 and The Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund Act) passed in 1980
and modified in 1984 by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
(SARA)

- RCRA is a comprehensive program that requires rigorous testing and

management of toxic and hazardous substances

- A complex set of rules require generators, shippers, users, and disposers of

these materials to keep meticulous account of everything they handle and what
happens to it from generation (cradle) to ultimate disposal (grave) (Fig. 9.3, page
14)

- CERCLA is aimed at rapid containment, cleanup, or remediation of abandoned

toxic waste sites

- This statute authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to undertake

emergency actions when a threat exists that toxic material will leak into the
environment

- CERCLA was amended in 1995 to make some of its provisions less onerous

- In cases where treatment is unavailable or too costly and it is likely that a less-
costly remedy will become available within a reasonable time, interim
containment is now allowed

- The EPA also now has the discretion to set site-specific cleanup levels rather
than adhere to rigid national standards

- Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) in 1972, need

approval for general and restricted usage

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- Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), government has the authority to act
before a substance can harm human health or the environment-the substance is,
in effect, guilty until proven innocent

- The Clean Water, Clean Air, and the Safe Drinking Water Acts

Superfund Sites

- At least 36,000 seriously contaminated sites in the U.S., may be up to 400,000

when all are identified

- By 1997, some 1400 sites had been placed on the National Priority List (NPL)
for cleanup with financing from the federal Superfund program

- The Superfund is a revolving pool designed:

(1) to provide an immediate response to emergency situations that pose imminent
hazards, and
(2) to clean up or remediate abandoned or inactive sites

- Originally a $1.6 billion pool, the superfund has since been enlarged tenfold

- It is financed by fees assessed against hazardous or toxic waste producers and

costs charged for remedial actions (collecting later)

- Total costs for hazardous waste cleanup in the U.S. are estimated to be between
$370 billion and $1.7 trillion

- So far, about $38 billion in private and public funds has been spent on
Superfund site remediation and only about 100 of the 1400 sites on the NPL have
been completely rehabilitated

- NPL sites are considered to be especially hazardous to human health and

environmental quality because they are known to be leaking or have a potential
for leaking supertoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, or mutagenic materials

- The ten substances of greatest concern or most commonly detected at

Superfund sites are lead, trichloroethylene, toluene, benzene, PCBs, chloroform,
phenol, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium

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- Old industrial facilities such as smelters, mills, petroleum refineries, and
chemical manufacturing plants are highly likely to have been sources of toxic
wastes

- Mining districts also are prime sources of toxic and hazardous waste

- Within cities, factories and places such as railroad yards, bus repair barns, and
filling stations where solvents, gasoline, oil, and other petrochemicals were
spilled or dumped on the ground often are highly contaminated

- Infamous examples: Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York, and Hardeman
County, Tennessee (mixed waste)

How Clean is Clean?

- Large areas of contaminated properties known as brownfields that have been

abandoned or are not being used up to their potential because of real or suspected
pollution

- For years, no one was interested in redeveloping brownfields because of

liability risks

- Places where contaminants have seeped into groundwater, the EPA generally
demands that cleanup be carried to drinking water standards

- Many critics believe that these pristine standards are unreasonable

- Programs have been established at both federal and state levels to encourage
brownfield recycling (standard reduction)

- In some communities, former brownfields are being turned into "eco-industrial

parks" that feature environmentally friendly businesses and bring in much needed
jobs to inner city neighborhoods

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Public Perception of Risk

- Not correlate with expert assessment because nontechnical factors (Table 1-1,
page 15)

(1) Involuntarily encountered

(2) Having little apparent benefit
(3) Uncontrollable or controlled by others
(4) Having unknown but substantial consequence

Classification

Testing (Fig. 9.2, page 16)

- C-Corrosivity (highly acidic or alkaline)

- I-Ignitability (easily ignited and thus posing a fire hazard during routine
management)
- R-Reactivity (capable of potentially harmful, sudden reactions, such as
explosions)
- E-Toxicity (capable of releasing specified substances to water in significant
concentrations)

Lists

- The EPA establishes four criteria that it uses to decide if a waste should be
subjected to a risk evaluation study to determine if it should be listed:

(1) It contains a constituent that studies show has had “toxic, carcinogenic,
mutagenic, or teratogenic effects on humans or other life form,” and the waste is
capable of impacting receptors if managed.
(2) It contains constituents that are acutely hazardous according to studies
showing it can be fatal to humans or animals in low doses even if properly
managed.
(3) It exhibits one of the hazardous characteristics
(4) It fits within the definition of hazardous waste developed by the U.S.
Congress as part of RCRA (volume concern).

- Codes: T-toxic and H-acutely hazardous

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- Five types of lists have been established by the EPA (See supplemental material
handout):

(1) F list-Those wastes resulting generally from chemicals that have been used in
a broad segment of chemical plants for their intended purposes and subsequently
become wastes.
(2) K list-Those wastes from a group of 17 industries that are generated from
specifically designated processes.
(3) P list-Discarded unused commercial chemicals that have been designated as
acutely toxic.
(4) U list-Discarded unused commercial chemicals that have been designated as
acutely toxic, but that also have one or more of the four hazardous waste
characteristics.
(5) D list-Characteristic wastes-Waste that are not specifically identified else
where, that exhibit properties of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity,
for example, D007 is a waste having a characteristic of toxicity due to the
presence of hexavalent chromium

- To qualify for the F list, a solvent must be present in a mixture in at least 10%
v/v (before use), and the solvent must have been used for its solvent properties

- The K list is very specific to the designated manufacturing process

- To qualify for the P and U lists, a discarded unused chemical must be of

technical grade (at or near 100%) and be the sole active gradient

- The Basel Convention, Switzerland, 1989, global treaty puts a limited ban on
the transboundary movement of hazardous waste, Lists A and B (Appendix A,
textbook)

Waste Characterization Data

- Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

- Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)

Other Classification Systems

- Engineering classification (Table 1-2, page 17)

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Generation

- On-site and off-site waste

- A manifest (Fig. 9.3, page 14)

- > 90% in the form of wastewater

Source and type

- Manufacturing sources (Tables 1-3, page 18): spent material, by-products,

treatment, commercial chemical products

- Table 1-4, page 19

- Conditionally exempt small quantity generator (< 100 kg/month), need to

comply with storage less than 1000 kg at any one time, proper treatment and
disposal

- Small quantity generator (between 100 and 1,000 kg/month) and large quantity
generator (> 1,000 kg/month), more stringent, need to secure an EPA
identification number and follow regulations for small and large quantity
generators

- Household hazardous waste (Fig. 23.18, page 20)

- Certain compounds are exempt from regulation as hazardous waste if they are
accumulated in less than 1 kg (2.2 lb) of commercial chemicals or 100 kg of
contaminated soil, water, or debris

- Even larger amounts (up to 1,000 kg) are exempt when stored at an approved
waste treatment facility for the purpose of being beneficially used, recycled,
reclaimed, detoxified, or destroyed

- Medical waste: any waste or reusable material, other than a culture or stock of
an infectious substance, that contains an infectious substance and is generated in
the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings and animals

- Pollution prevention

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Future Endeavors

- Toward prevention, life cycle approach, multi-function integration (Figs. 1-7

and 1-8, page 21)

Options for Hazardous Waste Management

- Most hazardous waste is recycled, converted to nonhazardous forms, stored, or

otherwise disposed of on-site by the generators chemical companies, petroleum
refiners, and other large industrial facilities so that it does not become a public
problem

- Hazardous waste that does enter the waste stream or the environment represents
a serious environmental problem

- Orphan wastes left behind by abandoned industries remain a serious threat to

both environmental quality and human health

- We can reduce waste generation and choose less toxic materials

- Buy only what you need for the job at hand

- Use up the last little bit or share leftovers with a friend or neighbor

- Many common materials that you probably already have make excellent
alternatives to commercial products

- Dispose of unneeded materials responsibly (Fig. 23.18, page 20)

Produce less waste

- 3 Rs

Convert to less hazardous substances

- Charcoal or resin filters absorb toxins

- Distillation separates hazardous components from aqueous solutions

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- Precipitation and immobilization in ceramics, glass, or cement isolate toxins

- One of the few ways to dispose of metals and radioactive substances is to fuse
them in silica at high temperatures to make a stable, impermeable glass that is
suitable for long-term storage

Incineration

- Is applicable to mixtures of wastes

- A permanent solution to many problems, it is quick and relatively easy but not
necessarily cheap-nor always clean-unless it is done correctly

- Wastes must be heated to over 1000oC (2000oF) for a sufficient period of time
to complete destruction

- The ash resulting from thorough incineration is reduced in volume up to 90

percent and often is safer to store in a landfill or other disposal site than the
original wastes

- Nevertheless, incineration remains a highly controversial topic

Chemical processing

- Can transform materials so they become nontoxic

- Included in this category are neutralization, removal of metals or halogens

(chlorine, bromine, etc.), and oxidation

Biological processing

- Biological waste treatment or bioremediation taps the great capacity of

microorganisms to absorb, accumulate, and detoxify a variety of toxic
compounds

- Bacteria in activated sludge basins, aquatic plants (such as water hyacinths or

cattails), soil microorganisms, and other species remove toxic materials and
purify effluents

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- Biotechnology offers exciting possibilities for finding or creating organisms to
eliminate specific kinds of hazardous or toxic wastes

Store permanently

Retrievable storage:

- For many supertoxic materials, the best way to store them may be in permanent
retrievable storage (secure building, salt mine, or bedrock cavern) where they can
be inspected periodically and retrieved, if necessary, for repacking or for transfer
if a better means of disposal is developed

- This technique is more expensive than burial in a landfill because the storage
area must be guarded and monitored continuously to prevent leakage, vandalism,
or other dispersal of toxic materials

- Remedial measures are much cheaper with this technique, however, and it may
be the best system in the long run

Secure landfills:

- Fig. 23.20, page 22

- Most landfills are buried below ground level to be less conspicuous; however,
in areas where the groundwater table is close to the surface, it is safer to build
above ground storage

- The same protective construction techniques are used as in a buried pit

- An advantage to such a facility is that leakage is easier to monitor because the

bottom is at ground level

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