SOT TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

P. BOX 665 -20400

BOMET

“INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT DONE FROM 11TH JUNE TO 24TH AUGUST 2019
IN MULOT SOGOO PROPOSED ROAD CONSTRUCTION”

AN INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Submitted by

NGENO KINGETICH CHARLLES

 DECLARATION

I,NGENO KKIPNGENO CHARLES hereby declare that the present industrial attachment
report held at Expand Engineering Services Ltd during Mulot Road construction in Narok
county .It is my own work which has neither been submitted nor presented anywhere for the
same purpose. I also declare that this Industrial Attachment Report submitted to Sot Technical
Training in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY is my own work and has
never been presented or submitted for a similar Award to neither any University nor College
nor other Institute of higher learning.

Date: 26th November, 2019

Signature: …………………...

NGENO KKIPNGENO CHARLES

Department of BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
SOT TECHNICAL

i
 DEDICATION

This Report is dedicated to the following persons who without them the training could not be
successfully completed. Materially, intellectually, physically and financially contributed to
make the training a success:
 Almighty God who enables in my studies
 My dearest parents who encourage and support me in all my studies
 My beloved Sister and my brothers
 My Wife
 My fellow colleagues and classmates
 The technical manager and all staff of EES Ltd
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I am thankful the Almighty God for the opportunity of a memorable fruitful period in
EES Ltd and the endless kindness that makes my studies success fully.
I would like to thank SOIN BULDERS LTD Staff particularly my Department of CIVIL AND
BULDING TECHNOLOGY for providing and equipping me with the practical and theoretical
experiences that are leading me in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGYprofession, I specially thank Mr. Sonyo, the industrial attachment coordinator.
I am also grateful to the Kenya Government who sponsored my undergraduate studies through
REB and BRD Ltd.
It is my pleasure to thank and express our appreciations and gratefulness to my site supervisor
the technical manager of EES Ltd Eng. It was my pleasure to work under their
guidance.
My thanks are extended to technicians, masons, carpenters, steel benders for their collaboration
and cooperation to equip me with practical skills.
With greatest pleasure, I would like to extend my thanks to the authors of the books and
e-documents I used to write this report are highly acknowledged.
 ABSTRACT
Industrial attachment is one of the main courses in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGYprogramme. The period of the training was ten weeks started at 11th
June to the 24th August 2018.
The purpose of this course is to apply the class theoretical knowledge into real practical work.
There was two main parts in my training the first part was practical part and the second part
was office work. The student can be trained as site engineer; it gives opportunity to
supervise the construction work closely, or as design engineer using software programs such
as AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, and Microsoft Excel in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGYproject.
In order to comply the industrial attachment objectives, I gained and learnt more from my
summer internship.
I participated in all technical works done at construction site include site preparation;
interpretation of technical drawings; building setting out; rebar reinforcement works such as
cutting, bending, reinforcement binding of structural members; footing and foundation
excavations; carpentry works such as formwork preparation, scaffolding; quality assurance
and quality control of concreting operations such as volumetric batching, concrete
ingredients mixing, transportations, placing into well prepared formworks, compactions
with the aim of consolidating fresh concrete to remove void and avoiding bleeding and
segregation, curing with aim of achieving cement hydration which leads to the strength of
concrete, removal formwork and finishes; stone and brick masonry works; checking quality
of construction materials; human resources management; site management; practical skills
of using tools and equipment at construction site.
During my internship, I also increased knowledge about team work skills, time management
skills, working under pressure, meeting with deadline, multitask management.
Industrial attachment played great role in my studies where I practiced the class theoretical
knowledge. So, I am hopeful and confident that the future will be bright in my career of
BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYprofession.
 TABLES OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................................i

DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................iii

ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................iv

TABLES OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................................v

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................................vii

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................viii

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................x

LIST OF APPENDICES...........................................................................................................................xi

CHAP I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................1

1.1 Background and Necessity of the Training......................................................................................1

1.3 Industrial pre-requisites....................................................................................................................2

1.4 Site selection....................................................................................................................................2

1.5 Training benefits and motivation.....................................................................................................3

CHAP 2. LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................4

2.1. Class theories related to the site training.........................................................................................4

2.1.1 Construction Technology..........................................................................................................4

2.1.1.1 Building team and their duties and responsibilities...........................................................4

2.1.1.2 Basic Building Parts and components................................................................................6

2.1.1.3 Principles of mortar............................................................................................................7

2.1.1.4 Principles of brick masonry...............................................................................................8

2.1.1.5 principles of stone masonry..............................................................................................11

2.1.1.6 Principles of plastering.....................................................................................................12

2.1.1.7 Principles of Safety..........................................................................................................12

 2.1.1.8 Formwork/shuttering and scaffolding..............................................................................14

2.1.1.9 Principles of setting out of a building..............................................................................15

2.1.1.10 jointing and pointing......................................................................................................16

2.1.2 Construction materials............................................................................................................17

2.1.2.1 Building stones.................................................................................................................17

2.1.2.2 Bricks...............................................................................................................................18

2.1.2.3 Cement.............................................................................................................................20

2.1.2.4 Aggregates........................................................................................................................21

2.1.2.5 Water................................................................................................................................22

2.1.2.6 Metals and Glasses...........................................................................................................22

2.1.2.7 Paints................................................................................................................................23

2.1.2.7 Timber..............................................................................................................................23

2.1.4 R.C Structures.........................................................................................................................29

2.1.5 steel structures.........................................................................................................................33

2.1.6 Foundation engineering...........................................................................................................34

2.1.7 Quantity surveying..................................................................................................................37

2.1.8 CAD and analysis....................................................................................................................39

CHAP 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS..............................................................................................41

3.1. Site description..............................................................................................................................41

3.1.1 Site localization.......................................................................................................................41

3.1.2 Brief description of the company............................................................................................41

3.2 Brief description of the site tools and equipment...........................................................................42

3.3 Exposure of the used methodology................................................................................................44

3.3.1 Site visit...................................................................................................................................44

3.3.2 Required training information and data collection..................................................................44

3.3.2.1 Observation method.........................................................................................................44

 3.3.3 Questionnaire and interview....................................................................................................44

3.3.4 Site illustrations.......................................................................................................................44

3.3.5 Site works................................................................................................................................46

3.3.6 Books and e-documentation....................................................................................................47

CHAP.4. TRAINING OUTCOMES........................................................................................................48

4.1. Survey map....................................................................................................................................48

4.2 Description of the training activities..............................................................................................48

4.3 Discussions and analysis of the training works..............................................................................48

4.3.1 setting out refer to the drawing layouts and details.................................................................48

4.3.2 steel reinforcement works.......................................................................................................48

Trusses fabrication...........................................................................................................................49

4.3.3 Carpentry works......................................................................................................................49

4.3.4 Masonry works........................................................................................................................50

4.3.5 concreting operations..............................................................................................................51

4.4 Environmental aspects of the training............................................................................................51

4.5 Benefit/cost analysis of the training...............................................................................................51

CHAP.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................52

5.1 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................52

5.2 Recommendations..........................................................................................................................52

5.2.1 Useful remarks organization...................................................................................................52

5.2.3 Recommendations towards the future trainings......................................................................52

REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................................53

APPENDICES..........................................................................................................................................54
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OF BUILDING TEAM (DORAN, 2009)...........................................................4
FIGURE 2: SOME OF BUILDING COMPONENTS..................................................................................................................7
FIGURE 3: VENTILATION STRUCTURE................................................................................................................................7
FIGURE 4: BRICK MASONRY WORKS FOR WALLS...............................................................................................................9
FIGURE 5: RAT STRAP BOND (MULLER, 2004)..................................................................................................................10
FIGURE 6: BRICK MASONRY BONDS (DORAN, 2009)....................................................................................................11
FIGURE 7: FOUNDATION STONE MASONRY.....................................................................................................................11
FIGURE 8: REMOVAL OF FORMWORKS............................................................................................................................14
FIGURE 9: TYPICAL PROFILE BOARDS FOR SETTING OUT (GREENO R. C., 2007) (MULLER, 2004)...........................15
FIGURE 10: BRICK JOINTS (GREENO R. C., 2007).............................................................................................................16
FIGURE 11: BUILDING STONES........................................................................................................................................17
FIGURE 12: BRICK MATERIALS......................................................................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 13: THE AVERAGE REDUCTION OF STRENGTH IN MIX AS A RESULT OF STORAGE (MULLER, 2004)....................21
FIGURE 14: TIMBER USED TO MAKE FORMWORKS.........................................................................................................23
FIGURE 15: THE BOX AND WHEEL BARROW OF VOLUME BATCHING (DUGGAL, 2008)................................................26
FIGURE 16: CORRECT AND INCORRECT OF CONCRETE PLACING (GAMBHIR, 2006)........................................................27
FIGURE 17: PLACING OF CONCRETE IN FORMWORK.......................................................................................................28
FIGURE 18: SKETCH SHOWING BINDING TOGETHER OF BARS WITH 1.25MM SOFT IRON WIRE (COBB, 2004)..............30
FIGURE 19: STIRRUPS...................................................................................................................................................... 32
FIGURE 20: STEEL TRUSSES STRUCTURES (COBB, 2004)................................................................................................33
FIGURE 21: PAD FOUNDATION-ISOLATED FOOTING (GREENO R. C., 2004).....................................................................34
FIGURE 22: STATER BARS (ARYA, 2009)...........................................................................................................................35
FIGURE 23: COMBINED FOOTING (GREENO R. C., 2004)...............................................................................................35
FIGURE 24: STRAP FOOTING (ULLAH, 2018)....................................................................................................................36
FIGURE 25: RETAINING WALLS (GREENO R. C., P. 81)................................................................................................36
FIGURE 26: HATCHING SYMBOLS ON STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS (COBB, 2004)............................................................39
FIGURE 27: TYPICAL DETAILING SECTION OF CLASS ROOM......................................................................................40
FIGURE 28: TYPICAL SECTION................................................................................................................................. 40
FIGURE 29: SITE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT (SOURCE: INTERNET)...................................................................................42
FIGURE 30: CAD DRAFTING.............................................................................................................................................43
FIGURE 31 WHEEL BARROW................................................................................................................................... 43
FIGURE 32: SITE WORKS..................................................................................................................................................46
FIGURE 33: SITE WORKS......................................................................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 34: SURVEY MAP................................................................................................................................................ 48
FIGURE 35: STEEL REINFORCEMENT WORKS...................................................................................................................49
FIGURE 36: TRUSS........................................................................................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 37: CARPENTRY WORKS......................................................................................................................................50
FIGURE 38: MASONRY WORKS........................................................................................................................................50
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
As max: maximum reinforced area
As min: minimum reinforced area
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
BRD: Banque ise pour la Development/ Development Bank of
BS: British Standard
C.G: Centre of Gravity
c/c: centre to centre
CA: Coarse Aggregate
CAD: Computer Aided Design
CE: Civil Engineering
CIVIL AND BULDING TECHNOLOGY: Civil, Environmental and Geomatics Engineering
CHAP.: Chapter
CST: College of Science and Technology
cum: cubic meter
EAR: Eglise Anglican au / Anglican Church of
EES Ltd: Expand Engineering Services Ltd
Eng.: Engineer
EP: Ecole Primaire
FA: Fine Aggregate
FM: Fineness Modulus
fy: yield strength of steel
IA: Industrial Attachment
IS: Indian Standard
Ltd: Limited
QA: Quality Assurance
QC: Quality Control
RCC: Reinforced Concrete Cement
RCD: Reinforced Concrete Design
KEB: Kenya Education Board
Reg.No. Registration Number
UR: University of

LIST OF APPENDICES

A1. A copy of the IA requesting letter

A2. A copy of the site introduction letter
A3. A copy of insurance cover
A4. A copy of the site localization filled form
A5. Weekly filled Log Book Schedule
A6. The site training officer filled form i.e the Training Certificate
 CHAP I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Necessity of the Training

A serviceable and efficient buildings, transportation means, water supply and sanitary systems,
and other infrastructural systems are essential elements of sustainable regional and global
economy. Industrial attachment is compulsory course to the undergraduate students at college,
Department of Civil, Environmental after completing the third year in BULDING AND
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY(CE) with aim of equipping students’ practical skills.
Actually, industrial attachment helps students to put the class theoretical into practice in order to
be experts in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYprofession. My classes
prepared me for much of what I saw through my internship. In training students get
experiences to fill voids and bridge gaps in civil engineering. I have conducted internship in
Construction Company of Expand Engineering Service Ltd for period of ten (10) weeks (from
11th June to 24th August, 2018).
1.2 Training objectives
Industrial attachment is a major key that helps students to apply class theoretical knowledge into
practical skills with aim of deepening student to be an expert and being experienced in
BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYfield and to achieve career and goals. The
student intends to get an opportunity to relate academic programs and career goals to
professional work experience.
The following are the objectives of the industrial attachment that provides the opportunity of
improving professional knowledge.
 To make a relation between theoretical concepts with the field practice.
 To develop skills and techniques directly applicable to careers.
 To aid in adjusting from university lifestyle to full-time employment
 To acquire basic knowledge and new skills.
 To participate actively in accomplishing goals and objectives of an organization
while conducting the practical training.
 To develop employment records/references that will enhance employment
opportunities and to be aware of problems encountered at the fieldwork
 To be aware of problems encountered at the fieldwork
 To implement engineering drawings from the paper to the site

1
 To provide recommendation on how problems met in organization can be solved.

2
  Finally, to prepare the practical training report showing how the student understands
activities are accomplished in an organization.
1.3 Industrial pre-requisites
Usually, participating in any kind of training requires some important basic knowledge. In
department of CIVIL AND BULDING TECHNOLOGY, students should have
completed the third year and have a theory knowledge from class related to training
course that will help them to easily understand what are going on to the site. The
students should have communication skills, time management skills, teamwork skills
and to meet with deadline. The following are BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGYcourses that are pre-requisite to my industrial attachment:
 Basic construction technology
 Construction materials
 Engineering surveying
 Concrete technology
 Foundation engineering
 Design of reinforced concrete structures I&II
 Design of steel and timber structures
 CAD design and analysis (AutoCAD and ArchiCAD)
 Elements of quantity surveying
 Strength of materials
 Structural analysis I&II
 Soil mechanics
These modules are based on the principles that are used during training period. The training site
where I had conducted my internship had the most of requirements for me to achieve the
objectives and goals of the training. The knowledge of languages is also play great role in
the industrial attachment, during the works, I have met with difference people to be
communicated in the French language.
1.4 Site selection
My site selection was firstly based on my desire and curiosity about building construction.
Building construction combines many class modules which are fundamental theoretical
knowledge required to be applied into practical experience of the BULDING AND
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYas a career. From this perspective I chose to apply to
the local BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY Company that shares
nearly all its practice with the majority of other firms in the country. This influenced
 My decision of working on a construction site under the supervision of a site engineer of
EES Ltd. I also wished to use that opportunity to gain more knowledge in construction
works. Hence, I chose to work with EES Ltd which is a construction company and was
executing construction of road construction at bigger sector. It has always been my dream
to be involved on site works where I have to take some responsibilities. I had already
studied some subjects related to building constructions. Hence, I wanted to match the
theory learnt in class and how applied on the site.
1.5 Training benefits and motivation
It is commonly planned for qualified graduates to be competitive and motivated when they are
looking for job opportunities, training helps them to open their mind and relate theoretical
knowledge in practical skills, on my side I chose to work with construction of building
due to the following motivation:
➢ To get the opportunity of improving professional knowledge
➢ To develop skills about the application of theory to practical work,
➢ To get skills and techniques which allow me to develop my career, served as a key to
develop professional behaviours and social skills;
➢ To be familiar in adjusting from university lifestyle to full-time employment, and
to participate actively in accomplishing goals and objectives of an organization
while conducting the practical training and to acquire basic knowledge and new
skills.
 CHAP 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Class theories related to the site training
2.1.1 Construction Technology
It is specifically focusing on the practical implementation level and provides a wide range of
essential information to communicate to masons and supervisors during theoretical and on
the job trainings.
2.1.1.1 Building team and their duties and responsibilities
Building Team is a team of efforts in which each of them has an important role to play.
Organizational structure of a building team

Figure 1: Organization structure of building team (Doran, 2009)

Building owner: The employer is the organization or person who commissions the works
and pays the bills. The employer usually appoints a representative to organize the works
on his behalf.
Architect: Engaged by the building owner as his agent to design, advice and ensure that
the project is kept within cost and complies with the design.
Engineer: On any one contract there may be a number of engineers with varying amounts
and types of experience. The duties and responsibilities of a senior engineer are
Typically, as follows:
➢ Ensure accurate setting out and levelling of the works in accordance with the drawings
and specification;
➢ Inspects construction materials to see that they conform to specifications;
➢ Ensure quality control and testing of work and materials is carried out in accordance
with the specification requirements;
➢ Acting as the main technical advisor, direct and supervise day to day operations of
sub- contractors when required, resolving any technical issues that may arise;
➢ Produce Site Diaries and Allocation Sheets;
➢ Deliver the works safely and to deadline;
➢ Maintain compliance with the safety-assurance plan so that work is accomplished in an
environmentally sound manner using safe work practices;
➢ Ensure equipment and manpower resources are being used efficiently;
➢ Provide input into the scheduling of projects to meet the client’s required deadline
and maintain construction resources to acceptable levels;
➢ Responsible for progress and monitoring of all civil works including
substructure, superstructure and foundations;
➢ Oversee construction of the site village;
➢ Utility Authority liaison;
Hence, it is on site engineer to inspect the activities/work on construction site and
ensure that everything is going as per the schedule, plan & design.
Quantity Surveyor: Typical tasks are:
➢ Commercial oversight of site;
➢ Preparation of financial reports, budgets and forecasts;
➢ Application of health and safety requirements;
➢ Insurance cover (quotations and implications);
➢ Fixing new rates for additional works;
➢ Measurement of work done and verification of compliance with specified requirements.

Site Agent: Employed on large contracts and he represents the engineer on site, and controls the
supply of materials.
Contractor: Employed by the building owner on the architect's advice to carry out the
construction
Works and he takes his instructions from the architect.

2.1.1.2 Basic Building Parts and components

A building provides shelter against natural elements such as rain, sunshine and wind. It also
provides security and privacy. A building consists of the following basic parts
Foundation: Foundation is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which transfers
all the loads (dead load, live load etc.) to the soil.

Doors and windows: The main function of doors in a building is to serve us a connecting
link between internal parts and also to allow the free movement outside the building.
Windows are generally provided for the proper ventilation and lighting of a building.
Lintels: Actual frame of door or window is not strong enough to support the weight of the wall
above the strong enough to support the weight of the wall above the openings and a separate
structural element has, therefore to be introduced. This is known as lintel and is similar to a
beam.
Roofs: A roof is the uppermost part of the building whose main function is to enclose the
space and to protect the same from the effects of weather elements such as rain, sun, wind, heat,
snow etc.
DPC: damp proof course is a layer of waterproofing materials like asphalt, bitumen, waterproof
cement etc. on which the walls are constructed.
Walls: Walls are the vertical members on which the roof finally rests. Walls are provided to
divide the floor space in the desired pattern. Walls provide privacy, security, and protects
from the sun, rain wind, cold etc.

Column: Columns are the isolated load bearing member which carry the axial compressive
load of a structure.

Plinth: The Portion of a building between the ground surrounding the building and the top floor
just above the ground is termed as plinth. Plinth is provided to prevent the surface water
from entering the building.
Building finishes: Building finishes include items like plastering, pointing, washing,
varnishing, painting, distempering etc.
Building services: Building services include services like water supply, drainage, lighting,
sanitation, electricity, acoustics, ventilation, heating, air conditioning, fire detection, and
control etc.

© Photo taken by phone camera at site

Figure 2: some of building
components
Ventilation structures constructed above opening

Figure 3: ventilation structure

© Photo taken by phone camera at site
2.1.1.3 Principles of
mortar
Mortar may be defined as a material composed of fine aggregate and cement, which forms a
hardened mass after mixing with water. It is used in the beds and side joints of masonry work,
in order to bind the stones, bricks or blocks together and distribute the pressure throughout
The block-work. Mortar is further used also for plastering work, pointing work, flooring
and topping work. Good mortar used for masonry consists of cement, sand and water in
the correct proportions.
Type of mortars
Generally, there are three common types of mortar in use for masonry and plastering work,
namely:
 Cement mortar
 Lime mortar
 Cement – lime mortar
Mixing mortars: The general rule is that sand and cement are mixed dry together at least 3
times before water is added. This is important for achieving the proper plasticity.

2.1.1.4 Principles of brick masonry

There are many rules for bonding and they are mainly related to the different bonds such as
the English bond, the Flemish bond or the Rat Trap bond.
Bonding means the arrangements of bricks in such a way that no vertical joint of one course
is exactly over the one below. This means that the brick is laid in such a way that it overlaps
and breaks the joint below.
Size of bricks: Uniformity in the size of bricks is essential. The correct size of a brick for
a proper bonding should be twice its width plus the thickness of one vertical joint.
Rules for joints:
Basically, the mortar joints are the weakest as well as the most expensive part of the masonry.
For horizontal joints “Bed joint a thickness of 12 mm recommended for brickwork;
For vertical joints “Cross joint and Collar joint” a thickness of 10 mm is recommended for
brickwork.

Figure 4: Brick masonry works for

© Photo taken by phone camera at site
walls
Maximum brick wall height per day: The maximum brick wall height per day should not
exceed more than 12 to 14 layers. Because the added weight by each new brick layer
(course) needs to be carried by the mortar.
Pointing: The main reasons for pointing the surface of block or brickwork joints are to increase
its weather resistance and to give a neat looking finish to the work.

2.1.1.4.5 Most common bonds

Rat trap bond: Rat trap bond masonry is a cost effective application of brick masonry that has
been popularized in India by the Architect Laurie Baker in the last 20-30 years. Where good
quality of bricks is available. Bricks used in a rat rap masonry wall need a minimum
 Compressive strength of more than 35 kg per square centimeters and the other properties
as per IS 1905-1987.

© photo taken by phone camera at

Figure 5: Rat strap bond (Muller, 2004) site

Stretcher bond (also known as running bond or monotonous stretcher bond) is the most
common
Bond in modern times, as it is easy to lay, with little waste.
Header bond: Consists of headers in every course.
English bond (Block Bond): This bond is made up of alternating courses of stretchers and
headers. This produces a solid wall that is a full brick in depth.
Flemish Bond (Mix Bond :) It is created by alternately laying headers and stretchers in a
single course. The next course is laid so that a header lies in the middle of the stretcher in
the course below. Again, this bond is one brick thick.
Monk Bond: A variant of Flemish (block) Bond with two stretchers between the headers in
each row, and the headers centered over the joint between the two stretchers in the row
below.
Cross Bond: Bond consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers with an
interceptive header on every second stretcher course.

Figure 6: Brick masonry bonds (Doran, 2009)

2.1.1.5 Principles of stone masonry
Evidently for building purpose, a good stone should possess strength, durability, cheapness and
fine appearance. The strength of a stone under compression and cross strain is an important
factor for the weight of the masonry. Floor loads must be supported, resulting in
considerable pressure on the lower course.
Therefore, for a given load, the lower the compressive strength of the stone, the thicker the wall
should be for safe loading.

© photo taken by phone camera at

Figure 7: Foundation stone masonry

Stone surfaces
For the proper shaping of stones, it is important to know the different surfaces of the stone.
Face: This is the exposed surface of a stone in elevation.
Returned face: This is the exposed face to the side elevation e.g. a corner stone.
Bed: This is the top or the bottom of a stone. The lower surface on which the stone rests and
the upper surface which supports the stone immediately above.
Joint (Side): These are the surfaces prepared to meet other surfaces, (e.g. Limestone).
Rules for stone shaping: Stone shaping must be made by a very experienced stonemason to
avoid unnecessary wastage. He needs to have a good feeling to assess the potential use of
each stone. Since stone handling and cutting is quite an accident-prone activity, it is
important that basic safety rules are followed such as:
 Workers shaping stones should always use eye protection glasses and wear good shoes.
 All the stones should be of a size and weight that can be carried by one person only.
The following general stone cutting and shaping rules are relevant
➢ Select the stone and then choose the way you want to shape it.
➢ Cut it first roughly on all sides, if possible according to its natural shape.
➢ No angle of the face to side surface should be more than 90 degrees.
➢ Dress the face straight and check it with a square or a straight edge.
➢ Select the stones, which could be used as corners and shape the reverse face.
2.1.1.6 Principles of plastering
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other
building components with thin coat of mortars to form a smooth durable surface. The coating of
Mortar is termed as plaster.
Plastering is done to achieve the following objects:
 To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rainwater and other atmospheric
 Agencies.
 To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
 To give decorative effect.
 To protect surfaces against vermin.
 To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship.

2.1.1.7 Principles of Safety

“Accidents do not happen; accidents are made”
The main reasons for construction related accidents are carelessness, technical faults,
inappropriate use of tools, wrong reaction of workers, abuse of alcohol, and most important
no proper awareness about potential sources of accidents.
A construction site is the place where people come to work together mainly to earn money
To support their families. A place where people come together for doing a living must be
safe; no economical consideration justifies an accident.
Rules to prevent accidents:
 Only professionals should make electrical installations;
 No electrical wires would be allowed to lie free on the ground;
 No person without a valid license should be allowed to drive a tractor, truck or any other
 vehicle at the construction site;
 No fire shall be made at the construction site;
 No ladder with structural default should be used. The supervisor is responsible to order
for its repair and maintenance;
 Erect ladders in positions where people do not have to walk underneath them;
 When going up or down a ladder, always face the ladder;
 Do not leave discarded timber with nails sticking out. Shuttering timber must always
be collected and stored in one place;
 Special care needs to be taken for scaffolding work. The scaffolding material needs to
be strong and well fixed;
 Scaffoldings need to be checked every day by the supervisor;
 Floor openings and floor holes must be covered or protected by a guardrail;
 Proper access path with side railings (claiming stairs) needs to be constructed for
carrying material from ground level to higher elevations;
 Always bend down or cover the ends of vertical steel bars that stick out of concrete;
 Weights more than 50 kg. should not be carried by one person alone;
 Lifting stones, cement and other heavy building materials must not be made with a
bent back. Always lift the weight with a straight back;
 Prevent any material from falling down that could hurt people or could damage
other materials or construction.
2.1.1.8 Formwork/shuttering and scaffolding
According to (Cobb, 2004). A structure, usually temporary, used to contain poured concrete to
mould it to the required dimensions and support it until it is able to support itself. Most
structural concrete is made by casting concrete into previously made boxes that are called forms
or shuttering. Usually wall, column, beam and slab forms are built by joining wooden board’s
edge on edge. Sometimes plywood may be nailed on since it is tighter and
More wrap resistant. In certain cases, metal forms are used. The most suitable material for
formwork is wood, in particular boards, rails, batten and planks. All this timber is available
in various quality and dimension.
Falsework: Any temporary structure used to support the permanent structure until it can
support itself.
Scaffold: A scaffold is a temporary structure from which persons can gain access to a place of
work in order to carry out building operations such as supporting materials, equipment. It
includes any working platforms, ladders and guard rails.
Temporary Works (TW)
A structure used in the construction of the permanent structure. It is usually removed
on completion.
Removal of the forms

© photo taken by phone camera at site

Figure 8: Removal of formworks
Forms should be left in place until the concrete has hardened enough to hold its own weight
and any other weight it may be carrying. The surface must be hard enough to remain uninjured
and unmarked when care is used in stripping the forms.
 Under ordinary circumstances, forms for various types for construction be removed after
intervals as follows:
Structural elements Period of formwork removing
Side forms on beams, lintels, walls, columns 1 to 2 days
Slabs, lintels, beams ;Clear span 3 m and below 8 to 14 days
Slabs, lintels, beams; Clear span 3 – 6m 16 to 24 days
Slabs, lintels, beams; Clear span more than 6m 24 to 35 days
Cantilever constructions as long as possible but min. 35 days
(because of creeping of the concrete)
Table 2: Period of removing formwork on structural members (Muller, 2004)
2.1.1.9 Principles of setting out of a building
Setting out probably carries more risk than any other task a young engineer is likely
to be asked to do. The cost of mistakes in both time and money can be horrific.
Errors can have major implications. A man who never made a mistake never made anything.
(anon.)
Factors to consider when selecting a building site: Elevation of site; Availability of
facilities; Availability of services; Types and conditions of subsoil; Water table; the area must
be leveled. Steps involved for setting out of a building
➢ Establish the baseline
➢ Set out the right angle at the correct length and check the diagonals.
➢ Set up the profile boards to allocate the width of the trench, foundation and walls. They
should be far apart and wide enough not to obstruct excavation works. Typical profile
boards

Figure 9: typical profile boards for setting out (GREENO R. C., 2007) (Muller, 2004)
Methods of setting out a right angle building
➢ Typical builders square or steel square method
➢ 3 – 4 – 5 method or Pythagoras theorem
➢ Levelling instruments.
➢ Prismatic square method
2.1.1.10 Jointing and pointing
According to (GREENO R. C., 2007). These terms are used for the finish given to both the
vertical and the horizontal joints in brickwork irrespective of whether the wall is of brick,
block, solid or cavity construction.
Jointing: is the finish given to the joints when carried out as the work proceeds?
Pointing: is the finish given to the joints by raking out to a depth of approximately 20 mm and
filling in on the face with a hard-setting cement mortar, which could have a color additive?

Figure 10: Brick joints (GREENO R. C., 2007)

2.1.2 Construction materials
Materials engineers are responsible for the selection, specification, and quality control
of materials to be used in a job. These materials must meet certain classes of criteria or
Materials properties (Ashby and Jones 2005). All the building structures are composed of
different types of materials. These materials are either called building materials or materials of
construction. It is very essential for a
Builder, may be an architecture or engineer or contractor, to become conversant
thoroughly with these building materials. The knowledge of different types of material,
their properties And uses for different purposes provides and important tool in the hands of
the builders in
achieving economy in material cost. The material cost in a building ranges 30 to 50 percent
Cost of total cost construction. Civil and construction engineers must be familiar with
materials used in the construction of a wide range of structures. Materials most frequently
used include steel, aggregate, concrete, masonry, asphalt, and wood.
2.1.2.1 Building stones

© photo taken by phone camera at

Figure 11: Building stones site
Qualities of a good building stone:
The following are the qualities or requirements of a good building stone.
1. Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater
than l000kg per cm2.
2. Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform color, and free from clay holes,
spots of other color band etc. capable of preserving the color for longtime.
3. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The factors like heat and cold
alternative wet and dry, dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity etc. affect the
durability.
4. Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be sharp, even and clear.
5. Hardness: The hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used in road works. It is between
14 to 17, medium hardness, less 14 said be poor hardness.
6. Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage wear should be equal to or less
than 3 percent.
7. Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof.
8. Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific gravity should be greater than 8.7
9.Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage absorption by weight after 24
hours should not exceed 0.60.
11. Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. A period of about 6 to
12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning.
12. Toughness Index: Impact test, the value of toughness less than 13 – Not tough, between 13
and 19 – Moderate, greater than 19- high.
IGNEOUS STONES
These stones originate from volcanic action, being formed by the crystallization of molten rock
matter derived from deep in the earth’s crust. It is the proportions of these crystals that give
the stones their colour and characteristics. Granites are typical of this class of stone, being
hard, durable, and capable of a fine, polished finish. Granites are composed mainly of
quartz, feldspar and mica.
Granite
1. Igneous rock
2. Composed of quart, feldspar and mica and minerals
3. Available in grey, green, brown and pink and red
4. Hard and durable
5. High resistance to weathering
6. The texture varies with its quality
7. Specify gravity 2.7 and compressive strength 700 to 1300 kg/cm2
8. Used for ornamental, road metal, railway ballast, aggregate
For concrete; for construction of bridges, piers and marine works etc.
2.1.2.2 Bricks
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying
and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged,
light in weight and hence bricks replace stones.
Figure 12: Brick materials © photo taken by phone camera at site

Size and Weight of Bricks

The IS Institution, New Delhi has specified, standard bricks of 19cm x 9cm x 9cm with 1cm
thick mortar joints. This standard brick weight is 3kg.
Classification of Bricks
1. First class bricks: Table moulded edges are clear, square straight. Used for superior works.
2. Second class bricks: Ground moulded burnt in kilns surface not smooth and edges
not regular used where the bricks work will be plastered.
3. Third c1ass bricks: Ground moulded not hard rough surface and edges are also not
sharp and regular. Used for unimportant and temporary constructions.
4. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks dark in colour and irregular. Used
as aggregates for concrete foundations, floors, roads etc.
A good brick should satisfy the following essential qualities
➢ The bricks should have even surfaces free from flaw or cracks and should have sharp
well defined edges.
➢ These should be so hard that no impression should be left when scratched with finger nails.
➢ These should produce clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
➢ No brick should absorb more than 15% of its weight of water.
➢ No brick should have a crushing strength less than 3.5 N/mm2.
➢ A brick soaked in water should not show any deposit of white salts on drying in shade.
➢ When dropped flat from a height of 1m, the brick should not break.
➢ Bricks should not conduct most heat and they should be sound proof.
➢ Minimum crushing strength of bricks is 3.5 N/mm2 and for superior bricks; it may vary from
7.0 to 14.0 N/mm2

2.1.2.3 Cement
Cement is a pulverized material that develops binding forces due to a reaction with water.
Density of cement is 1440kg/m3, 1bag of cement=50kg.
Physical Properties of Portland Cement according to (GAMBHIR, 2006)
Fineness: the fineness of a cement is a measure of the size of the particles of the cement.
Fineness of cement is also important; it affects: rate of hydration, rate of setting, rate of
hardening, durability (ASR). As per IS specifications the residue of cement should not
exceed 10%when sieved on 90micron IS sieve.
Setting time:
The setting time of cement when tested shall be as follows:
Initial setting time: the time at which cement pastes loses plasticity. It is not less than 30 min.
Final setting time: the time at which paste becomes hard mass. It is not more than 10 hours.
Soundness
The cement when tested for soundness shall not have an expansion of more than 10mm.
Field test according to (SHETTY, 2005)
It is important that you carry out field tests of your cement sample before use on your sites
to know if the cement is good or bad. You can carry out these field tests as follows:
 When you put your hand into a bag of cement, you will receive a cool feeling;
 To check manufactured and expired dates to comply cement age;
 When you open a bag of cement, take a careful look at the cement powder;
 The cement powder should not have any visible lumps;
 The color of Ordinary Portland Cement powder is greenish-grey;
 When you take a pinch of cement powder and feel it between your fingers, the
cement should give a smooth feeling;
 When you take a sample of cement powder and throw it inside a bucket full of water, the
cement particles should first float for some time before they sink into the bucket.
 The above tests should satisfy the engineer to agree that the cement sample is good.
Cement storage
Cement can be safely stored in bags for a few months if kept in a dry room. Paper bags are
better for storing than jute bags because paper bags perform better in regard to quality
deterioration due to moisture. Cement bags should be stored on a raised wooden platform
(e.g. timber pallets) about 15 to 20 cm above the floor level and about 30 to 50 cm away
from walls. The cement stack should not be more than 10 bags high. The bags should be
placed close together to reduce circulation of air. A cement bag should never be opened
until its immediate use for mixing. Ordinary Portland cement, which has been stored for
over six months, should not be used for masonry work. Ordinary Portland cement, which
has been stored for over six months, should not be used for masonry work.
The average reduction of strength in mixes a result of storage
1 Fresh cement strength 100%
2 Cement after 3 months Strength reduced by 20%
3 Cement after 6 months Strength reduced by 30%
4 Cement after 12 months Strength reduced by 40%
5 Cement after 24 months Strength reduced by 50%
Figure 13: The average reduction of strength in mix as a result of storage (Muller, 2004)
2.1.2.4 Aggregates
Sand/fine aggregates (FA)
Sand is an important building material used in the preparation of mortar, concrete, etc.
Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are defined as fine. They may be natural sand
deposited by rivers, crushed stone sand obtained by crushing stones and crushed gravel
sand. The smallest size of fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06 mm.
Coarse aggregates (CA)
Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve are identified as course. They are obtained by natural
disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks. The maximum size of aggregate can be 80
mm. The size is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of reinforcement, clear cover,
mixing, handling and placing methods. For economy the maximum size should be as large
as possible but not more than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the member. For
reinforced sections the maximum size should be at least 5 mm less than the clear spacing
between the reinforcement and also at least 5 mm less than the clear cover.
Fineness Modulus (FM)
According to (Duggal, 2008) Fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness, giving some
idea on the mean size of the particles present in the entire body of the aggregates. The sum
of cumulative percentages retained on the sieves divided by 100 give the fineness modulus.
 The sieves that are used in sieve analysis are conformed as per IS 2386 (Part-I)1963, are
80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm.
FM for FA varies between 2.0 to 3.5
FM for CA varies between 5.5 to 8.0
FM for all in aggregates varies between 3.5 to 5.5

Characteristics of good aggregates

 The strength should be at least equal to that of the concrete.
 It should be chemically inert
 It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from organic matter.
 It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.
 It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from atmosphere.
 It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of various sizes in
suitable proportions.
2.1.2.5 Water
The requirements of mixing water for concrete
Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can be used as
mixing water for making concrete. Drinkable Water is good for making concrete
Some waters that are not fit for drinking may be suitable for concrete making provided that they
satisfy the acceptance criteria laid by ASTM C 94 (Tables 3.1)
2.1.2.6 Metals and Glasses
Metals
Metals are employed for various engineering purposes such as structural members, roofing
materials, damp proof courses, pipes, tanks, doors, windows etc. out of all the metals,
Iron is the most popular metal and it has been used in construction activity since pre-historic
times.
Glass
Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of an alkali
metal. It is an amorphous, transparent or translucent. It may also be considered as a
solidified super cooled solution of various metallic silicates having infinite viscosity.
2.1.2.7 Paints
Paint is a liquid surface coating. On drying it forms a thin film (60–150 µ) on the painted
surface. Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous paints and
special paints such as fire proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints (for
protecting objects against acid fumes), etc.
The functions of the paints are: to protect the coated surface against possible stresses—
mechanical or chemical; deterioration—physical or environmental; decorate the structure by
giving smooth and colorful finish; check penetration of water through R.C.C; check the
formation of bacteria and fungus, which are unhygienic and give ugly look to the walls; check
the corrosion of the metal structures; check the decay of wood work and to varnish the surface
to display it to better advantage
2.1.2.7 Timber
Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for building or carpentry or various other engineering
purposes like for construction of doors, windows, roofs, partitions, beams, posts, cupboards,
shelves etc.

© photo taken by phone camera at site

Figure 14: Timber used to make formworks

Uses of timber:
(i) Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door/window frames and leaves,
roof members etc.
(ii) Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling and construction of partition walls.
(iii)Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of trenches, centering for arch
work, scaffolding, transmission poles and fencing.
(iv) Used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges
Characteristics of good timbers:
1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.
2. Color: A color should preferably be dark
3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc.
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of
fungi, insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.
5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation
is removed.
6. Fibers: The timber should have straight fibers.
7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire
8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard
9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear.
10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion. 11.
Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber
12.Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural
member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
14. Structure: The structure should be uniform
15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks
due to vibration;
16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is
measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the
weathering effects (dry & wet)
18. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
19. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.
2.1.3 Concrete technology
Concrete is a composite material consisting of sand, coarse aggregate, cement, and water. It
forms a stone like material when mixed and allowed to harden. Because of its high
compressive strength, durability, ability to withstand the weather, and relative ease in
handling and shaping, concrete is a versatile material in widespread use in the construction
 Industry. Concrete is a mixture of cement (11%), fine aggregates (26%), coarse aggregates
(41%) and water (16%) and air (6%).
Cement Powder
Cement + Water Cement Paste
Cement Paste + Fine Aggregate (FA) Mortar
Mortar + Coarse Aggregate (CA) Concrete
Heat of Hydration
The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react.
Compressive strength
According to (B.S.CHOO, 1990) the compressive strength is the most important property of
concrete. The
Characteristic strength that is the concrete grade is measured by the 28 day cube
strength. Standard cubes of 150 or 100 mm for aggregate not exceeding 25 mm in size
are crushed to determine the strength.
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design.
Requirements of concrete mix design:
The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration;
the adequate workability necessary for full compaction;
Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate
durability for the particular site conditions;
Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle
in mass concrete.
Mix proportions of cement concrete
Grade of concrete M5 M7.5 M10 M15 M20 M25 M30
Mix proportion 1:5:10 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3 1:1:2 1:1:1
Characteristic strength(N/mm2) 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30
No. of cement bags per cum 3.4 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.5
Table 3: Mix proportions of cement concrete (Duggal, 2008)
It is further classified as low strength concrete (< 20 N/mm2), medium strength concrete (20–
40 N/mm2) and high strength concrete (>40 N/mm2)
 Percentage strength of concrete at various ages
The strength of concrete increase with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting
age Strength per cent age Strength per cent
1day 16% 14days 90 days
3days 40% 28 days 99 days
7days 65%
Table 4: Percentage strength of concrete at various ages (Muller, 2004)
The stages of concrete production
1. Batching or measurement of materials
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing
Volume batching is generally recommended for small jobs only. The amount of each solid
ingredient is measured by loose volume using standard box known as gauge box. Cement is always
measured by weight, irrespective of the method of batching. The volume of a bag of cement (50
kg) is 0.035 m3. The volume of one gauge box is made equal to 0.035m3
.

Figure 15: The box and wheel barrow of volume batching (Duggal, 2008)
Mixing: The object of mixing is to make the concrete mass homogeneous and uniform in color
and consistency. All the aggregate particles should have a coat of cement paste and all the
Ingredients of the concrete should blend into a uniform mass. The mixing is done either by hand or
by machine called mixer.
Hand mixing: It is used for small jobs. Hand mixing is done over an impervious floor.
Machine mixing: For quality works mixing is carried out by mixer. Mixers can be broadly
classified as batch mixer and continuous mixers.
Transportating: Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without
the loss of homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing.
Placing: To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the homogeneity
 Achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. The concrete
should be place and compacted before its setting starts. Before concrete is placed in
position, formwork should thoroughly be checked for its stiffness and trueness. The
method of placing concrete should be such as to prevent segregation. It should not be
dropped from a height more than one meter.

Figure 16: Correct and incorrect of concrete placing (GAMBHIR, 2006)

Following precautions should be taken while placing concrete.
 Concrete should be laid continuously to avoid irregular and unsightly lines.
 To avoid sticking of concrete, formwork should be oiled before concreting.
 While placing concrete, the position of formwork and reinforcement should not
get disturbed.
 To avoid segregation, concrete should not be dropped from a height more than 1 meter.
 Concrete should not be placed during rain.
 The thickness of the concrete layer should not be more than 15 – 30 cm in case of RCC and
30 – 40 cm in case of mass concrete.
 Walking on freshly laid concrete should be avoided.
  It should be placed as near to its final position as practicable.

Figure 17: placing of concrete in formwork © photo taken by phone camera at site
Compaction: The object of this is to remove air holes and to achieve maximum density.
Compaction also ensures intimate contact between concrete and reinforcement and other embedded
parts. To obtain maximum density, the mix design should produce a mix of adequate workability
(consistence) to suit the dimensions of the section
Hand compaction: Hand compaction is done with the help of steel tamping rods, or timber
screeds. Narrow and deep members are compacted with tamping rods. This method of compaction
is used for small and unimportant jobs. However, this method is extremely useful for thin elements
such as slabs, and for members with congested reinforcements.

Compaction by vibrator: This is the most common and widely used method of compacting
concrete for any structural
Element. The vibrations imparted to the fresh concrete reduce the internal friction between the
particles of concrete by setting the particles in motion and thus produce a dense and compact
mass. Formwork vibrators are used for concreting columns, thin walls and precast units.
These are
Rigidly clamped to the formwork, causing it to vibrate and consequently transfer the
vibrations to concrete.
Curing of concrete: When the water added to the cement chemical reactions take place
(hydration of cement) which result the setting and hardening of cement.
Setting time of concrete according to (SHETTY, 2005)
 Setting time of concrete differs widely from setting time of cement. Setting time of
concrete does not coincide with the setting time of cement with which the concrete is
made. The setting time of concrete depends upon the w/c ratio, temperature conditions,
type of cement, use of mineral admixture, use of plasticizers–in particular retarding
plasticizer.
2.1.4 R.C Structures
R.C elements are as follows:
Beams
Horizontal members carrying lateral loads.
Slabs: horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads, the minimum thickness of slab is 125mm.
Columns
The minimum number of steel bars in square or rectangular column is 4.
The minimum number of steel bars in circular column is 6.
Lapping length for compression member is times fifty diameter of steel bar.
Lapping length for tension member is forty times diameter of steel bar.
Lap length considering M20 grade of concrete. D is diameter of bars to be slapped
together, Columns (45D); beams (60D) and slabs (60D).

Bar bending shape codes to BS 8666:2000

Table 5: Bar bending shape codes to BS 8666:2000 (Cobb, 2004)
Sketch showing binding together of bars with 1.25mm soft iron wire

Figure 18: Sketch showing binding together of bars with 1.25mm soft iron wire (Cobb, 2004)
Clear cover to the main reinforcement
S/N R.C Elements Clear cover in mm
1 footings 50
2 beams 25
3 Raft foundation on top 50
4 Raft foundation on bottom/sides 75
5 columns 40
6 slabs 15
7 Flat slab 20
8 Stair case 15
9 Retaining wall 20/25 on earth
10 Water retaining structures 20/30
11 Shear wall 25
Table 8: Clear cover to the main reinforcement (Ullah, 2018)
Why Stirrups are used in Beam & Column Construction? purpose of Stirrups
Stirrups are provided to hold the main reinforcement rebars together in an RCC structure.
Stirrups are placed at proper intervals to beams and columns to prevent them from buckling.
Also, they protect RCC structures from collapsing during seismic activities (earthquakes).

Figure 19: stirrups © photo taken by phone camera at site

Purpose of
Stirrups
1. Its increase the compressive strength of column.
2. It can improve the ductility of column.
3. Stirrups prevent the buckling of main reinforcement in column.
2.1.5 Foundation engineering
A foundation is defined as that part of the structure that supports the weight of the structure and
transmits the load to underlying soil or rock. In general, foundation engineering applies the
knowledge of geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural engineering to the
design and construction of foundations for buildings and other structures.
Safe Bearing Capacity: The capacity of soil that supports the structure load, and transfer into
the ground without any shear failure or settlement. |
Minimum bearing capacity for different types of Soil
S/N Types of rock or soil Safe Bearing Capacity kN/m2
1 Laminated rocks e.g. Sand stone and lime stone 1650
2 Bed rock and hard shale, cemented material 900
3 Soft rock, compacted gravel or fine sand 450
4 Medium sand, compacted and dry 250
5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture 250
6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100
7 Hard rocks such as granite, diorite, trap 3300
8 Medium clay 250
9 Black cotton soil 150
Table 9: Minimum bearing capacity for different types of Soil (Suryakanta, 2015)
Types of shallow foundations

Pad foundation-isolated footing: It is square, circular or individually rectangular slab of

uniform thickness, provided under each column.

Figure 21: Pad foundation-isolated footing (GREENO R. C., 2004)

Stater bars should not be less than 30cm

Figure 22:Stater bars (Arya, 2009)

Combined footing: When two or more columns are supported by a footing it is called
combined footing. This footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Combined
footing is provided under following situations.

 When columns are close to each other and their individual footings overlap.
 Soil having low bearing capacity and requires more area under individual footing.
 The column end is situated near the property line and the footing can not be extended.

Figure 23: Combined footing (GREENO R. C., 2004)

Strap Footing: In such footing, the outer and inner column is connected by a strap beam, does
not transfer any load to the soil. The individual footing areas of the columns are so arranged
that the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the C.G of the two
footing areas. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each individual
footing will be uniform.
Figure 24: Strap Footing (Ullah, 2018)

Mat Foundation: This foundation covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation
has only RCC slab covering the whole area or slab and beam together. Mat foundation is
adopted when heavy structures are to be constructed on soft made-up ground or marshy sites
with uncertain behavior. Mat foundation is also known as raft foundation.

Retaining walls
All retaining walls must be properly designed and construction details provided by
the engineer. Construction must be in accordance with the specified requirements.
Take particular care with backfilling and back drainage which can cause severe
instability if not carried out properly.

Figure 25: Retaining walls (GREENO R. C., p. 81)

 Soil improvement
According to (DAS, 2011) The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for
supporting
structures such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams. The soil at a construction site may
not always be totally suitable for supporting structures such as buildings, bridges,
highways, and dams. Sometimes the top layers of soil are undesirable and must be removed
and
replaced with better soil on which the structural foundation can be built. The soil used
as fill should be well compacted to sustain the desired structural load.
2.1.6 Quantity surveying
The cost of formwork is estimated at between 1/3 and ¼ of the total cost of concrete structures
The quantities of concrete materials per cum

Table 10: The quantities of concrete materials per cum (Haroo, 2015)
The weight of steel bars

D*D where D is diameter of bar in

Weight of steel bar (in kg)
D
2 
162.162
 mm.
162.162
Dervation of number 162.162 in the above question;

Weight of steel bar  volume*

2
density where density of steel=7850kg/cum.
*D

So, weight of steel * where D is in meters.
785
0
4
By comverting D in mm and simplifying the equation, we get the number 162.162
Mild steel round bars typically available Mild steel square bars typically available
Bar diameter in mm Weight kg/m Bar diameter in mm Weight kg/m
6 0.22 8 0.50
8 0.39 10 0.79
10 0.62 12.5 1.22
12 0.89 16 2.01
16 1.58 20 3.14
20 2.47 25 4.91
25 3.85 30 7.07
32 6.31 32 8.04
40 9.86 40 12.60
45 12.5 45 15.90
50 15.4 50 19.60
60 22.2 60 28.30
65 26.0 75 44.20
75 34.7 90 63.60
90 49.9 100 98.50
100 61.6
Table 11: the weight of steel bars per meter length (Dutta)
Calculation of cement quantity from concrete mix
Formula for calculating quantity of cement is,
Cement=(dry volume of the concrete*cement)/(sum of the ratio) here,
Dry volume of concrete=wet volume of concrete*1.54 wet volume of concrete means “volume
of concrete after mixing”
Mix ratio of M25 grade is 1:1:2 (cement:sand:coarse aggregate)
Assuming volume of concrete as 1m3. Therefore, dry volume of concrete=1*1.54=1.54m3

1.54*1 3
Cement=  0.385m
11
2
Since, density of cement=1440kg/m3, cement weight=0.385*1440=)554.4kg
The number of cement bags=554.4/50=11.088bags (approx. 11bags)
The number of bricks in brick masonry work
The dimension of modular brick is 19x9x9cm (LengthxBreadthxHeight).
The thichness of the mortar in brickwork is 10mm=1cm.
Once the mortar is applied tobrickwork, the dimension of the brick will be chaged to
20x10x10cm. the mortor is formed with cement and sand their ratio.
Initialy, it is required to determine the volume of brick as follow.
Volume of brick =20*10*10cm=0.002m3. now, determine the number of bricks in 1m 3 as
follow: 1/0.002m3=500 bricks.
Now, work out the volume of 1brick devoided of mortar as follow:
Volume of 1 brick without mortar=19x9x9cm=0.001539m 3. now, it is required to volume for
500 bricks in 1m3 as follow. Volume of brick=0.001539m3 so, for 500bricks, the volume
will be =500*0.001539=0.7695m3 so, volume of mortar in 1m3=1-0.7695=0.2305m3
When the mortar is wet at that time,so, the output is in wet volume. It is required to comvert to
the dry volume 33% is increased when comverted to the dry volume. So,
0.2305x1.33=0.306m3.
2.1.7 CAD and analysis
Hatching symbols on structural drawings

Figure 26:Hatching symbols on structural drawings (Cobb, 2004)

Design and detailing
Detailing is the preparation of a drawing showing where reinforcement is to be placed in a
structure. The reinforcement details must be checked to ensure that they allow for
tolerances in the reinforcement, cover and for services, pockets, architectural features and all
types of joints shown on the contract drawings.
Drawings and bending schedules
It is essential that site engineers, foremen and steel-fixers are familiar with the
reinforcement detail drawings and schedules and that the significance
of reinforcement in the various parts is understood e.g. main structural, distribution, anticrack.
.
According to (Pangaribuan, 2016). Microsoft Excel learning is perceived as more attractive
from time to time, Excel for applied engineering calculation mostly in quantity surveying.
Chart type of XY Scatter is suitable for use in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGYpractices in giving a drawing presentation that forms lines or
elements of structure.
Typical details of classroom constructed

Figure 27: typical detailing section of class room

Photo taken from drawings

Typical section

Photo taken from drawings at site

Figure 28:typical section
 CHAP 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Site description
Construction site was located in Nyabihu District in volcanic region and cold climate is highly
dominated. Topographically, this region is mountainous and the rock type is igneous.
Building stones are granite and the soil is mainly volcanic. The constructed road
construction will serve the students to learn effectively in quality education.
3.1.1 Site localization
our site was located in western province, Nyabihu District, Bigogwe sector at EAR Trinity
schools. It is nearby alongside of Musanze-Rubavu road, nearby Bigogwe military camp,
nearby Bigogwe hospital, walking by foot takes 10 minutes.
3.1.2 Brief description of the company
Expand Engineering Services Ltd (EES Ltd) is the n construction company.
EES Ltd formed in 2003 by Mr. NDUNGUTSE Albert and became the managing Director.
Later, the EES Ltd was legally registered in Development Board and categorised according to
the guidelines of Public Procurement Authority in order to bid the tender document and
execution of works. It is delivering services to the society countrywide with the aim of
complying its objectives. There are many projects implemented in the field of BULDING
AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYlike water supply systems, construction of
affordable houses known as 4 in 1, construction of schools, road construction, residential
buildings, land reclamation etc. it also the construction materials, tools, equipment and
building services supplier.
Vision: the vision of company is to be the n premier provider in the markets we serve,
continually strengthened by the growth and contributions of our people and our ability to
earn repeat business. To achieve our dreams jointly guided by our values: competency,
reliability, sincerity, and care.
Mission: We will create long-term value for our customers by understanding their goals and
delivering comprehensive, innovative solutions that exceed their expectations for quality
and performance.
3.2 Brief description of the site tools and equipment

Vibrator: used for removal of air bubbles within plastic concrete.

Floating board: It is equipment using for smoothening flesh concrete after concreting.
Spade: It is equipment used for mixing
Tape measure: It is used for measuring the length for designed dimensions for example: the
length of timber, steel bars and so on.
Sprit level: It was used for levelling the timber, face of casting, checking vertical and horizontal
of masonry wall during construction.
Trowel: using for putting cement mortar into the bricks
Carpentry Hammers: It is a tool used for fixing nails to timber during fabrication of formworks

Figure 29: site tools and equipment (source:internet)

Computer: it is used for collecting data and daily recording of labours, reporting the daily work
done, I also used to draft assignment given in CAD during my free time.
 © photo taken by
screenshot
Figure 30: CAD drafting
Pliers: used for cutting steel wire and fixing it on the steel bars and stirrups
Plumb bob: it is used to verify the wall verticality for high walls by maintaining the distance
from the wall to its suspending cable.
Welding machine: this machine was used to weld different metal for temporally or permanent
works
Wood saws: used for cutting the timbers.
Steel saws: used for cutting steel bars.
Wheelbarrow: It is used for transporting materials such as flesh concrete Sand, aggregate,
cement, water: used for making concrete and mortar

. Photo at site
Figure 31 Wheel barrow
3.3 Exposure of the used methodology
3.3.1 Site visit
After my industrial attachment, I visited Reserve Force at Rulindo District, Base Sector where
it was executing feeder road construction works. I got more practical skills how to
construction feeder road (Lateritic road Base-Cyondo road) include excavation works with
excavators, road surveying works, levelling and grading with graders, compaction, drainage
diches construction, bridge, gabions and culverts construction. I also visited site of 7 road
construction construction works at EP Nyenyeri, Gisenyi sector, Gakenke District.
3.3.2 Required training information and data collection
During training, the purpose of my Industrial Attachment was to match the class theories with
practical skills and social information on the site. This was achieved through many ways and
processes including observations, studying, Documentations and self-orientation guided by the
supervisor.
3.3.2.1 Observation method
The field conditions, complexity, schedule, communications and quality of construction were
determined by the frequency and duration of construction observations.

3.3.3 Questionnaire and interview

In my IA, I interview in order to get accurate information from technicians
3.3.4 Site illustrations

©Photo at site
©Photo at
site
 ©Photo at
site

3.3.5 Site works

©Photo at site

Figure 32:Site works © photo taken by phone camera at site

Figure 33: site works
3.3.6 Books and e-documentation
During the period of internship, I used different books related to BULDING AND
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYespecially those of Concrete technology, construction
technology, Estimating and costing, quantity
surveying, Foundation engineering, Soil Mechanics, reinforced concrete structures,
building and construction materials, and used online resources BULDING AND
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYwebsites and watching videos related to construction
on www.youtube.com to get more knowledge and further information.

4.1. Survey map

CHAP.4. TRAINING
OUTCOMES

4.2 Description of the training activities

During the internship, I attended every day and I participated in multitasks at construction site.
 Setting out of building
 Substructure and superstructure constructions works
 Carpentry works (formworks for footings, columns, foundation beam, lintel beam;
scaffoldings, ladders).
 Concreting operations works (mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing)
 Steel works (rebars cutting, bending and fixing; trusses…)
 Drawing interpretations
 QA, QC and material checking
 Safety and rules at construction site
 Labor management
4.3 Discussions and analysis of the training works
4.3.1 setting out refer to the drawing layouts and details
During the setting out, we interpreted the drawings into real practice, locate and setting out
dimensionally. I understood how to use the tools and required during setting out like L-
shaped steel right angle, hammer, pegs, construction line, plumbing bob, water level, profile
boards.
4.3.2 steel reinforcement works
Cutting, bending, reinforcement bindings dimensionally, I always participated in order to
conform design specification as indicated by drawings
phone camera at site

4.3.3 Carpentry works

Measuring, cutting, and joinery of wooden timber with the aim of making formwork that
conform the dimension of structure as per specifications and drawings. I also participated to
construct safe scaffoldings and ladders to help labors effectively.
Figure 37:Carpentry works
© photo taken by phone camera at site

4.3.4 Masonry works

I learned the principles of brick and stone masonry works.

Figure 38: Masonry works © photo taken by phone camera at

site
4.3.5 concreting operations
Materials measurements for mixing, placing plastic concrete into formwork and compacting,
placing rebars. All of them I learnt from them.

Figure 39: Concreting

operations © photo taken by phone camera at site

4.4 Environmental aspects of the training

Actually, this industrial training period was planned in a good and favorable season of summer
where there is no rain or storms and other disturbance at the site. It is proper to manage all
construction works and site management during the summer. Hence, the time of completion
is really achievable. From this, I learnt to manage and predict the
good way of working according to the environment in which site is located.
4.5 Benefit/cost analysis of the training
I have benefited a lot during the industrial training. As a matter of the fact, the practical works
made me understand more of the theory that I gained from class lectures. The courses like
basic construction technology, strength of materials, RCD, concrete technology, structural
analysis, Soil Mechanics, foundation engineering, CAD and Surveying were only known
theoretically but not practically. I knew interpretation of drawings, setting out,
reinforcement works, carpentry works, stone and bricks masonry work, concreting
operations, construction management. Even the students are financially unstable and
struggling with the life, the persistence, patience, self-esteem, self-reliance, motivations,
confidence helped me to adapt the summer IA towards the objectives and the desired
practical skills. I struggled find what to eat, drinking, house rent but I survived. So, I am
able to adapt in any environment in all situations.
 CHAP.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The summer Industrial attachment conducted in period of 10 weeks played great role in my
undergraduate program. It was period of opportunities to apply class theoretical knowledge
into real practice skills. I participated in multitask works at construction site that helped me
get experiences in building construction like CAD drawings and interpretation into real
practice; building setting out on site; steel related activities include cutting, bending, binding
of reinforcements; carpentry works at site include formworks for structural members,
scaffoldings, ladders; masonry works; concreting operations; quantity surveying; plastering;
pointing, backfilling and compaction; QA and QC of construction materials.
Being on construction site was highly contributed my level of sociability like communication
skills, team work skills, time management, motivation skills, labor management skills,
personal work ethics, consultative skills, to meet with dead line, task scheduling skills and
analytical skills. Participating with the consultants and supervisors helped me to produce
valuable and qualitative work to meet client requirements. Skills obtained in IA will help me
in the career of BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYfields.
5.2 Recommendations
5.2.1 Useful remarks organization
EXPAND ENGINEERING SERVICES Ltd is the n construction company which is
working in the country wide. It is playing big role and contributing to the development of
the country and achieving the goals of their mission. Apart from the thanks, there are
some recommendations I want to suggest to the company for future trainings
 The company should provide the protective equipment to her workers,
 The project managers want the supervisors to focus on their task instead of internee.
So, the future training the internees should be considered in order to improve their
skills.
 The company should provide many qualified supervisors in order to give more time to
internees.
 Motivation should be given to trainees, if motivated, they can do more things of
great importance to the company.
5.2.3 Recommendations towards the future trainings
I recommend the following to CST:
 To promote the quality of training and amount of time spent, I recommend that The
UR/CST authorities and administration may start making partnerships with
companies.
 UR/CST should extend the period of industrial attachment from 10 weeks to 12
weeks per each academic year.
 Most student have struggled in getting companies which were hosted them in period
of industrial attachment that is why UR/CST should look the companies which will
host the student.
 Even if the academic curriculum is not yet getting on the level of providing the annual
practical works to the engineering students, let the administration board try to
enhance that idea.
 Where it seems to be possible, you may at least increase the time we are given to
be above two months.
 The financial support provided to students while doing the internship should be
improved either for those who works in countryside.
 REFERENCES
Arya, C. (2009). Design of Structural Elements (3rd ed.). London: Spon Press.
B.S.CHOO, T. a. (1990). Reinforced Concrete (2nd ed.). London and NewYork: Spon Press.
Bungey, W. H. (1987). REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (3rd ed.). London: MACMILLLAN
EDUCATION Ltd.
Cobb, F. (2004). Structural Engineer’s Pocket Book (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Butterworth-
Heinemann.
DAS, B. M. (2011). 'Principles of Foundation Engineering' (7th ed.). Stamford, USA: Cengage
Learning.
Doran, D. (2009). Site Engineers Manual (2nd ed.). Scotland, UK: Whittles Publishing.
Duggal, S. K. (2008). Building Materials (3rd revised ed.). New Delhi: New Age International
Publishers.
Dutta, P. B. (n.d.). Estimating and Costing in BULDING AND CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY(25th revised ed.). New Delhi: UBS Publishers Distributers Pvt Ltd.
GAMBHIR, M. L. (2006). Concrete Technology (3rd ed.). New Delhi: MacGraw-Hill Publishing
Campany Ltd.
GREENO, R. C. (2004). BUILDING CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK (5th ed.). London:
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GREENO, R. C. (2007). CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY (4th ed.). London, England: Pearson
Education Limited.
Haroo, M. (2015). A Practical book for BUILDING ESTIMATIONS (4th ed.). (M. Haroo, Ed.)
Hyderabad, India: Mohammed Haroo.
Muller, H. (2004). Basic Construction Training Manual (1st ed.). St.Gallen, Switzerland: Skat
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Pangaribuan, G. (2016). An Introduction to EXCEL for Civil Engineers (1st ed.). Jakarta.
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APPENDICES