INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS - NOTES

Introduction:

Industrial relations, the way people interact at work, involve many different people like bosses,
workers, unions, and governments. This essay takes a closer look at industrial relations, from their
history to the theories explaining them, the important players involved, and the problems they face
today.

Historical Evolution:

The story of industrial relations begins with the rise of factories and mass production during the
Industrial Revolution. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as factories replaced cottage
industries and agriculture, workers flocked to urban centres in search of employment. However,
these new industrial workplaces often subjected workers to long hours, low wages, and unsafe
conditions.

In response to these harsh realities, workers began organizing themselves to demand better
treatment. The early labour movements, characterized by strikes, protests, and the formation of
trade unions, sought to improve working conditions and secure fair wages. These struggles laid the
groundwork for the development of formal structures and mechanisms to regulate labour relations.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, industrial relations continued to evolve,
influenced by changing economic, social, and political landscapes. The emergence of collective
bargaining, labour laws, and governmental intervention aimed to mitigate conflicts between
employers and workers while addressing broader societal concerns.

Industrial Relations evolution in India:

India's experience with industrial relations has seen a mix of achievements and challenges,
particularly concerning the establishment of labour institutions compatible with pluralistic industrial
relations. Despite the government's initial promotion of industrial pluralism and bilateral bargaining,
the reality was that these efforts were largely controlled by the state. This dominance by the state,
coupled with ambiguous labour laws regarding union recognition and industrial disputes, resulted in
the proliferation of party-based unions. While some centralized unions in key sectors wielded
significant bargaining power, the overall fragmentation weakened the political influence of the
labour movement, hindering its ability to negotiate solutions at a national level.

With the opening up of the economy, competitive pressures reshaped the union landscape.
Independent unions led by rank-and-file workers emerged in the private sector, engaging in
informed and assertive bargaining with employers to secure notable gains in wages and other
benefits. However, these gains often came at the expense of employment growth, as employers
resorted to outsourcing to evade union pressure. Meanwhile, traditional party-based unions faced
challenges in recruiting members as their influence waned in the face of these new entities. Since
the start of liberalization in 1992, centralized party-based unions have often banded together to
oppose government efforts for privatization and decentralization in the public sector.

In terms of the “monopoly” versus “voice” framework, India initially saw the state acting as
the “collective voice” of workers to achieve rapid industrialization with minimal strife. While this
approach minimized potential monopoly effects, particularly in the public sector, it also led to
inflexible contract provisions and wage increases not tied to productivity. Over time, more radical
union voices emerged, challenging the state's dominance, particularly in the private sector. Here,
productive bargaining with informed unions kept monopoly effects in check while promoting the use
of worker “voice”.

While some characterize Indian industrial relations as a “politicized multi-union model”,

where organized workers are protected but flexibility and efficiency suffer, this description may not
fully capture the complexity of the later stages of industrial relations. Instead, the evolution appears
to have been gradual and adaptable, influenced by factors such as political dynamics, government
policies, social divisions, and regional differences, rather than solely by external forces like
globalization or industrial strategies.
Theoretical Perspectives:

Different ideas explain industrial relations. The pluralist view sees work as a place where everyone
has different needs, so they talk and find a middle ground. Another idea, called the Marxist view,
says work is like a battlefield, with bosses and workers fighting for power. Then there's the unitarist
view, which sees work as a happy place where everyone works together.

1. Unitary Perspective

The unitary perspective, also known as the unitary perspective, is a theoretical approach to industrial
relations that views the workplace as a unified and harmonious entity. According to this perspective,
there is a fundamental alignment of interests between employers and employees, and both parties
share common goals and objectives. In essence, the unitary perspective perceives the organization
as a cohesive team, where everyone works together towards a shared vision of success.

Key tenets of the unitary perspective:

 Unity of Purpose: Unitary believe that all members of the organization, including
management and employees, share a common purpose and are committed to achieving
organizational goals. They emphasize the importance of teamwork, collaboration, and
mutual cooperation in achieving success.
 Management Authority: In the unitary view, management holds legitimate authority and
serves as the primary source of direction and decision-making within the organization.
Management's role is to provide leadership, guidance, and direction to employees, ensuring
that organizational objectives are met effectively.
 Absence of Conflict: Unitary maintain that conflicts within the organization are aberrations
that arise from misunderstandings or deviations from the common goals. They believe that
conflicts can be resolved through effective communication, dialogue, and cooperation
among all parties involved.
 Employee Loyalty: According to the unitary perspective, employees are expected to
demonstrate loyalty and commitment to the organization. They are seen as valuable assets
whose interests are aligned with those of the organization. Employee satisfaction and well-
being are considered integral to achieving organizational success.
 Flexible Employment Relations: Unitary advocate for flexible employment relations, where
management and employees engage in open communication and mutual trust. Employment
practices such as performance-based rewards, career development opportunities, and
employee involvement initiatives are emphasized to foster a positive work environment.

Critics argue that it tends to downplay the inherent conflicts of interest between employers and
employees, as well as the power differentials that exist within organizations. They argue that the
unitary perspective overlooks issues of inequality, exploitation, and workplace alienation, which can
lead to employee dissatisfaction and labour unrest.

2. Pluralist Perspective

The pluralist perspective is a theoretical approach to industrial relations that views the workplace as
a site of multiple competing interests and power dynamics among various stakeholders, including
employers, employees, and trade unions. Unlike the unitarist perspective, which emphasizes
harmony and unity of purpose, pluralists recognize and accept the existence of divergent interests
and conflicts within the organization.
Key tenets of the pluralist perspective include:

 Recognition of Diversity: Pluralists acknowledge the diversity of interests, values, and goals
among different groups within the organization. They recognize that individuals have varying
needs and aspirations, which may lead to conflicts and tensions in the workplace.
 Power Dynamics: Pluralists emphasize the distribution of power within the organization and
recognize that power is not concentrated solely in the hands of management. They argue
that various groups, including employees and trade unions, possess their own sources of
power and influence, which they use to advance their interests.
 Collective Bargaining: Pluralists advocate for collective bargaining as a mechanism for
resolving conflicts and negotiating agreements between employers and employees. They
believe that collective bargaining allows for the representation of diverse interests and
facilitates the resolution of disputes through negotiation and compromise.
 Role of Trade Unions: Pluralists view trade unions as legitimate representatives of workers'
interests and recognize their role in advocating for improved wages, working conditions, and
job security. They see trade unions as essential actors in the industrial relations process,
promoting greater equity and fairness in the workplace.
 Conflict as Inevitable: Pluralists accept that conflicts are inherent in the employment
relationship and may arise due to differences in interests, values, or perceptions. However,
they believe that conflicts can be managed and resolved through constructive dialogue,
negotiation, and the use of institutional mechanisms.

Critics argue that it tends to overemphasize the role of trade unions and collective bargaining while
neglecting the broader socio-economic context in which industrial relations occur. They also contend
that pluralists may downplay the unequal distribution of power within organizations and the
potential for exploitation and abuse of workers.

3. Marxist Perspective

The Marxist perspective, derived from the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, offers a critical
analysis of industrial relations within the framework of capitalism. This perspective views the
workplace as a site of inherent conflict between capital owners (employers) and labourers
(employees), stemming from the unequal distribution of power and resources inherent in capitalist
societies.

Key tenets of the Marxist perspective on industrial relations include:

 Class Conflict: At the core of the Marxist perspective is the notion of class conflict, wherein
the interests of capitalists (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat) are fundamentally
opposed. Capitalists seek to maximize profits by extracting surplus value from labour, while
workers strive to improve their wages and working conditions.
 Exploitation: Marxists argue that the capitalist system is inherently exploitative, as workers
are compelled to sell their labour power to capitalists in exchange for wages, which are
often insufficient to cover the full value of their labour. This surplus value, extracted by
capitalists, constitutes the basis of capitalist profit.
 Alienation: Marxists contend that under capitalism, workers experience alienation, or a
sense of estrangement from the products of their labour, the production process, and their
own humanity. This alienation is exacerbated by the division of labour and the
commodification of labour power within capitalist enterprises.
  Role of Trade Unions: While Marxists recognize the role of trade unions in advocating for
workers' rights and interests, they view trade unionism as a reformist strategy that
ultimately perpetuates the capitalist system. Marxists argue that true liberation for workers
can only be achieved through revolutionary means, leading to the overthrow of capitalism
and the establishment of a socialist society.
 Structural Inequality: Marxists highlight the structural inequalities inherent in capitalist
societies, including disparities in wealth, power, and access to resources. They argue that
these inequalities are perpetuated and reinforced by the capitalist mode of production,
which prioritizes profit accumulation over social welfare and equity.

Critics contend that it oversimplifies the complexities of industrial relations and neglects the
potential for cooperation and compromise between capital and labour. Additionally, some argue
that Marxist solutions, such as revolutionary socialism, are impractical or undesirable in modern
contexts.

Dunlop’s Systems Theory

John Dunlop's Systems Theory is a prominent theoretical framework in the field of industrial
relations that offers a comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between various
actors within the workplace. Dunlop's theory posits that industrial relations are shaped by a dynamic
system comprised of three main components: the environment, the actors, and the rules.

 Environment: According to Dunlop, the external environment, including economic, social,

political, and technological factors, exerts significant influence on industrial relations.
Changes in the external environment, such as shifts in market conditions or advancements in
technology, can impact the dynamics of labor relations within the workplace.
 Actors: The actors in Dunlop's Systems Theory include employers, employees, and
governmental bodies, each with distinct roles and interests. Employers control the means of
production and make decisions regarding workplace policies and practices. Employees
provide labour in exchange for wages and benefits, while also seeking to protect their rights
and interests. Governmental bodies, through labour laws, regulations, and interventions,
seek to balance the interests of employers and employees and ensure social justice and
economic stability.
 Rules: Dunlop conceptualizes industrial relations as governed by a set of rules that regulate
the interactions between the various actors within the system. These rules encompass
formal regulations, such as labor laws and collective bargaining agreements, as well as
informal norms and practices that shape workplace relations. The rules serve as the
framework within which conflicts are managed, negotiations take place, and agreements are
reached.

Dunlop's Systems Theory emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of these

three components, arguing that changes in one part of the system can have ripple effects
throughout the entire system. Effective management of industrial relations requires an
understanding of the dynamic interactions between the environment, the actors, and the rules, as
well as the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment and internal dynamics of the
workplace.
Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production,

such as land, factories, and machinery, as well as the pursuit of profit through free market
competition. In a capitalist system, individuals and businesses are free to own property, produce
goods and services, and engage in voluntary exchange with others. Core aspects are:

 Private Property: In a capitalist system, individuals and businesses have the right to own
property and use it as they see fit. This includes tangible assets like land, buildings, and
equipment, as well as intangible assets such as patents and intellectual property. The
ownership of property gives individuals the freedom to make decisions about how to use
their resources, whether it's for personal enjoyment, investment, or business purposes.
 Market Economy: Capitalism relies on markets to coordinate economic activity. Markets are
where buyers and sellers come together to exchange goods and services. Prices in these
markets are determined by the forces of supply and demand – when demand for a product
is high and supply is low, prices tend to rise, and vice versa. This system allows resources to
be allocated efficiently, with goods and services flowing to where they are most valued by
consumers.
 Profit Motive: One of the defining features of capitalism is the pursuit of profit. Individuals
and businesses are motivated to engage in economic activity in order to make money. Profit
serves as a signal of success in the marketplace and incentivizes innovation,
entrepreneurship, and investment. Businesses strive to produce goods and services that
people want to buy at prices that cover their costs and generate a profit.
 Competition: Capitalism thrives on competition among businesses. Competition encourages
firms to be efficient, innovative, and responsive to consumer preferences. Businesses that
fail to meet the demands of consumer’s risk losing market share to competitors. This
constant pressure to improve drives firms to develop better products, offer higher quality
services, and lower prices, benefiting consumers in the process.
 Limited Government: In capitalist economies, the role of government is generally limited
compared to other economic systems. Governments may establish and enforce rules to
protect property rights, ensure fair competition, and provide basic public goods and services
such as infrastructure, education, and healthcare. However, governments typically refrain
from intervening extensively in the workings of markets, allowing businesses and individuals
to operate with minimal interference.

Communism

Communism is a socio-economic and political ideology that advocates for a classless society where
all property and resources are collectively owned and controlled by the community as a whole. In a
communist society, there is no private ownership of property, and the means of production, such as
factories and farms, are owned and managed by the people collectively.

 Collective Ownership: Communism advocates for the abolition of private property and the
establishment of collective ownership of the means of production. This means that land,
factories, and other resources are owned and managed by the community as a whole, rather
than by individual owners or capitalists.
 Classless Society: Communism seeks to eliminate social classes and the unequal distribution
of wealth and power that characterize capitalist societies. In a communist society, there are
 no distinctions between classes such as capitalists and workers, and all individuals are
considered equal members of the community.
 Central Planning: In communist economies, economic planning is typically centralized and
directed by the state or a governing authority. Central planners make decisions about
resource allocation, production targets, and distribution of goods and services based on
collective needs and priorities, rather than market forces.
 Social Equality: Communism aims to achieve social equality and justice by ensuring that
everyone's basic needs are met and that wealth and resources are distributed according to
need rather than individual ownership or accumulation of wealth.
 Stateless Society: In its purest form, communism envisions a stateless society where
governmental authority is no longer necessary. Without the need for a government to
enforce property rights or maintain social order, individuals are free to govern themselves
and cooperate with one another based on mutual aid and solidarity.

Socialism

Socialism is an idea where things like factories and resources are owned by everyone, rather than by
private individuals or companies. In socialist societies, the government or the community as a whole
manages these things to ensure everyone has what they need. Socialism also focuses on providing
services like healthcare and education to everyone, regardless of how much money they have. It's
about making sure that wealth is shared more equally among people and that everyone has a say in
how things are run. Key features of socialism include:

 Collective Ownership: Socialism calls for the collective ownership of the means of
production, such as factories, farms, and natural resources. Rather than being owned and
controlled by private individuals or corporations, these assets are owned by the state,
worker cooperatives, or the community as a whole.
 Economic Planning: In socialist economies, economic planning plays a central role in
determining production targets, resource allocation, and distribution of goods and services.
This planning is typically carried out by the state or other governing authorities to ensure
that resources are used efficiently and that everyone's basic needs are met.
 Social Welfare: Socialism places a strong emphasis on social welfare and the well-being of all
members of society. It seeks to provide universal access to essential services such as
healthcare, education, housing, and social security, regardless of individuals' ability to pay.
 Income Redistribution: Socialism aims to reduce income inequality by redistributing wealth
and resources from the wealthy to the less affluent members of society. This may involve
progressive taxation, wealth redistribution programs, and social safety nets to ensure that
everyone has access to a decent standard of living.
 Democratic Participation: Socialism emphasizes democratic decision-making and
participation in both the political and economic spheres. It seeks to empower workers and
communities to have a say in the management of their workplaces and the direction of their
economies, often through mechanisms such as worker cooperatives, labour unions, and
participatory budgeting.

Industry 1.0 to 5.0

Industry 1.0:

The First Industrial Revolution was a watershed moment in human history, transforming societies
from predominantly agrarian to industrialized. It began in the late 18th century in Britain, spurred by
technological innovations such as the spinning jenny, water frame, and steam engine. These
inventions mechanized textile production, leading to the establishment of factories and the mass
production of goods. Steam power revolutionized transportation and enabled the construction of
railways and steamships, facilitating the movement of people and goods over long distances. The
rise of industrial capitalism saw the emergence of a new class of entrepreneurs and industrialists,
driving economic growth and urbanization.

Industry 2.0:

The Second Industrial Revolution, often dubbed the Technological Revolution, unfolded from the
late 19th to early 20th centuries and brought about unprecedented advancements in technology,
production methods, and communication. Central to this period was the widespread adoption of
electricity, which replaced steam power as the primary source of energy in factories and homes.
Electricity powered new inventions such as the electric motor, light bulb, and telegraph,
revolutionizing manufacturing processes and improving living standards. Concurrently, the Bessemer
process revolutionized steel production, making steel more affordable and accessible for
construction and industry. The introduction of assembly line techniques by pioneers like Henry Ford
further streamlined production and increased efficiency, leading to the mass production of
consumer goods.

Industry 3.0:

The Third Industrial Revolution, also known as the Digital Revolution, unfolded in the latter half of
the 20th century with the advent of computers, electronics, and telecommunications. The
development of integrated circuits and microprocessors paved the way for the miniaturization and
digitization of technology. Personal computers became commonplace, transforming how
information was processed, stored, and shared. The invention of the internet and the World Wide
Web revolutionized communication, enabling instant access to information and global connectivity.
Automation and robotics began to play a significant role in manufacturing, leading to increased
productivity and precision in production processes.

Industry 4.0:

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, characterized by the fusion of digital, physical, and biological
technologies, is reshaping industries and societies in profound ways. Emerging technologies such as
artificial intelligence, machine learning, Internet of Things (IoT), and advanced robotics are driving
unprecedented levels of automation, connectivity, and data exchange. Smart factories equipped
with sensors and analytics enable real-time monitoring and optimization of production processes,
leading to increased efficiency and cost savings. Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, is
revolutionizing production by allowing for the rapid prototyping and customization of products.
Blockchain technology offers secure and transparent transactions, transforming supply chain
management and logistics.

Industry 5.0:

Industry 5.0 represents the next phase of industrial evolution, emphasizing the integration of human
intelligence, creativity, and empathy with advanced technologies. It seeks to empower workers by
augmenting their capabilities with technology, rather than replacing them. Collaborative robots (co-
bots) work alongside humans in factories, enhancing productivity and safety. Adaptive
manufacturing systems enable flexible and customizable production to meet individual needs and
preferences. Sustainability and environmental stewardship are central to Industry 5.0, with a focus
on circular economy principles and eco-friendly practices. Furthermore, Industry 5.0 envisions a
future where technology is harnessed to address societal challenges and improve quality of life for
all.

Collective Bargaining

Collective bargaining is a fundamental process in labour relations, serving as a mechanism

for negotiation between employers and labour unions representing workers. It involves discussions
and negotiations aimed at reaching agreements on various aspects of employment, including wages,
working conditions, benefits, and other terms of employment.

One of the primary objectives of collective bargaining is to establish a fair and mutually
beneficial relationship between employers and employees. Through collective bargaining, workers
can voice their concerns, preferences, and needs as a collective entity, leveraging their combined
bargaining power to negotiate with employers.

The process typically begins with both parties presenting their respective proposals and
priorities. Negotiations then proceed as representatives from labour unions and management
engage in discussions, often with the assistance of mediators or arbitrators. These negotiations may
involve compromise and concessions from both sides until a mutually acceptable agreement is
reached.

Collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) are the outcomes of successful negotiations and
serve as legally binding contracts between employers and labour unions. These agreements outline
the terms and conditions of employment for workers covered by the union, including wages, hours,
benefits, grievance procedures, and other workplace policies.

One of the key benefits of collective bargaining is that it provides workers with a collective
voice in shaping their working conditions and securing better wages and benefits. By bargaining
collectively, workers can address power imbalances in the workplace and advocate for their rights
more effectively than they could individually.

Furthermore, collective bargaining promotes stability and harmony in labour relations by

providing a structured framework for resolving disputes and addressing grievances. It fosters a
collaborative relationship between employers and employees, reducing the likelihood of conflicts
and strikes.

However, collective bargaining also presents challenges, such as disagreements over

priorities, conflicting interests between parties, and the potential for deadlock in negotiations. In
some cases, negotiations may break down, leading to labour disputes and disruptions in
productivity.

Overall, collective bargaining plays a vital role in labour-management relations, facilitating

cooperation, fairness, and accountability in the workplace. It empowers workers to advocate for
their interests collectively and contributes to the establishment of harmonious and productive
working environments.
For Wages & Benefits, refer to the book chapters
(NOT A PART OF END-TERM EXAM – FYI ONLY)

Evolution of Trade Unions in India

The trade union movement in India, as we understand it today, owes its origins to the Industrial
Revolution that swept through Great Britain between 1750 and 1850. This revolution brought about
significant changes in the socio-economic landscape, particularly with the introduction of the factory
system of production. Consequently, the nature of work shifted from small-scale and cottage
industries to large factories, where the relationship between workers and employers became
indirect and impersonal.

The development of trade unionism in India was influenced by various factors, akin to its
evolution in other countries. Social, economic, and political pressures spurred efforts to improve the
prevailing conditions for industrial workers. However, despite the dire circumstances faced by
workers—such as low wages, long hours, lack of job security, and the exploitation of women and
children in factories—organized labour movements were slow to materialize initially due to a lack of
awareness and organization among workers.

Surprisingly, it was the employers who first organized themselves to protect their interests,
leading to the enactment of laws like the Workmen's Breach of Contract Act in 1860, which
penalized workers for leaving their jobs without employer consent. However, social reformers and
philanthropists gradually began taking an interest in organizing factory workers, laying the
groundwork for collective action and agitation.

One significant early effort was led by Sorabjee Shahpurjee Bengali in Bombay in 1855, who
advocated for legislative measures to improve factory workers' conditions. This movement, though
slow to gain momentum, set the stage for further organizing efforts. In subsequent years, initiatives
such as night schools and educational missions aimed at eradicating illiteracy and promoting
cleanliness and thrift among workers began to emerge in cities like Bombay and Calcutta.

The first notable labour leader to emerge was Narayan Meghaji Lokhandey, who organized
protests and conferences to address the grievances of factory workers. Lokhandey's efforts
culminated in the formation of the Bombay Mill Hands Association in 1890, marking the beginning of
the Indian labour movement. This association, though lacking in formal structure, played a pivotal
role in advocating for workers' rights and pressing for legislative reforms.

The momentum gained by the Bombay Mill Hands Association prompted the government to
appoint a Factory Commission in 1890, which led to the passing of the Indian Factories Act in 1891.
This legislation introduced regulations on working hours for women and raised the minimum age for
child labour in factories.

Despite these early successes, the labour movement faced challenges such as instability and
sporadic strikes in various industries. However, the groundwork laid during this period laid the
foundation for future labour activism and the continued struggle for workers' rights in India.

Development of Trade Unionism in India

The development of the trade union movement in India traces back to the late 19th century and
early 20th century, coinciding with the rise of the Indian National Congress (INC) and the country's
struggle for independence from British colonial rule. The trade union movement evolved as a
response to the exploitative working conditions prevalent in industries during that era. Here's a
detailed exploration of its development:
 Late 19th Century Roots: The roots of the trade union movement can be traced back to the
late 19th century when workers in various industries, including textiles, mining, and railways,
started organizing themselves to address issues such as low wages, long working hours, lack
of job security, and poor working conditions. These early unions, though small and localized,
laid the foundation for the organized labour movement in India.
 Intersection with National Movement: The trade union movement became intertwined with
the broader Indian freedom struggle as leaders of the national movement recognized the
importance of mobilizing industrial workers in the fight against colonial rule. The Indian
National Congress, founded in 1885, provided a platform for political leaders to engage with
workers and champion their cause alongside the struggle for independence.
 Key Leaders and Organizations: During this period, several prominent leaders emerged who
played instrumental roles in nurturing the trade union movement. Leaders like Lokmanya
Tilak, Annie Besant, Mahatma Gandhi, and Lala Lajpat Rai actively supported the formation
of trade unions and advocated for the rights of industrial workers. Various organizations,
such as the Textile Labour Association in Ahmedabad and the Madras Labour Union, were
formed to represent the interests of workers in specific industries and regions.
 Growth and Expansion: Despite facing challenges such as government repression and
opposition from industrialists, the trade union movement continued to grow and expand in
the early 20th century. The formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920
marked a significant milestone, as it brought together various trade unions under a single
umbrella organization. Led by leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and N.M. Joshi, AITUC played a
pivotal role in uniting workers across different sectors and regions of the country.
 Legislative Reforms: The trade union movement received a boost with the passage of
legislative reforms aimed at recognizing and protecting the rights of workers. The Trade
Unions Act of 1926 provided legal recognition to trade unions and allowed them to engage
in collective bargaining with employers. Additionally, the establishment of the International
Labour Organization (ILO) in 1919 provided a global platform for advocating for workers'
rights and labour standards.
 Challenges and Struggles: The trade union movement faced numerous challenges, including
internal divisions, government repression, and opposition from employers. The period
following World War I saw increased tensions within the movement, particularly between
left-leaning and moderate factions. The impact of World War II further complicated matters,
with the government imposing restrictions on labour activities in the name of national
interest.
 Post-Independence Era: After India gained independence in 1947, the trade union movement
continued to evolve, with trade unions playing a crucial role in shaping labour policies and
advocating for the rights of workers in the new democratic framework. Various legislative
measures were enacted to regulate labour relations and protect workers' interests, laying
the foundation for the modern labour landscape in India.