The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education

Volume 45 Number 1 pp. 80–90 

C The Author(s) 2015 doi 10.1017/jie.2015.29

Teachers’ Attitudes to Including Indigenous

Knowledges in the Australian Science
Curriculum
Renee Baynes
College for Indigenous Studies, Education and Research, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, 4350 Queensland,
Australia

With the introduction of the Australian National Curriculum containing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Histories and Cultures Cross-Curriculum Priority (CCP) and Intercultural Understanding General Capability,
there has been a renewed push to embed Indigenous content into secondary school subjects. This paper
considers the attitudes and beliefs of a group of secondary school science teachers to the current imperative
to include Indigenous knowledges and perspectives in classroom practice. Through a Participatory Action
Research (PAR) cycle, teachers contextualised and conceptualised the CCP in terms of social justice, pedagogy,
and student engagement. The PAR process allowed them to develop a personal and intellectual engagement
prior to attempting to teach Indigenous knowledges in their classrooms. Teacher attitudes and beliefs are
identified in terms of their vision of a science education inclusive of Indigenous content, their hopes for the
inclusions and the impediments they perceive to implementation in classroom practice. Allowing teachers the
opportunity to engage in meaningful dialogue resulted in the articulation of a path forward for their teaching
practice that aligned with their political and social justice concerns.

 Keywords: national curriculum, curriculum implementation, teacher attitudes, Aboriginal knowledge, sci-
ence education, social justice

In Australia, the inclusion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait this involves investigating ‘the ways traditional knowledge
Islander perspectives in school curricula has long been and western scientific knowledge can be complementary’
identified in educational policy as a priority area of (ACARA, 2011c).
development in order to promote understanding and This paper elucidates the position of a group of science
mutual respect between Indigenous and non-Indigenous teachers as they prepared to engage with the new Aus-
members of society (Department of Education and the tralian Curriculum requirements of the CCP and Gen-
Arts, 2006). The education authority in each state has eral Capability in their classrooms. Firstly, the complex-
required teachers to embed Indigenous perspectives; how- ities and advantages of science education inclusive of
ever, many teachers express concern that they lack the Indigenous knowledges are considered. Secondly, litera-
necessary knowledge and skills to implement this (Har- ture related to teachers’ attitudes and beliefs to such inclu-
rison & Greenfield, 2011). The Australian Curriculum sions is discussed. This is followed by the presentation of
developed by the Australian Curriculum and Assessment teachers’ vision and aspirations in relation to a science
Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2011b) includes a con- education that is inclusive of Indigenous knowledges. The
cern for reconciliation through education. The curricu- article concludes by discussing teachers’ perceived prob-
lum contains both a Cross-Curricular Priority (CCP) and lems and issues in classroom implementation of the CCP
a General Capability that work towards promoting inter-
cultural understanding in students (ACARA, 2014). One
of three CCPs, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander His- ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Renee Baynes, College for
tories and Cultures CCP aims to deepen students’ knowl- Indigenous Studies, Education and Research, University of
edge of Australia through engaging with Indigenous cul- Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, 4350 Queensland,
tures (ACARA, 2011a). Within the science curriculum, Australia. Email: [email protected].

80
 Indigenous Knowledges in Science Education

along with some suggestions as to how professional devel- but can also be a space where different ways of knowing
opment programs may be formulated to assist teachers in work together synergistically (Nakata, 2010).
understanding their position and meeting the curriculum Study incorporating Indigenous knowledges allows for
requirements. the epistemological interrogation of knowledge produc-
tion. In science education and research, it may ‘shake the
Western scientific faith in Cartesian–Newtonian episte-
Science Education and Indigenous mological foundation as well as the certainty and ethno-
Knowledges centrism that often accompany it’ (Semali & Kincheloe,
Introducing differing ways of knowing into a class- 1999, p. 137). Kincheloe and Steinberg (2008) discuss the
room may present epistemological challenges for teachers. opportunity to challenge ‘the academy’ and its ‘normal
Increasingly, the culturing of knowledges within science science’ to ask questions about the ‘globalised imperial
education is being recognised (Chigeza, 2007; Lewis & future that faces all peoples of the planet at this historical
Aikenhead, 2001; Roth, 2009). Drawing on Phelan, David- juncture’ (p. 136). Sefa Dei (2000) describes his learn-
son and Cao’s definition of culture, Aikenhead (1996) cat- ing objective in studying Indigenous knowledges as ‘to
egorises canonical scientific knowledge as cultural ‘beliefs’ develop a critical epistemology to account for the pro-
and recognises science as ‘itself a subculture of Western or duction and validation of critical knowledge for decoloni-
Euro-American culture’ (p. 9). If science is recognised sation purposes’ (p. 113). Aligning with the theoretical
as a sub-culture, learning science can be viewed as cul- framework and critical intent of this project, Semali and
tural acquisition. As a sub-culture, science exhibits a well- Kincheloe (1999) raise the possibility that ‘Westerners
defined system of symbols and meanings that have their of diverse belief structures and vocational backgrounds
origins in a Western patriarchy. The project of acquisition may experience a fundamental transformation of both
of the sub-culture of science may necessitate a cultural outlook and identity, resulting in a much more reflec-
‘border-crossing’ (Aikenhead & Jegede, 1999). For peo- tive and progressive consciousness’ (p. 137). Further, they
ple from non-Western cultures, making the crossing into link the introduction of Indigenous knowledges to an
Western science requires assimilation that can marginalise education reform that is part of a sociopolitical strug-
or replace their own world-view. Similarly, as Aikenhead gle that promotes a reconceptualisation of science, and
(1996, 1998) notes, those from a Western background are struggles for justice and environmental protection. They
also required to cross cultural borders between their life- argue that this allows for a transformative impact on crit-
world and the world of science. ical consciousness that encounters the possibility that the
There are differences in the underlying epistemolo- de/legitimation of knowledge is ‘more a sociopolitical pro-
gies of knowing between Indigenous knowledge systems cess than an exercise of a universal form of disinterested
and Western knowledge systems. Science as it is tradi- abstract reasoning’ (p. 16).
tionally understood can be framed as Western modern The benefits to education, teachers and students of cur-
science (Ogawa, 1995). Based on a Cartesian–Newtonian riculum inclusive of Indigenous knowledges and ways of
epistemology that deploys strict empirical method to dis- knowing are multifaceted and numerous. Sefa Dei (2011)
cover universal truths (Semali & Kincheloe, 1999), West- suggests current educational issues such as questions of
ern modern science is often positioned in contrast to many integration, whole child education, multiple intelligence-
Indigenous knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledges based instruction, environmental education and holistic
are more holistic than Western modern science, linked to pedagogy are all assisted through the consideration of
unified cosmologies of being, collectively generated and Indigenous knowledges in the classroom. Using Indige-
contextually, rather than universally understood (Chigeza, nous perspectives such as ‘[I]ndigenous conceptions of
2007; Maurial, 1999; Mwadime, 1999). the learner who never walks alone, and who is indeed
Science and Indigenous knowledges can also be viewed accountable to the world around her (including the envi-
in terms of their synergies and shared conversations ronment)’ (Sefa Dei, 2011, p. 9), and ‘learning as com-
(Nakata, 2008, 2010). In order to integrate Western mod- munity’ considering learners’ rights and responsibilities
ern science and Indigenous knowledges, Aikenhead (2001) and learning as a cooperative and collaborative undertak-
suggests there is a challenge to move beyond the scientism ing (Sefa Dei, 2008), enriches pedagogy for all students.
that is commonly held by non-Indigenous teachers and Non-Indigenous students benefit from learning Indige-
their attempts to enculturate all students into the value nous knowledge, through experiencing different perspec-
system of Western modern science. As Nakata (2008) puts tives on the natural world, which enhances their creative
it, the presentation of Indigenous knowledges is often ‘as problem-solving capabilities. If students move into pro-
a system of knowledge understood in terms of its distance fessional scientific careers they may be more well-rounded
from “scientific knowledge”’ (p. 185). The space where and reflective scientists, engineers, resource managers, or
Indigenous knowledges and Western ways of knowing health professionals (Aikenhead & Michell, 2011).
connect and overlap can be understood as the ‘cultural In order for non-Indigenous people to work effec-
interface’ (Nakata, 2002). This can be a contested space, tively with multiple ways of knowing, there needs to be a

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 81

 Renee Baynes

preparedness to engage in knowledge from multiple per- dents, Yunkaporta and McGinty (2009, p. 63) found that
spectives. Kinchloe and Steinberg (2008) suggest that the non-Indigenous teachers avoid Indigenous perspectives
concept of multilogicality is central to non-Indigenous as they felt uncomfortable and were ‘fearful of over-
people’s understanding of Indigenous knowledges. Mulit- stepping’ cultural boundaries, whether real or imagined.
logicality can be described as a critical complex concept Burridge and Evans (2012) showed that participation in
that focuses on transcending reductionism by gaining an action learning-based professional development pro-
access to a wide diversity of perspectives when involved grams increased teacher inclusion of Indigenous cultural
with research, knowledge work and pedagogy (Kincheloe, knowledge in their teaching. Teachers were reassured
2008). Kincheloe and Steinberg (2008) explain enact- through the professional development process that ‘Abo-
ing multilogicality as replacing the single photograph riginal cultural knowledge could form part of the main-
of Cartesian thinking with the multiple angles of the stream curriculum’ (p. 67). In their project, teachers recog-
holographic photograph. Austin (2011) suggests that in nised the challenges of being time poor and struggled to
order to work with diverse ways of knowing, it is first sustain the project in among the usual pressures of a school
necessary to see the boundedness of Western knowl- day. However, while time constraints were recognised as a
edge systems and then embrace multiple epistemological challenge and participation in their project was perceived
viewpoints. as an increase in workload, these issues were not seen as a
deterrent to being part of the project.
The issues of teachers overcoming their own biases
Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs might be intensified in canonical subject areas such as
In the Australian context, some authors have reported on science. Specifically considering secondary science teach-
work conducted with teachers and schools around the ers and Heads of Departments (HoDs) of Science, Baynes
incorporation of Indigenous (or specifically Aboriginal) and Austin (2012) report on the initial reactions to the
perspectives and cultural knowledge (Burridge, Whalan, proposed Indigenous cross-curriculum perspective in the
& Vaughn, 2012; Harrison & Greenfield, 2011). These dis- draft Australian curriculum documents. HoD reactions
cussions focus on a whole school level and consider how were generally pessimistic, asking questions such as ‘Is this
quality teaching can be promoted through engagement really science?’ (p. 61). HoDs also suggested that teacher
with local Aboriginal communities to improve educa- apathy and a lack of knowledge would be challenges. How-
tional outcomes for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous ever, teachers offered positive responses in the face of the
students. HoDs’ attitudes, overcoming their own initial concerns
In his 2011 article, ‘Pathways for Indigenous educa- around epistemology and lack of knowledge to produce
tion in the Australian Curriculum framework’, Nakata beneficial outcomes for students.
sets out questions and concerns teachers and schools have In the Canadian context, Kanu (2005, 2011) offers in-
surrounding the Australian curriculum initiative. These depth, critical discussions on integrating (Canadian) Abo-
included issues such as, ‘what does the inclusion of Indige- riginal perspectives into the school curriculum. Kanu’s
nous perspectives look like and how do teachers embed (2011) book devotes a chapter to teachers’ perceptions
these in meaningful ways?’ and ‘how can non-Indigenous of integration and starts with the observation that ‘an
teachers do this when they have their biases and may important dimension . . . that has rarely been addressed
already be challenged in this area?’ (p. 2). As Nakata points in previous research is the voices of teachers on this issue’
out, these are not new questions, but are challenges that (p. 165). From data collected through ethnographic work,
remain from past curriculum approaches. she outlines the reasons the teachers in the study regarded
Harrison and Greenfield (2011) report on a project the integration of Aboriginal knowledge and perspectives
looking at how schools incorporate Indigenous perspec- as critical. The reasons cited were: the need to learn from
tives and noted that teachers ‘lament that they do not pos- Aboriginal peoples, to provide culturally relevant curricu-
sess the knowledge to teach about Aboriginal Australia’ (p. lum to all students, to improve the images and perceptions
74). Michie (2002) recognises that teachers ‘do not have Aboriginal students have of themselves, and to limit the
much knowledge about Indigenous science’ (p. 39) and economic implications of school dropout of Aboriginal
identifies a lack of resources and access to professional students, representation of all Canadian peoples and ben-
development as problematic. Also identified is confusion efits to Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students through
surrounding what constitutes Indigenous cultural knowl- learning about Aboriginal cultural heritage and history
edge (Burridge, Chodkiewicz, & Whalan, 2012), and the (pp. 169–171).
differences between Indigenous perspectives and Indige- Like the Australian authors (Quince, 2012; Yunkaporta
nous knowledges (Harrison & Greenfield, 2011). & McGinty, 2009), Kanu (2011) reports that teachers per-
Teachers are also reportedly hesitant about incorpo- ceived their own lack of knowledge about Aboriginal cul-
rating Indigenous content when they feel that they do ture, and a resultant lack of confidence, as challenges to
not have the expertise to do this in an authentic way the inclusion of Indigenous knowledges. She goes on to
(Quince, 2012). In a school of largely Indigenous stu- identify the exclusion of teachers from discussions about

82 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

 Indigenous Knowledges in Science Education

integration, a lack of resources, racist attitudes, lack of teachers’ processes when engaging with the mandated cur-
support from school administrators and incompatibility riculum were gained, even from this initial stage of the
between school structures and some Aboriginal cultural project. By reporting these learnings, this paper aims to
values as also impeding meaningful integration. add to the literature on teachers’ voices on the issue.
Aikenhead and Huntley (1999) identified numerous As the researcher-participant, I conducted semistruc-
barriers, from the perspectives of teachers, to accommo- tured interviews with the participants to elucidate their
dating both Western and Aboriginal (in the Canadian positions as they entered the project and to begin to estab-
context) cultures in the science classroom. Conceptually, lish a relationship with them. I started interviews by invit-
teachers did not recognise the cultural nature of science. ing participants to reflect on their previous experiences
Pedagogically, a lack of accommodating and understand- with Indigenous knowledges in their science teaching. An
ing Aboriginal students’ worldviews was apparent. Ideo- open-ended conversation followed in which I engaged
logically, teachers tended to blame the students for their with the participants’ experiences, thoughts and ideas,
disinterest in senior levels of science. Psychologically, cul- asking for clarification or for further detail or informa-
tural conflict in the classroom elicited varied responses tion if needed. Interviews ran for between one and one
from teachers. Culturally, at the school level, Aboriginal and a half hours each and were digitally recorded. These
ways of knowing were not supported. And finally, practi- conversations, due to the nature of the project, included
cally, a lack of institutional support resulted in a lack of discussion of how the participant saw science as a disci-
teaching resources. pline and their hopes for the inclusion of the CCP as well
In order to consider the practical implementation of as their perceived problems around incorporating Indige-
Indigenous knowledges in the science classroom, teach- nous Knowledges in science. Interviews were transcribed
ers may need opportunities to consider the ways in which using a minimalist approach (Fairclough, 1992) and pro-
mainstream science marginalises Indigenous knowledges vided to the participants for checking. Participants were
(Chinn, 2007). Through sharing personal stories, cri- given the opportunity to add or remove any comments in
tiquing curricula and discussing issues of power and the transcripts (although only one slight change was made
knowledge, teachers in Chinn’s study reconceptualised by one participant).
their considerations of the purpose of science education In addition to initial interviews, data are drawn from
to include serving the common good. The opportunity to the first two group meetings of the participants (approxi-
engage in action research using decolonising methodolo- mately 1 hour each). Where direct quotes from the partici-
gies assisted teachers to recognise the potential for Indige- pants are cited, pseudonyms have been used to protect the
nous knowledges in their teaching practice. participants’ anonymity. Data from Cristy, Isabelle and
The literature indicates the profound benefits of includ- Allen are included in this paper. From the initial inter-
ing Indigenous knowledges in science education. At the views I had gained an understanding of what experience
same time, there are numerous challenges for teachers each participant had with engaging Indigenous knowl-
in enacting curriculum inclusive of Indigenous content. edges and perspectives in their teaching and how they felt
The study reported here engaged with both the perceived they were situated to commence the project. Each inter-
benefits of the CCP and teacher-identified impediments view was summarised from the transcript and the partici-
to classroom implementation. The participatory pro- pants checked summaries for accuracy of representation. I
cess enacted allowed teachers to navigate their own path compiled a summary of the themes from across the inter-
through these complexities to understand what visions views to act as a talking point in the first meeting with the
and hopes they had for classroom praxis. group of participants.
The first meetings of the PAR group offered a chance
for participants to dialogue about what they saw as the
The Project intent of the inclusion of the CCP and how the initiative
This paper reports on the initial stages of a PAR project might increase student engagement and to generate ideas
with a group of science teachers as they considered how about how they might know if they were successful in their
to develop a teaching practice inclusive of Indigenous efforts. After reflecting on the first meeting, participants
knowledges. As such, the teacher participants drove the decided it would be helpful to write a Collective Vision
direction of the research and their perspectives and voices Statement to have a document that could form the basis of
were privileged in decision-making. Teachers identified what we wanted to achieve and the group’s intentions. The
their own needs in relation to implementing the CCP Statement then acted as a guide for the rest of the research
and defined research cycles within the project. While the process and presented a way of keeping the research on
project as a whole consisted of multiple cycles of reflec- track and staying mindful of our intentions. The Statement
tion and action through collaboration (Griffiths, 2009), was an articulation of the teachers’ dialogues around the
this paper reports on the first cycle through which partic- complexities of merging knowledge systems and what that
ipants defined their vision of science education as inclu- might mean for student learning and engagement and for
sive of Indigenous knowledges. Significant learnings about broader issues of social justice.

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 83

 Renee Baynes

In the research process, data analysis took place on and the researcher-participant allowed an in-depth under-
two levels. Firstly, data were analysed by the participants standing of the data that were collected. The small partic-
as part of the project. Secondly, data were analysed by ipant numbers also allowed the teachers to form relation-
me as the researcher-participant (McIntyre, 2008). In this ships with each other and to be comfortable discussing
paper, as the researcher-participant I have connected the issues that they may not have otherwise presented. The
participants’ analysis of what science education that is qualitative nature of this project means that I make no
inclusive of Indigenous knowledges might look like with claims to generalisability of findings, but instead I offer a
relevant literature. contextually situated interpretative understanding (Den-
zin & Lincoln, 2011) of the position of the teachers at a
Participants time of national curriculum upheaval. The approach used
In addition to myself as the university-based researcher- to assist teachers to elucidate their positions may be help-
participant, five secondary school science teachers volun- ful to other teachers’/schools/projects considering similar
teered to be part of the project. All teachers held an interest issues.
in including Indigenous knowledges in their science teach-
ing practice. I have a background in scientific research and Teachers’ Vision of Science Education
university- and school-based science education and con- Inclusive of Indigenous Knowledges
ducted this work as part of my doctoral research. Teachers’
Initial Reactions and Concerns
classroom experience ranged from being in their first year
of teaching to teachers with more than 20 years of expe- At the start of the project, teachers questioned the polit-
rience. Of the five participants, three were employed by ical motivations of the inclusion of the CCP in the Aus-
Catholic schools, two of these in a co-educational setting tralian Curriculum. While the emergent themes from the
and the other in a boys’ school. The other two teach- initial interviews suggested that teachers understood the
ers were from public, co-educational schools. All partic- CCP as an opportunity to promote intercultural under-
ipants (including myself) identified as non-Indigenous standing, some teachers were still suspicious of its intent.
Australians. Participants’ educational backgrounds varied Some of the teachers expressed concern about the imple-
with two participants having had careers in science-based mentation becoming more of an administrative exercise to
disciplines prior to obtaining additional teaching qualifi- satisfy government requirements (a ‘box-ticking’ exercise)
cations. The other three participants completed education than a genuine attempt to improve the lives and status of
degrees specialising in teaching science. Indigenous peoples and cultures. Despite this, the teach-
The participant teachers’ experiences with Indigenous ers showed resolve to implement the CCP in a meaningful
knowledge and Indigenous Australian peoples were lim- way in their own classrooms.
ited. Some participants had taught in schools that had Not only did the teachers come to the conclusion that
what they considered to be high Indigenous student enrol- the CCP was going to be important for all students regard-
ments (but not schools with majority Indigenous enrol- less of Indigeneity or ethnicity, they recognised that, to
ments). However, all participants described their knowl- be successful, any implementation needed to be valu-
edge and understanding of Indigenous knowledges and able, worthwhile and useful. Teacher participant, Allen,
cultures as lacking and mainly coming from academic highlighted this need, which became a guiding principle
sources rather than engagement in or with Indigenous through the project. Allen centred his idea on both teach-
communities. ers and students gaining nourishment from the teaching
The project also had three ‘critical friends’ who acted and learning experience, implying a relationship to stu-
in assisting and advising roles and who all self-identified dent engagement. Adding to the idea of what was valuable,
as Indigenous people. The professional roles that these worthwhile and useful, teacher participant Cristy argued
critical friends held were diverse with one working in the that the objective of the curriculum inclusion was broader
public education system as a teacher at an environmental than just improving Indigenous students’ and peoples’
education centre, another acting as an Embedding Abo- outcomes. She did not see the CCP as an opportunity to
riginal and Torres Strait Island Perspectives Officer with just improve outcomes for Indigenous students, instead
the Department of Education and Training and the final focusing on the opportunity for all students to benefit
friend working in a university-based Indigenous support from having a wider perspective.
and research centre. Their role throughout the project
was to offer support and guidance to me as the researcher- Defining the Path
participant and to the teachers. Although, in this initial The Collective Vision Statement, which is shown in
reported stage of the project their role was mainly sup- Figure 1, was developed in the first two PAR group meet-
porting me, later in the project they offered support to the ings. The teachers wanted to have a set of goals to keep the
teachers during the implementation processes. project focused and on-track. The Statement allowed the
While participant numbers in this project were small, teachers to work individually in each of their schools with
the relationships built between the teacher-participants the confidence that they were all still working towards the

84 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

 Indigenous Knowledges in Science Education

Collective Vision for the Inclusion of Indigenous Knowledges

(Including Priorities and Perspectives) in Science Education

By the PAR group participating in the ‘Whose Knowledge?: Science Education,

Indigenous Knowledge and Teacher Praxis’ project.

Overall Vision
An education in science that:
1. has an Australian perspective and offers something all students can relate to
and find relevance in;
2. shows Indigenous knowledge and traditional science drawing value from each
other;
3. incorporates the local Indigenous community to assist in the use of knowledge
and the understanding of teachers and students; and
4. promotes different ways of thinking about the world – holistic knowledge and
critical thinking.

Hopes
Within this it is our hope that:
1. we are promoting intercultural understanding between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous people;
2. we are providing engaging teaching experiences for both Indigenous and non-
Indigenous students; and
3. we are working towards improved outcomes for Indigenous Peoples in
education and society.

FIGURE 1
(Colour online) The collective vision statement developed by the PAR participants.

group’s objectives. We aimed to capture the intellectual and is similar in its process and intent to the produc-
and personal engagement with socially just concerns for tion of the Collective Vision Statement. Envisioning is
education that had emerged through the opportunity to ‘a strategy which asks that people imagine a future, that
engage in generative dialogue around the educational pos- they rise above present day situations which are gener-
sibilities of Indigenous knowledges in science education. ally depressing, dream a new dream and set a new vision’
The Statement was generated in order to inform future (p. 142). Smith describes the importance of a politics of
classroom implementation. Teachers considered it impor- resistance for Indigenous people to change their own lives
tant that there was consistency between intentions of the and set new directions despite their impoverished and
project and actions within the classroom. oppressed conditions. The production of the Collective
The Statement articulates a position that was not, Vision Statement also represented a politics of resistance
and did not claim to be, politically neutral. The state- where the members of the group were addressing their
ment clearly articulated the social justice and humanising perceived deficiencies in traditional science education and
intent of a practice emerging from the group’s work. It ensuring that the project addressed power differentials
reflected ideas in Smith’s (1999) work, where she describes between Indigenous and Western knowledges as well as
25 projects that Indigenous peoples have embarked on reclaiming science education as ‘education for all’ (Roth,
as acts of ‘reclaiming, reformulating and reconstituting 2009, p. 1).
indigenous cultures and languages’ (p. 142). One of these A number of similarities are apparent between the
projects, ‘Envisioning’, works from a Freirean sense of hope positions of the teachers entering this project and other

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 85

 Renee Baynes

Australian and international findings (Aikenhead & Hunt- knowledges to encourage ‘holistic knowledge and criti-
ley, 1999; Harrison & Greenfield, 2011; Kanu, 2011; cal thinking’ alluding to the opportunity to interrogate
Nakata, 2011). Both the hopes and visions of this PAR knowledge construction. The ‘hopes’ in the Statement,
group of science teachers align with Kanu’s (2011) find- linked to the pedagogical concerns of the ‘visions’, speak
ings in Canada about teacher attitudes and beliefs. Like the to a concern for issues of social justice. They move from
Canadian teachers, the Australian teachers said that bene- a focus on teaching practice to a concern with teaching
fits to both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students were praxis, which Freire (2009) understood as the action of
of high priority. Both studies featured the importance of people on their world in order to change it. He linked
an inclusive national identity recognising how the incor- praxis to a rejection of the ‘Banking Model’ of education
poration of Indigenous knowledge into curriculum could and to a more socially just pedagogy.
benefit Indigenous students’ educational outcomes and
society more broadly. Perceived Problems and Issues
The final vision, to promote holistic and critical think-
While the hopes and vision for science education con-
ing in students, was expressed strongly by several of the
taining Indigenous knowledges were in the forefront of
participants. This vision speaks to social justice orientated
participant teachers’ minds, these were not held with-
outcomes. Teaching is framed in connection to an act of
out trepidation about possible impediments, concerns and
knowing, rather than merely an act of transferring knowl-
fears. Teachers identified a number of problems and issues
edge (Freire, 1970). In particular, Cristy saw the inclusion
that they saw standing in the way of successful classroom
as an opportunity to expand the educational value of sci-
implementation. These issues stood to advance an atrophy
ence lessons, beyond just learning about science, to devel-
of good intentions if not addressed.
oping critical thinking and questioning abilities that could
The main issues raised were as follows:
apply beyond the classroom. Cristy recognised the oppor-
tunity to interrogate knowledge production as Semali and • How do we make teaching both respectful and mean-
Kincheloe (1999) had suggested: ingful? How do we avoid tokenism and ‘stepping on
cultural toes’?
We’re not just there for kids to regurgitate information to
• How do we make sense of different ways of under-
us. It’s about having a holistic knowledge and to be able to
be critical thinkers without our world. And to ask questions standing the world and knowledges? How do we rec-
of our world and question the status quo. (Cristy, Initial oncile Indigenous understandings, which are multilay-
Interview) ered, with scientific understandings, which tend to be
reductionist? (Not all participants saw this as a problem,
The Statement also expresses the ‘hopes’ of the group but those who mentioned it saw it as quite significant.)
in relation to achieving their described ‘vision’. Drawing • How do we find the time (inside and outside of the
on critical theorists such as Paulo Freire and Stuart Hall,
classroom) to commit to developing effective teaching
Giroux (2000) describes hope as ‘an act of moral imagi-
strategies?
nation and political passion that partly enables educators
and other cultural workers to think otherwise in order to Many of these concerns mirror those described by
act otherwise’ (p. 345). Freire (2008) describes hope as an Harrison and Greenfield (2011), Kanu (2005, 2011) and
existential concrete imperative and hopelessness as leading Nakata (2011). In particular, there was concern about
to paralysis, immobilising our ability to recreate the world. avoiding tokenism and a fear of ‘stepping on cultural toes’
The group’s sense of hope centred on the ability to effect related to a lack of resources, cultural knowledge and pro-
change through working with Indigenous knowledges in tocols. The fear of ‘making a mess of it and appearing
their science teaching practice. disrespectful’ (Isabelle, Initial Interview) had presented as
Teachers clearly articulated their ideas of what the a major barrier to teachers’ past efforts in teaching science
project and the incorporation of Indigenous knowledges that included Indigenous knowledges. Teachers identified
might be able to achieve. The Statement shows a concern that prior to joining the project, little or no information
for science pedagogies that promote student engagement had been available to them to assist in their efforts.
in relevant and interesting ways (‘has an Australian per- As implementation of the Australian Curriculum was/is
spective and offers something all students can relate to and the responsibility of the States and Territories, each juris-
find relevance in’), as well as a commitment to presenting diction decided its own timeline. In Queensland, the
science and Indigenous knowledges as complementary, implementation process commenced in 2011 with teach-
rather than opposing, ways of understanding the world ers and schools becoming familiar with the English, Maths
(‘Indigenous Knowledge and traditional science drawing and Science curriculums with full classroom implementa-
value from each other’). The importance of the involve- tion from 2012 (ACARA, 2012). The State-based edu-
ment of the local Indigenous community grew from a cation authority, Education Queensland, (Department
desire to avoid tokenism and knowledge appropriation. of Education, Training and Employment (DETE)), had
The Statement also recognises the potential in Indigenous responsibility for implementation but stated that it was

86 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

 Indigenous Knowledges in Science Education

the responsibility of each school to arrange appropriate Because as scientists, are we thinking as scientists, we’re going
professional development. This proved challenging, with to have a different perspective than say our creative arts coun-
tight budgets, short timeframes and several subject disci- terpart. And being in a Catholic education school as well, it’s
plines to implement (Lowe & Appleton, 2014). The data very difficult being a scientist and talking about, some of
collection phase of this project ran during this time when these Indigenous knowledges, because they’re not respected.
Because of the Catholic faith, you know, this is how we do
schools and teachers were facing major systemic changes
things. Sometimes I find those tensions very difficult to coun-
and were offered little institutional support. As such, the
terpart so it’s productive. (Isabelle, Initial Interview)
project served as much needed professional development
in curriculum implementation. Issues of perceived epistemological conflicts may be
In terms of epistemologies, teachers expressed ideas linked to challenges to teacher identities. Teachers’ identity
of incommensurability (on epistemological and ontolog- positions are constructed within social norms and school
ical grounds) as well as recognition of the synergies of structures that maintain and give authority to Western cul-
Western modern science and Indigenous knowledge sys- tural values and ways of knowing (Kanu, 2011). Unease
tems. In order to bring different ways of knowing into with epistemological issues has the potential to challenge
the classroom, teachers needed considered reflection as teachers in terms of understanding their own identity loca-
to how these epistemologies fitted into their own under- tions within the education system. This challenge may be
standing of science as a body of knowledge and factors what is necessary to engage positively within the cultural
influencing their own epistemologies. The participatory interface (Nakata, 2008) in order to be able to plan lessons
and cyclical nature of the PAR methodology allowed for with Indigenous content without lapsing into tokenism.
inter-participant dialogue around these epistemological By allowing considered reflection and generative dialogue
issues. Teachers’ epistemological positions on including between participants, teachers were able to recognise the
Indigenous knowledges within the science curriculum epistemological issues particular to them and their teach-
were broad. One teacher, Cristy, expressed no problems ing context. Before specifically identifying the complexi-
with combining the two knowledge systems, as she saw sci- ties for themselves and their schools, teachers were more
ence as primarily about asking questions about the natural likely to see the perceived problems as insurmountable.
world: A very strong theme that emerged from the project
was teachers’ concerns with the limited amount of time
And I think you’re a scientist if you question how something available to them to implement curriculum initiatives. All
works, if you question why is that red? You know? I think
participants spoke of the many out of school hours they
if you’re asking questions you’re a scientist. (Cristy, Initial
Interview)
devoted to administrative tasks related to teaching, such
as marking and preparing for moderation, as well as plan-
The holistic nature of Indigenous knowledges was ning lessons. They explained that this had been intensified
problematic for another teacher, Isabelle. Isabelle’s con- through the introduction of the new curriculum.
cerns related not only to the underlying epistemological Time pressures were also recognised in Burridge and
differences between the knowledge systems but also her Evan’s (2012) work with teachers to include Indigenous
desire to be respectful, non-tokenistic and not ‘step on cultural knowledge in the curriculum in Australia. How-
cultural toes’. ever, time constraints were not seen as a deterrent to par-
ticipation in Burridge and Evan’s project. In our project,
I think parts of the Indigenous knowledge, I don’t even know a lack of access to funding meant that it was not possi-
if that’s the umbrella term of what it is, but I think parts of ble to ‘buy out’ teachers’ time. Consequently, when the
it are scientific and parts of it are mythology which to me in
teachers decided to participate in the PAR project, they
my definition, in my head, that’s not science. So like, I don’t
see how I’m going to be able to . . . but then I can’t really just
had to find the time in their already busy schedules to
cut it, can I? Cut it in bits? (Isabelle, Initial Interview) make that commitment. Burridge and Evans (2012) sug-
gest that funding provisions to allow staff to participate in
A compounding issue for the teachers from Catholic projects such as these are necessary to allow for adequate
schools was the marginalisation of Indigenous knowl- professional development. While compensating partici-
edges through competing spirituality and epistemolog- pants for their time would have been ideal, the reality
ical/ontological bases. Indigenous knowledges operate for the teachers participating in the project was that they
from what was considered by some to be a conflicting were operating at a time of substantial change with little
ontology to that of Christianity. In a school system oper- institutional support. The project did, however, offer par-
ated from a specifically Catholic, Christian epistemology, ticipants support through interactions with myself as the
teachers identified an additional pressure to be sensitive researcher-participant, the project’s critical friends and a
to particular spiritual (and political) positions. Pressure group of peers.
manifested as anxiety about being challenged on the basis The increasing complexity and workloads of teachers is
of spiritual grounds by students and their parents. For recognised as impacting on job satisfaction, personal lives
example: and good health (Gardner & Williamson, 2006; Timms,

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 87

 Renee Baynes

Graham, & Cotrell, 2007). In order to meet the expec- The recognition of both the visions and hopes for
tations of their job, in terms of planning, marking and science education that would be inclusive of Indigenous
administration, teachers work extensive amounts of time knowledges required an investment of teachers’ time and
outside of school hours (Gardner & Williamson, 2006). a willingness to grapple with epistemological issues. A
Indeed, the participants in this study were committing lack of cultural knowledge and a ‘fear of stepping on cul-
out-of-school time to attend PAR group meetings and per- tural toes’ had acted as major impediments in the past
form tasks associated with the project in order to extend for many of the teachers in the study. While they were
their professional learning. The important work required sympathetic to the inclusion of Indigenous knowledges
to challenge teachers’ epistemologies and identity loca- and held concerns for enacting social justice through edu-
tions needs time to develop in order to move towards cation, epistemological challenges were required in order
the more inclusive vision of science education. While the for them to understand their own teaching contexts and
teachers said that they would have preferred to have had beliefs about science. Change, whether it is epistemolog-
more time to commit to the project, they were still able to ical or curriculum-based, takes time. In the busy profes-
engage in meaningful and productive ways. sional lives of the teachers involved in the PAR project, time
The Collective Vision Statement provided an insight to make change while meeting the complicated and con-
into how the teachers perceived their engagement with the flicting demands of their positions was not easy. Even so,
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures the teachers saw the issues and possibilities as important
CCP in the Australian Curriculum. The PAR methodology enough to engage in thoughtful, practical and theoretical
allowed in-depth engagement with considerations of how ways. A sense of hope (Giroux, 2000) allowing thinking
the required Indigenous content and perspectives might and acting otherwise presented in the teachers’ attitudes
fit with teachers’ beliefs about science teaching and ped- to science education offers an important starting point
agogy. This provided the necessary personal engagement to presenting multiple ways of knowing in school science
to discover new ways of conceptualising science educa- education.
tion inclusive of Indigenous knowledges. As Chinn (2007) The PAR process allowed teachers to contextualise and
found, such engagement can lead to teachers finding a conceptualise their science teaching praxis inclusive of
new respect for Indigenous knowledges and being more Indigenous knowledges. The ability to dialogue with peers
willing to move towards implementing classroom lessons from outside of their own schools added to the reflective
with Indigenous content and perspectives. The participa- nature of the method, in turn promoting an understand-
tory approach also allowed teachers to forge their own ing of each teacher’s own position, beliefs and context.
path in this respect, giving them a larger sense of owner- As the group as a whole was in control of the direction
ship over the process and ensuring that the work matched of the research, teachers chose their own starting point
their needs. As the work of these teachers showed, the and set the agenda in terms of what visions, hopes and
incorporation of Indigenous knowledges in the classroom impediments were important to them. As such, the resul-
may result in critical science education with socially just tant Collective Vision Statement is a representation of
and reconciliatory outcomes. With targeted institutional their personal engagement with the issues and acted as an
support and funding, participatory approaches such as anchor that allowed the classroom implementation phase
this may assist other teachers and schools to develop their of the project to proceed. It is suggested that this method-
own understandings of the importance, epistemological ological approach may assist other teachers, schools or
considerations and educational advantages of successful projects to define what is necessary for successful engage-
implementation of the CCP in school science. ment with issues that surround Indigenous knowledges in
the curriculum.

References
Conclusion Aikenhead, G.S. (1996). Science education: Border crossing
Teachers in this project continued to work through the into the subculture of science. Studies in Science Education,
PAR to implement their vision of science praxis inclusive 27, 1–52.
of Indigenous knowledges. The ways in which they came Aikenhead, G.S. (1998). Many students cross cultural borders
to understand their positions at the start of the project to learn science: Implications for teaching. Australian Sci-
formed the basis of their individual efforts in their own ence Teachers’ Journal, 44(4), 9–12.
classrooms. The participatory approach allowed for gener- Aikenhead, G.S. (2001). Integrating western and aboriginal
ative dialogue to produce the Collective Vision Statement sciences: Cross-cultural science teaching. Research in Sci-
that guided the process and kept the group true to its crit- ence Education, 31, 337–355.
ical intent. This envisioning process, imagining a future Aikenhead, G.S., & Huntley, B. (1999). Teachers’ views on
teaching praxis (Smith, 1999), allowed the teachers to rise Aboriginal students learning western and Aboriginal sci-
above the day-to-day concerns of classroom/teaching pres- ence. Canadian Journal for Native Education, 23, 159–
sures and plan for science lessons with socially just aims. 175.

88 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

 Indigenous Knowledges in Science Education

Aikenhead, G.S., & Jegede, O.J. (1999). Cross-cultural ccience personal experience in professional development. Jour-
education: A Cognitive explanation of a cultural phe- nal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(9), 1247–1268. doi:
nomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(3), 10.1002/tea.20192.
269–287. Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (2011). Introduction: The dis-
Aikenhead, G.S., & Michell, H. (2011). Bridging cultures cipline and practice of qualitative research. In N.K. Den-
Indigenous and scientific ways of knowing nature. Toronto, zin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qual-
Ontario: Pearson. itative research (4th ed., pp. 1–19). Los Angeles: SAGE
Austin, J. (2011). Decentering the WWW (White Western Publications.
Ways): Enacting a pedagogy of multilogicality. In R. Brock, Department of Education and the Arts. (2006). Embedding
C.S. Malott & L.E. Villaverde (Eds.), Teaching Joe Kincheloe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives in schools.
(pp. 167–184). New York: Peter Lang. Brisbane: Queensland Government Retrieved October
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority. 13, 2011, from http://education.qld.gov.au/schools/
(2011a). Aboriginal and Torres strait islander histories and indigenous/docs/indig-persp.pdf.
cultures. Retrieved October, 13, 2011, from http://www. Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Cam-
australiancurriculum.edu.au/CrossCurriculumPriorities/ bridge: Polity Press.
Aboriginal-and-Torres-Strait-Islander-histories-and- Freire, P. (1970). Notes on humanisation and its edu-
cultures. cational implications. Retrieved July, 19, 2012, from
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Author- http://acervo.paulofreire.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/
ity. (2011b). The Australian curriculum. Retrieved Octo- 7891/1540/FPF_OPF_09_009.pdf.
ber, 13, 2011, from http://www.australiancurriculum.
Freire, P. (2008). Pedagogy of hope. London: Continuum.
edu.au/Home.
Freire, P. (2009). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York:
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting
Continuum.
Authority. (2011c). Science cross-curriculum prior-
ities. Retrieved October, 13, 2011, from http://www. Gardner, C., & Williamson, J. (2006). Having a life outside
australiancurriculum.edu.au/Science/Cross-Curriculum- teaching: The nature and amount of teachers’ out-of-hours
Priorities-Aboriginal-and-Torres-Strait-Islander- work. Paper presented at the Australian Teacher Education
histories-and-cultures. Association Conference, Fremantle, Australia.
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority. Giroux, H. (2000). Public pedagogy as cultural politics: Stuart
(2012). Australian curriculum implementation survey Hall and the ‘crisis’ of culture. Cultural Studies, 14(2), 341–
(2012, August). Retrieved January, 23, 2015, from 360.
http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Summary_ Griffiths, M. (2009). Action research for/as/mindful of social
of_implementation_plans_-_updated_August_2012.pdf. justice. In S.E. Noffke & B. Somekh (Eds.), The SAGE
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority. handbook of educational action research (pp. 85–98). Los
(2014). Australian Curriculum F-10 overview. Retrieved Angeles: SAGE.
August, 26, 2014, from http://www.australiancurriculum. Harrison, N., & Greenfield, M. (2011). Relationship to place:
edu.au/Curriculum/Overview. Positioning Aboriginal knowledge and perspectives in
Baynes, R., & Austin, J. (2012). Indigenous knowledge in the classroom pedagogies. Critical Studies in Education, 52(1),
Australian national curriculum for science: From conjec- 65–76.
ture to classroom practice. Paper presented at the Inter- Kanu, Y. (2005). Teachers’ perceptions of the integration
national Indigenous Development Research Conference, of Aboriginal culture into the high school curricu-
Auckland, N.Z. lum. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 51(1),
Burridge, N., Chodkiewicz, A., & Whalan, F. (2012). A study 50–68.
of action learning and Aboriginal cultural education. In Kanu, Y. (2011). Integrating Aboriginal perspectives into the
N. Burridge, F. Whalan & K. Vaughn (Eds.), Indigenous school curriculum. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
education: A learning journey for teachers, schools and com- Kincheloe, J.L. (2008). Critical pedagogy. New York: Peter
munities (pp. 33–46). Rotterdam: Sense. Lang.
Burridge, N., & Evans, C. (2012). Carmine School. In N. Bur- Kincheloe, J.L., & Steinberg, S.R. (2008). Indigenous Knowl-
ridge, F. Whalan & K. Vaughn (Eds.), Indigenous education: edges in education complexities, dangers, and profound
A learning journey for teachers, schools and communities benefits. In N.K. Denzin, Y.S. Lincoln & L.T. Smith (Eds.),
(pp. 77–86). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Handbook of critical and Indigenous methodologies (pp.
Burridge, N., Whalan, F., & Vaughn, K. (Eds.) (2012). Indige- 135–156). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
nous education: A learning journey for teachers, schools and Lewis, B.F., & Aikenhead, G.S. (2001). Introduction: Shift-
communites. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. ing perspectives from universalism to cross-culturalism.
Chigeza, P. (2007). Indigenous students in school science. Science Education, 85(1), 3–5.
Teaching Science, 53(2), 10–15. Lowe, B., & Appleton, K. (2014). Surviving the implemen-
Chinn, P.W.U. (2007). Decolonizing methodologies and tation of a new science curriculum. Research in Science
Indigenous knowledge: The role of culture, place and Education, 1–26 doi: 10.1007/s11165-014-9445-7.

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 89

 Renee Baynes

Maurial, M. (1999). Indigenous knowledge and schooling: A Quince, S. (2012). Coral secondary school. In N. Burridge,
continuum between conflict and dialogue. In L.M. Semali F. Whalan & K. Vaughn (Eds.), Indigenous education: A
& J.L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is Indigenous Knowledge?: learning journey for teachers, schools and communities (pp.
Voices from the academy (pp. 59–77). New York: Falmer 49–62). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Press. Roth, W.M. (Ed.) (2009). Science education from people for
McIntyre, A. (2008). Participatory action research. Los Ange- people: Taking a stand(point). New York: Routledge.
les: SAGE Publications. Sefa Dei, G.J. (2000). Rethinking the role of Indigenous
Michie, M. (2002). Why Indigenous science should be knowledges in the academy. International Journal of Inclu-
included in the school science curriculum. Australian Sci- sive Education, 4(2), 111–132.
ence Teachers Journal, 48(2), 36–40. Sefa Dei, G.J. (2008). Indigenous knowledge studies and the
Mwadime, R.K.N. (1999). Indigenous knowledge systems for next generation: Pedagogical possibilities for anti-colonial
an alternative culture in science: The role of nutritionists education. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education,
in Africa. In L.M. Semali & J.L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is 37(Suppl.), 5–13.
Indigenous Knowledge? Voices from the academy (pp. 243– Sefa Dei, G.J. (2011). Introduction. In G.J. Sefa Dei (Ed.),
268). New York: Falmer Press. Indigenous philosophies and critical education (pp. 1–13).
Nakata, M. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and the cultural New York: Peter Lang.
interface: Underlying issues at the intersection of knowl- Semali, L.M., & Kincheloe, J.L. (1999). Introduction: What
edge and information systems. IFLA Journal, 28(5–6), is Indigenous knowledge and why should we study it? In
281–291. L.M. Semali & J.L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is Indigenous
Nakata, M. (2008). Discipling the savages savaging Knowledge? Voices from the academy (pp. 3–57). New York:
the disciplines. Canberra, ACT: Aboriginal Studies Falmer Press.
Press. Smith, L.T. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies research and
Nakata, M. (2010). The cultural interface of Islander and Indigenous peoples. Dunedin: University of OtagoPress.
scientific knowledge. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Timms, C., Graham, D., & Cotrell, D. (2007). ‘I just want to
Education, 39, 53–57. teach’ Queensland independent school teachers and their
Nakata, M. (2011). Pathways for Indigenous education in the workload. Journal of Educational Administration, 45(5),
Australian curriculum framework. The Australian Journal 569–586.
of Indigenous Education, 40, 1–8. doi: 10.1375/ajie.40.1. Yunkaporta, T.K., & McGinty, S. (2009). Reclaiming Aborig-
Ogawa, M. (1995). Science education in a multiscience per- inal knowledge at the cultural interface. The Australian
spective. Science Education, 79(5), 583–593. Educational Researcher, 36(2), 55–72.

About the Author

Renee Baynes is a lecturer with the College for Indigenous Studies, Education and Research at the University of
Southern Queensland. Renee teaches in the area of Indigenous Studies, teaching courses on Indigenous Perspec-
tives and Indigenous Knowledge. Research interests focus on Indigenous Knowledges in the school curriculum,
particularly in the area of science education. Renee is a member of the International Institute of Critical Pedagogy
and Transformative Leadership.

90 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION