UNIT 2

BEHAVIORISM-LEARNING THEORIES
Adapted fromWoolfolk (2019)
Dr. María Vicent Juan
 INDEX

1. Understanding learning
2. Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
3. Operant conditioning: Trying new responses
3.1. Reinforcement and punishment
3.2. Reinforcement schedules
3.3. Extinction
3.4. Antecedents and behaviour change
4. Putting it all together: Applied Behaviour Analysis
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours
4.2. Handling undesirable behaviour
 INDEX
5. Current applications
5.1. Functional behavioural assessments (FBA)
5.2. Positive Behaviour Support
5.3. Self-management
6. Beyond behaviourism: Bandura’s challenge and Observational Learning
1.Understanding learning
1. Understanding learning

Process through which experience causes permanent

LEARNING change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for
behavior.

• Deliberate or unintentional

• For better or for worse

The change may be
• Correct or incorrect

• Conscious or unconscious

Knowledge Cognitive Psychologists

Focused in
Behavior Behavioral Psychologists
2. Early explanations of
learning: Contiguity and
Classical Conditioning
2. Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Contiguity Association of two events because of repeated pairing

(learning by association).

Learning of involuntary emotional or physiological

Classical responses such as fear.
conditioning
Involves contiguity.

Developed by Pavlov and Watson.

2. Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Humans and animals can be trained to react involuntarily to a stimulus

that previously had no effect (e.g. Pavlov’s experiment).
2. Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Schematic representation of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Unconditioned
stimulus response

Neutral No response
stimulus

Unconditioned Neutral Unconditioned

stimulus stimulus response

Conditioned Conditioned
stimulus response
3. Operant conditioning:
Trying new responses
3. Operant conditioning: Trying new responses

Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or

Operant weakened by consequences or antecedents.
conditioning
Developed by Skinner.

BEHAVIOR

CONSEQUENCE Reinforcer Punisher

EFFECT behavior behavior

 3.1. Reinforcement and punishment

STIMULUS MEANING EFFECT

POSITIVE Presenting a pleasant stimulus.

REINFORCEMENT

NEGATIVE Removing an unpleasant stimulus.

REINFORCEMENT

PRESENTATION Presenting an unpleasant stimulus.

PUNISHMENT

REMOVAL Removing a pleasant stimulus.

PUNISHMENT
 3.1. Reinforcement and punishment

Notice that…

• Whether the consequences of any action are reinforcing or

punishing depends on the individual’s perception.

• Positive reinforcement can occur even when the response

being reinforced is not “positive” from the teacher’s point of
view.
3.2. Reinforcement schedules

Reinforcement schedules

Continuous Interval
Presenting a reinforcer Presenting a
after every appropriate reinforcer after some
response. but not all responses.

Fixed Variable
B–B–B–B–B After a set period of After a varying period
time or number of of time or number of
responses. responses.

B–B–B–B–B B–B–B–B–B
 3.2. Reinforcement schedules

• When individuals are learning a new behaviour, they will learn it faster if they are
reinforced for every correct response.This isa continuous reinforcement schedule.

• For well-learned behaviors, an intermittent reinforcement (e.g., variable)

schedule helps students to maintain skills without expecting constant
reinforcement.
 3.3. Extintion

Extintion Disappearance of a learned response when the usual

reinforcer is withheld long enough.

• In some situations, it is difficult to apply an extinction:

E.g.: when you have tried to extinguish a child’s tantrums by withholding

your attention. Often the child wins-you give up ignoring her/him-and
instead of extinction, an intermittent reinforcement occurs.
 3.4. Antecedents and behaviour change

Teachers’ use of cues in the classroom:

Effective
Concise, clear, specific instructions that
instruction communicate expected result.
delivery
ANTECEDENTS

An antecedent stimulus that “sets up” desired

behavior.
Cueing
• Useful: in setting the stage for behaviors that
must occur at a given time but are easily
forgotten.
4. Putting it all together:
Applied Behaviour Analysis
4. Putting it all together: Applied Behaviour Analysis

Application of behavioral learning principles to understand and

ABA change behavior.

Steps in classroom:
4th
3rd • Keep track of
results and
2nd • Plan specific
intervention
modify plan if
necessary
1st • Observe,
note current
using
antecedents,
• Clearly behavior consequences
specify (frequency, or both
behavior to causes,
be changed surroundings,
and goal time of day)
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Reinforcing
Praise students for good behavior, ignore misbehavior
with teacher
(differential reinforcement).
attention

Guidelines for using praise

✓ Clear and systematic; tied directly to appropriate behavior

✓ Appreciative, not evaluative; praise action/effort, not person
✓ Based on individual abilities and limitations; focused on student’s
progress, not comparison to others
✓ Attributed to effort and ability, not to luck, extra help, easy material
✓ Reinforcing to individual, not used to influence class
✓ Recognition of genuine accomplishment of met goal (not for less)
 4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

A high-frequency behaviour (a preferred activity) can be an

effective reinforcer for a low-frequency behaviour (a less-
The Premack
preferred activity).
Principle
• Less-preferred behavior must happen first.

Reinforce small step of progress toward desired

Successive goal/behavior.
approximations
• Useful: when student cannot perform task to gain
reinforcement, but can perform part of task

• = Shaping
 4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Students replace one behaviour with another. This approach

Positive is especially appropriate for dealing with academic errors.
practice
• Useful:
✓ when students make academic errors.
✓ when student breaks classroom rule.

• = Overcorrection

The teacher draws up an individual contract with

Contingency each student, describing exactly what the student
Contract must do to earn a particular privilege or reward.

• Students can suggest behaviours to be reinforced

and the rewards that can be gained.
 4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Contingency Contract
 4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Tokens eared for academic work or positive behavior can be

Token exchanged for desired reward.
reinforcement
system • Useful: to motivate uninterested student, encourage
student making no progress, address class-wide problem.

• Tokens: points, checks, holes punched in a card, chips, play money, etc.

• Rewards: small toys, school supplies, free time, special class jobs,
positive notes sent home, etc.

• Once the system is working well, however, tokens should be distributed

on an intermittent schedule and saved for longer periods of time before
they are exchanged for rewards.
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Token reinforcement
system
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours
Token reinforcement system
(model)
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

Rewards/punishments given to class (or a

Group
team) as a whole for adhering to or
consequences
violating rules of conduct.

• Useful: when students care about the

approval of their peers.
4.1. Methods for encouraging behaviours

GUIDELINES for using REINFORCEMENT

1. Recognize positive behavior in ways student’s value

2. Give plenty of reinforcement with new skills/material

3. Reinforce on unpredictable schedule to encourage

persistence

4. Use Premack principle to identify effective reinforcers

5. Use cueing to help establish new behaviors

6. Praise, reward all students when they do something well

7. Establish a variety of reinforcers

4.2. Handling undesirable behaviour

Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive

Negative stimulus when the behavior occurs.
reinforcement
• Puts students in control.

Criticisms for misbehavior. Soft, calm, private

Reprimands reprimands are more effective than loud, public
reprimands.

Response
Punishment by loss of reinforcers.
cost
 4.2. Handling undesirable behaviour

Briefly remove disruptive student.

Social isolation
= Time out.

• If strategy fails, do not try longer time out.

• Time out should not exceed the age of the student.
4.2. Handling undesirable behaviour

GUIDELINES for using PUNISHMENT

1. Try to use negative reinforcement rather than

punishment.
2. Keep punishment mild, brief; pair with doing the right
thing
3. Be consistent in applying punishment
4. Focus on students’ actions, not students’ personal
qualities
5. Adapt punishment to infraction
5. Current applications
5.1. Functional behavioural assessments (FBA)

Functional Procedures used to obtain information about

behavioral antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine
assessment the reason or function of the behavior.

Useful qüestions:

• When and where does the problem behaviour occur?

• What people or activities are involved?
• What happens right before and after the behaviour?
• What did you, other students, or the target student do or
say?
• What does the target student gain or escape from by
engaging in the behaviour?
5.1. Functional behavioural assessments (FBA)

Functional behavioral assessment

(example)
5.2. Positive Behaviour Support

Positive Interventions designed to replace problem

Behavior behaviors with new actions that serve the same
Supports purpose for the student.

PRECORRECTION: preventive strategy

1. Identify context for student’s misbehavior

2. Specify alternative expected behavior
3. Modify situation to make problem behavior
unlikely
4. Rehearse expected positive behaviors; reinforce
 5.3. Self-management

Self- Management of your own behavior and

management acceptance of responsibility for your own actions.
Also, the use of behavioral learning principles to
change your own behavior.

3 STEPS

Monitoring
Self-
Goal setting and evaluating
reinforcement
progress
5.3. Self-management

Setting specific goals for self-direction, problem

Goal setting solving, critical thinking, social responsibility, etc.

• Monitoring own progress.

Monitoring • Employing chart, checklist or other record of
and evaluating frequency or duration of behaviors in question.
progress • Student self-evaluates; judges quality of own
progress; self-corrects or improves work; compares
improvement to standards.

Self- Self-denying a reward until goal is met; then

reinforcement reinforcing with reward.
4.2. Handling undesirable behaviour

GUIDELINES for SELF-MONITORING

1. Introduce system to parents/students in positive way.

2. Help families/students establish reachable goals.

3. Give families ways to record, evaluate progress.

4. Encourage families to check accuracy of student

records and help child develop forms of self-
reinforcement.
6. Beyond behaviourism:
Bandura’s challenge and
Observational Learning
 6. Beyond behaviourism: Bandura’s challenge and Observational Learning

Social learning Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of

theory others.

ENACTIVE VS OBSERVATIONAL
Learn by doing, Learn
experiencing vicariously
Distinguishes: consequences

KNOWLEDGE VS PERFORMANCE

Learning Behavior

One can know and wait for appropriate situation to perform/demonstrate

the knowledge/learning.
 Woolfolk, A. (1016). Educational Psychology.
Pearson.

REFERENCES