- Steady state inverter output voltage

- Application of inverters

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 5. ELECTRIC DRIVES

DEPARTMENT - DC Motor drives
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING - DC Motor control circuits
(POWER OPTION) - DC Motor speed controllers
- AC machine drives
POWER ELECTRONICS - AC motor controls
COURSE OUTLINE - Motor control Systems
1. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
- Construction and operation of special semiconductor devices 6. HIGH FREQUENCY POWER SOURCES AND HEATING
- Analysis of semiconductor devices - High frequency power source
- Application of special semiconductor devices - Induction heating process
- Dielectric heating process
2. RECTIFIER CIRCUITS - Operation of Resistance heating process
- Rectifier circuits - Eddy current heating process
- Calculations related to rectifier circuits - Solar heating systems
- Controlled Rectification techniques
- Phase shift circuits BOOKS
- Calculations related to Phase shift circuits for power control 1. Industrial and Power Electronics
- Converter operation By G.K. Mithal and Dr. Maneesha Gupta
- D.C Line commutation 2. Power Electronics
- Application of controlled rectifier system By Dr. P.S. Bimbhra
3. Fundamentals of Power Electronics and Drives
3 CYCLO-CONVERTERS A. Chakvabarti
- Operation principles of cyclo-converters
4. Industrial Electronics
- Operation of single phase to single phase circuit
By Neil Morris
- Operation of load commutated cyclo-converter
- Envelop cyclo-converter operation 5. Electrical Technology
- Application of cyclo-converters B Edward Hughes
6. Electrical Technology
4. INVERTERS By A.K. Theraja & B.L Theraja
- Single phase inverters
- Forced Commutated Thyristor inverters
- Three phase bridge inverters
- Pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverters
- Current source inverters
- Series inverters
- Parallel inverters

1
 1. SPECIAL AND SEMICONDUCTOR POWER DEVICES
POWER ELECTRONICS
Electrical engineering has three major areas: TYPES OF DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATION
- Electronics, Signal Diodes
- Power and This term signal diode includes all devices that have been designed for use in circuits
- Control where large current and voltage ratings are not required. The usual requirements are
 Electronics: – Deals with the study of semi-conductor devices and circuits for the for a large reverse resistance/forward resistance ratio and minimum junction
processing of information at lower power levels. capacitance.
 Power: – deals with both rotating and static equipment for the generation, They are used as general purpose while others are suited to a particular circuit
transmission, distribution and utilization of vast quantities of electrical power. application e.g. as a detector.
 Control: – deals with the stability and response characteristics of closed – loop
systems using feedback on either a continuous or sampled – data basis. Power Diodes
Power Electronics involves combination of these areas. The function of PE is to process They are most often employed for the conversion of a.c into d.c as rectifiers. The
and control the electrical energy by supplying voltage and current in a form that is important power diode parameters are PIV, maximum forward current and the
optimally suited to the load. resistance ratio. The PIV is in the range 50v –100v with a maximum forward current
of 30A. The forward resistance must be as low as possible to avoid considerable
Industrial Electronic: - Defined as the science, which deals with the electronic devices in voltage drop across the diode when the large forward current flows. This resistance is
system or operators that are particularly useful in industry and also deals with these usually not very much more than 1 or 2.
systems. PIV- This is the maximum possible voltage across the diode when it is reverse biased.
It deals with the study of:-
 Various electron devices and transducers which are used in industrial electronic Zener Diodes
systems. The huge reverse current, which flows when the breakdown voltage of a diode is
 Electric circuit used exceeded need not necessary result in damage of the source. A zener diode is
 Typical industrial electronic system. fabricated in a way which allows it to be operated in breakdown region without
 Various high power electronic devices working and control of high power supply damage, provided the current is restricted by the external resistance to a safer value.
stems, transformation of power supply to suit the electronic system etc. (Power The large current at breakdown is brought about by 2 factors.
Electronic.) - Zener effect
Power electronic: - is a subject that concerns the application of electronic principles into - Avalanche effect
situation that are rated at power level rather than signal level. The major component of the At voltage up to about 5v the electric field near the junction is strong enough to pull
power electronic circuits is thyristor, hence P.E relates to thyristor circuitry, its design and electrons out of covalent bonds holding and these are available to alignment the
role in the control of power flow in a system. reverse current. This is known as the zener effect.
The avalanche effect occurs if the reverse bias voltage is made larger than 5V or so.
Application of Power electronic The velocity with which the charge carries moves through the crystal lattice is
Commercial: UPS, computer and office equipment elevators, light dimmers, flashers increased to such an extent that they attain enough kinetic energy to ionized atoms by
heating, air-conditioning, adverting, etc. collision. An atom is said to have been ionized when one of its electron has been
Industrial: arc and industrial furnaces blowers and fans, pumps and compressors, removed. Zener diodes are available in a number of standardized reference voltages
industrial lasers, welding, excavators, textile mills. Etc. e.g. it is possible to obtain a zener diode with a reference (breakdown) voltage of 8.2V.
Residential: air conditioning, cooking, lighting space heating, refrigerators, electric door An alternative name for the device is a voltage reference diode.
operators dryers, fans, PC Food Mixtures etc. Applications:
Transportation: Street Cars, trolley busses automotive electronics, battery charger. - Voltage reference
Aerospace: Space shuttle power supply system, Satellite P.s, an aircraft P.s - Peak clipper
Main Power Source. - Voltage Regulator
- Meter protection against damage from accidental application excessive voltage.

2
Varactor Diodes THYRISTORS
A P-N junction is a region of high resistivity sandwiched between two regions of relatively - Thyristor comprise those solid-state devices that have two or more P.N
low resistivity such a junction therefore processes capacitance, the magnitude of which junction (three, four or five) semi-conductors layers that can be switched
given by :C = A/wwhere from non-conducting to conducting state. It is a solid-state electronic switch
 – Permittivity of semiconductor for high values of current in the range of amperes. It has replaced relays,
A – Area of the function mechanical switches in many applications such as lighting, motor speed
w – Width of the depletion layer. w is not constant quantity but instead varies control, etc.
with the magnitude and the polarity of the voltage applied across the junction. - Formerly there was order device called thyratron which was order device
Most semiconductor diodes are manufactured in such a way that their junction capacitance called thyratron which was a gas – filled tube that passes current when an arc
is minimized but varactor diode has been designed to have a particular range of discharge occurs at a critical firing voltage.
capacitance values. - Below is thyristor family:
The varactor diode is operated with a reverse bias and then its junction capacitance is
inversely proportion to the square root of the bias voltage V i.e. Thyristor
C = K/ V
Figure shows graphically how the capacitance of a varactor diode varies with the reverse
bias voltage and it, also shows the symbol of a varactor diode. Typically the capacitance
variation might be 2 – 12 pF or 20 – 28 pF or 27 –72 pF.
Unidirectional Bi-directional Triggers
Application of varactor diode (4 layers) (5 layers)
1. In automatic frequency control device
2. Adjustable band pass filter
3. FM modulator
4. Parametric amplifier.
SCR SCS LASCR TRIAC UJT Bi-directional

KEY Unidirectional 5 layers 4 layers

(4 layers)
SCR – Silicon Controlled rectifier
SCS – Silicon Controlled Switch
LASCR – Light Activated Silicon controlled rectifier SBS DIAC
SUS – Silicon Unilateral switch. SUS Shockley
Diode
SBS – Silicon Bilateral Switch.
UJT – unipolar Junction Transistors.

 SCR is unidirectional device allowing the current to flow in only one direction
while the triac is bi-directional type and may be thought as two SCRs connected
in antiparallel.
 Once a thyristor “fires’, current continues to flow until the voltage across the
device reverses. In order to trigger thyristor into conduction a number of
triggering devices have been developed, which with suitable circuiting can
control the point at which thyristor begin to conduct, thus a.c and d.c power
variation is made possible allowing light, heat and motor speed control to be
carried out economically and efficiently.

3
  UJT are ideally suited for firing thyristor, which connected in suitable relaxation a) Biasing and operation
oscillation circuit.  When a voltage is applied across thyristor with polarity such that its anode is
held negative with respect to its cathode PN Junction J1 and J3 are reverse
THYRISTOR AS A PNPN DEVICE biased and device only conducts a small leakage current.
 If the reverse voltage across the SCR is increased the leakage current will
also increase slowly at first, and then at the point where an avalanche
P1 P1 P1 breakdown occurs it rapidly increases to a large value that may destroy the
device.
N1 N1 N1
 If a forward voltage is applied across the SCR so that the anode is held
P2 P2 P2 junction J1 and J3 will become forward biased but junction J2 will be reverse
biased. Also once again only small leakage current will be flowing and the
N2 N2 N2 SCR is said to be forward blocking state (OFF). This forward leakage
current also increases slowly with increase in forward voltage until the
breakdown voltage VBO is reached. At this point the current passed by SCR
Fig1.3. Thyristor as PNPN device increases rapidly and the voltage across the device falls to a much lower
value VT .
 In fig. 2b, positive voltage is applied to T1, then the middle junction has a reverse  SCR is made to conduct a large forward current when the forward anode-
bias, positive at the N side of J2 and negative at the P side. No forward current cathode voltage is smaller than breakdown voltage VBO by triggering or
can flow between the end terminals because of the reverse bias across J2. firing the device. Triggering is achieved by injecting a current pulse into the
 In fig 2c, negative voltage is applied to T1. The J1 and J3 have reverse bias. gate terminal.
Again, no current can flow between the end terminals because of the internal  When a gate signal is applied, thyristor turns ON at a voltage below VB0
reverse bias. depending on the magnitude of gate current. The higher the gate current, the
 Now what the PNPN device needs is an added gate electrode to provide a trigger lower is the forward break sown voltage.
voltage that can start the current conduction.  Once the thyristor start conducting a forward current exceeding the minimum
valve called the latching current, the gate signal is no longer required to
1. SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) maintain the device in its ON state. The thyristor returns to blocking state if
It is 4-layer PNPN device that consist of an alloy of N-type material into a silicon the anode current falls below a level called holding current.
PNP pellet providing two main terminals namely anode and cathode. The gate  Note hence that the IL is associated with turn ON process while IH to the
contact is welded to P- region to form the third terminal usually referred to as gate. It turn OFF process.
is a rectifier with a control element. It consists of 3 diodes connected back to back  One the thyristor start conducting fully, gate loses control on it and the
with gate connection. It is widely used as a switching device in power control device can turn OFF i.e. become non-conducting only on reducing the
applications. It can control loads by switching currents off and on up to many forward current to a level below the holding current IH. This process of
thousands times/sec. It can also switch on for a variable length of time, thereby turning OFF is also referred to commutation.
delivering selected amount of power to the load.
Basic operation of SCR
P1

N1

P2

N2
SCR symbol and its construction

4
b) Two transistor Analogy The operational differences between SCR and Transistor is:
The principle of operation of an SCR can be explained by treating SCR to be - Once a SCR is turned on by a gate signal, it remains latched in on-state due
constituted by two BJT transistors, one PNP and NPN. The gate current is to internal regenerative action whereas a transistor must be given continuous
amplified by the NPN transistor and then appears at the collector as hfe2Ig. This base signal to remain in on-state.
current then flows in the base of PNP transistor to appear at its collector as - In order to turn-off a SCR, a reverse voltage must be applied across its
hfe1.hfe2Ig. In turn this current appears at the base of NPN transistor where anode-cathode terminals. Whereas a transistor turns off when its base signal
regenerative action takes place which result in device switching to its forward on is removed.
characteristics.
c) Firing or Triggering
The SCR may switch from a non-conducting state to conducting state through
several ways.
(i) Forward voltage trigger: When anode to cathode forward voltage of SCR
is increased with gate act kept open, the reverse bias junction J2 suffers an
avalanche breakdown at a voltage VBO. At this voltage, thyristor changes
state from OFF state to ON state characterized by low voltage drop across
SCR and a large forward current in practice. This method of triggering is
not employed as it may result in damage to the device.
(ii) Gate Triggering: In this method, which is widely used, forward anode to
cathode widely used, forward anode to cathode voltage is kept at a value
much lower than VBO, and a positive voltage signal of suitable magnitude
is applied at the gate resulting in triggering of the thyristor from OFF to
ON state. The gate signal may be in form of D.C voltage, pulse voltage or
sinusoidal voltage.
(iii) Thermal triggering: Under forward blocking state, most of the applied
voltage appears across the reverse bias junction J2. This large voltage
SCR two-transistor model across J2 along with the leakage current way causes enough dissipation of
energy as heat at J2. This increases in temperature causes further increase
In the off-state of a transistor, collector current IC is related to emitter current IE in the leakage current through J2. This is a cumulative process and may
as: IC = IE +ICBO turn on the SCR at suitably high temp.
Where  is common-base current gain hfe and ICBO is common-base (iv) dv/dt triggering: Under forward bias condition, J1 and J3 are forward
leakage current of collector-base junction. biased whereas J2 is reverse biased . This J2 behaves as a capacitor. Now
For transistor Q1: emitter current IE = anode current Ia and IC = collector current if the forward voltage is applied suddenly, a charging current flows
IC1. IC1 = 1Ia + ICBO1 tending to turn ON the device. let the applied voltage be V, charge Q and
For Q2, IC2 = 2Ik + ICBO2 junction capacitance CJ, then the instantaneous current ic due to suddenly
The sum of the two collector current is equal to external circuit current Ia entering applied voltage is
at anode terminal A. ic = dQ/dt = d(Cjv) /dt = Cj dv/dt.
Ia = IC1+ IC2 If assumed Cj is almost constant, when dv/dt is large, the device may turn-
Ia = 1Ia + ICBO1 + 2Ik + ICBO2 ON even when the voltage across the device is small.
When gate current is applied, then Ik = Ia+ Ig. Substituting this value of Ik in the (v) Radiation Triggering/Light triggering.
above Eq. gives: In this method, additional energy for triggering is imparted by light
Ia = 1Ia + ICBO1 + 2 (Ia + Ig) + ICBO2 radiation or some other radiation. This additional energy results in
generation of electron-hole pairs thereby increasing the concentration of
Ia = 2Ig +ICBO1+ICBO2
change carries, hence an instantaneous flows of current within the device
1- (1+2)
and triggering of the device, e.g. in LASCR.

5
d) Turning OFF (Commutation) - At voltages less than the breakover voltage, a very small amount of current called the
It is not possible for a thyristor to turn itself OFF; hence the associated circuit must leakage current flows through the device. Leakage current produced due to the drift
reduce the thyristor current to zero to make it turn OFF. This process is known as of electrons and holes at the depletion region is not sufficient to cause conduction in
commutation. Commutation signifies transfer of current from one path to another. the device. The device remains practically in non-conducting mode – the blocking
Commutation methods are classified into 4 groups:- state.
- At point A when the voltage level reaches the breakover voltage, the device starts
i) Natural or line commutation conducting. During its conduction, the device exhibits negative resistance
It makes use of the alternating on reversing nature of a.c voltage to cause transfer characteristics. The current flowing in the device starts increasing and the voltage
of current. As the a c current passes through zero from positive to negative side, across it starts decreasing. This portion of characteristic shown by AB is known as
a reverse voltage appears across the thyristor turning it off. It is mainly used in the conduction state.
ac voltage controllers; phase controlled rectifiers, inventers, step down - Similar explanation holds good for the negative half-cycle of triggering. The
cycloconverters etc. characteristic obtained in the third quadrant will be a replica of that obtained in the
ii) Forced commutation first quadrant. This is because the doping level is same at the two junctions of the
Thyristor is turned OFF by reducing the device current to zero and maintained at device.
zero for sufficiently long time to permit removal of change carriers. Used in D.C - Once the device starts conducting, the current flowing through it is very high which
choppers and inventers. has to be limited by some external resistance.
iii) Load commutation - DIACs are mainly used as a trigger device for TRIAC that require either positive or
L and C are connected in series with the load impedance or C in parallel with the negative gate pulses to turn ON.
load impedance such that the overall circuit is under damped.
Used in services inventers.
iv) External pulse Commutation
Uses an external commutating pulse applied through a transformer. This circuit
has very high efficiency. However it is not popularly used.

e) Application
- SCR behave as a bistable switch, either non-conducting or conducting.
Typical applications are in regulated power supplies, dc to ac inverters, radar
modulations, servo systems and latching relays etc.
. Symbol and V-I characteristics of DIAC
2. DIAC
It is a three-layer dual-trigger diode that is bi-directional thus produces an output 3. TRIAC
pulse on each half cycle. It functions like a pair of back-to-back trigger diode. Hence, A triac is a semi-conductor device whose operation is similar to that of two SCR
it can be switched from off to on state for either polarity of the applied voltage. connected in reverse parallel. A triac is able to conduct a large conduct a large
Because of this feature, DIAC are frequently used as triggering devices in TRIAC current in either direction or the other by a gate pulse of appropriate polarity.
phase control circuit used for light dimming, universal motor speed control and heat
control. Operation
The gate terminal is connected to both P2 and N3 so that the triac can be turned on by
Operation either the positive going or negative going pulse of gate current. The input and output
Conduction occurs in the DIAC when the breakover voltage is reached in either of main terminal MT1, and MT2 respectively which are connected to both an N-type
polarity across the terminals. and P-type region i.e. MT1 is connected to N1 and P1 and hence it is possible for
 When T1 is positive with respect to T2, and if voltage V12 exceeds VBO1, then current to flow either:
the structure PNPN conducts. a) With MT2 positive with respect to MT1. The path will be P1, N2 P2 and N4.
 Similarly when T2 is positive with respect to T1 and if voltage V21 exceeds b) With MT1 positive with respect to MT2. The path will be P2, N2, P1 and N1.
VBO2, the structure PNPN conducts. When the triac is ON, a current flowing in MT1 and MT2 is known as the principal
current. As with SCR, the triac can be turned on by;
6
 i) Apply a gate current
ii) Exceeding the avalanche breakdown voltage Arrangements shown in (a) and (c) are most often employed since the use of the same
iii) By allowing MT1 – MT2 applied voltage to increase at a rate in excess of polarity voltage for both the gate and the MT2 terminal allows the power supplies to be
maximum dv/dt value. derived from the same source, and this considerably simplified the circuiting of the trigger
module.
Static Characteristics of a TRIAC
Advantages and Disadvantages of TRIAC over SCR
Merits
 Triac can be triggered with positive or negative polarity voltage.
 Triac does not need a diode to protect against reverse voltage.

Disadvantages
 Have low dv/dt voting compared to SCR.
 Reliability is less
 Triggering act for triac a careful consideration.

4. UJT (Unijuction Transistors)

There are three types:
i) Standard UJT
(a) circuit Symbol and (b) static V-I characteristics of a triac. ii) Complementary UJT (CUJT)
iii) Programmable UJT (PUT)
When MT2 is positive with respect to MTI, the triac operates in the 1st quadrant of its static The UJT, CUJT and PUT are widely used for generation of trigger pulses for SCRs.
characteristics, if it is not triggered, the small forward current increases slowly with
increase in voltage until the breakdown voltage VB0 is reached and then the current CUJT
increases rapidly. - This is a silicon planar monolithic integrated circuit. It has unijuction characteristics
The device can be turned ON at a smaller forward current by injecting a suitable gate with superior stability, much tighter intrinsic standoff ratio () distribution and low
current and the characteristics show the effect of increasing gate current. The gate current voltage. CUJT characteristic are like those of standard UJT except that the current
must be maintained until the main current is at least equal to the latching current. and voltage applied to it are of opposite polarity. It can be used in many applications
When MT1 is positive with respect to MT2, the triac operates in the 3rd quadrant and the that use the standard UJT. Their unique stability and uniform property make them
current focus on the opposite direction. The triac can be triggered to operate in either ideal for stable oscillators, timers and frequency dividers.
quadrant by an application of either a positive or negative gate current pulse i.e.
PUT
- PUT is a three terminal planar PNP device in the standard plastic low-cost TO–98
package.
- The terminals are designated at anode, gate and cathode. PUT offers many
advantages over conventional UJT. The designer selects R1, and R2 to program
unijuction characteristics to meet particular needs.
- A definite voltage is applied to the gate of PUT through the voltage divider action of
R2 and R1. The voltage is given by VR1= R1 V
R1 + R2

The capacitor is charged Vc from a voltage V through R. when the anode voltage Vc
exceed the gate voltage VR1, the PUT start conducting and triggers the SCR.
Turning-ON process in a triac
7
 The ratio of RB1 to the entire interbase resistance RBB is intrinsic stand – off ratio .
= RB1 = RB1
RBB RB1 + RB2
When VBB is applied between B2 and B1, the voltage Vx which appears between the
junction and base B1 is given by:
Vx = VBB RB1 = VBB
RB1 + RB2
Operation
- When emitter diode is reverse biased, extremely small emitter current flows and UJT
is on OFF state, due to high valve of RBI
- When emitter diode is forward biased, no current flows through the diode so long as
the applied voltage is less than Vx= VBB. When the applied voltage exceeds Vx,
current flows through the diode so long as the applied voltage is less than Vx, current
flows decreases the value of RB1, through the process of conductivity modulation.
- UJT is normally operated with both B2 and E biased positive with respect to B1.
When VE is increased from zero, and as long as the VEVBB, the E-B, pn junction
is reverse biased and the IE is negative as shown by curve AB.
- When VE = VBB + VD at point P, IE becomes positive and pn junction begins to
conduct. VD is the forward voltage drop across the junction. Point P is the peak
Typical firing circuit using PUT
point. At point P, VP = VBB + VD , the peak point voltage.
- ON STATE: At P, emitter injects holes in the base region extending pn junction to B1
UJT
because of this increased number of positive change carries holes, RB1 of this
Basically, it is a three terminal semiconductor diode. It has two unequally doped regions
decreases. Thus the device exhibits negative resistance in the region PV as shown in
with three external leads doped regions with three external leads. The emitter is heavily
the fig1.11.
doped whereas bar of N-material is lightly doped and hence possesses high sensitivity.
- At point V, (valley point) the entire base region has gone saturated and RB1 no longer
Thus UJT has emitter, base B1 and base B2. The resistance between B1 and B2 is interbase
decreases with increase of current. Any further increase in IE is accompanied by a rise
resistance RBB (with order of 5 to 10K). The RBB is resistance of the n-type silicon base of voltage VE as shown by VC.
bar and is considered to be constituted by: - Once UJT is ON, its emitter current IE depends mainly on VEE and RE. As VEE
- Resistance from B1 to junction point, RB1 decreases, IE decreases along CV on the VE-IE curve to the valley current IV which is
- Resistance from B2 to Junction point, RB2. the holding current for the UJT.
NB: RB1 is greater than RB2. - Finally as IE reduces below IV, the UJT, turns OFF and its operation instantaneously
switches back to the OFF region where IE  0 and VE VEE.

Basic structure, circuit symbol and equivalent circuit of UJT

8
UJT Relaxation Oscillator Triggering Controllable Switches (Power Transistors)
UJT is an extremely efficient switch mostly used as triggering device fro SCRs and - Power transistors are devices that have controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics
TRIACs. Below is a basic circuit of UJT as saw tooth voltage generator. hence can be turned “ON”and “OFF” by relatively very small control signals.
- These devices are switching devices and are operated in the saturation region resulting
in low on-state voltage drop, thus operated in SATURATION and CUT-OFF modes
only.
- They are turned on when a current signal is given to base or control terminal. The
transistor remains on so long as the control signal is present.
- The switching speeds of modern transistors is much higher than that of thyristors and
are used extensively in dc-dc and dc-ac converters.
- However their voltage and current ratings are lower than those of thyristors and are
therefore used in low to medium power applications.

Basic circuit and voltage waveform of UJT oscillator

R1 and R2 are kept small compared with RB1 and RB2. When VBB is applied, C charges
through R exponentially toward VBB with time constant 1 = RC. During this
charging process, emitter circuit of UJT remains open circuit. At this point VC = VE.
VC = VE = VBB (1- e-t/RC)
When VC =VE reaches Vp= VBB + VD, the Pn junction between E and B, breaks
down and UJT turns ON. Immediately C rapidly discharges through low value R1
- Power transistors are classified as follows
with very slow time constant 2 = RC. When VE drops to the VV, UJT turns off and
the cycle is repeated. o Bipolar junction transistors(BJTs)
o Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs)
Let T1, be the time taken by C to change from VV to VP through resistor R. o Insulated-gate bipolar transistors(IGBTs)
Then VP = VBB + VD
= VV + VBB (1-e-T1/RC) 6. Bipolar Junction Transistors
Assuming that VDVV the above equation gives - The need for a large blocking voltage in the off state and a high current carrying
= 1– e-TI/RC capability in the on state means that a power BJT must have substantially different
Hence T1 = RC In (1/1-) structure than its small signal equivalent.
Total time period of one cycle =T = T1 + T2 - The modified structure leads to significant differences in the I-V characteristics and
But T2  T1 Hence T =T1 switching behavior between power transistors and its logic level counterpart.
Then 1/f = T= RC In 1
1- Power Transistor Structure
Uses: - The structure of conventional transistor has a thin p-layer is sandwiched between two
- Sine wave generator – Switching.
n-layers or vice versa to form a three terminal device with the terminals named as
- Square law multivibrator – saw- generators
- Time delay circuits –for TV receivers. Emitter, Base and Collector.

9
- The structure of a power transistor is as shown below

- The power transistor has steady state characteristics almost similar to signal level
- A power transistor is a vertically oriented four layer structure of alternating p-type and transistors except that the V-I characteristics has a region of quasi saturation as shown.
n-type. - Such feature is a consequence of the lightly doped collector drift region where the
- The vertical structure is preferred because it maximizes the cross sectional area and collector–base junction supports a low reverse bias.
through which the current in the device is flowing. This also minimizes on-state - If the transistor enters in the hard-saturation region the on-state power dissipation is
resistance and thus power dissipation in the transistor. minimized, but has to be traded off with the fact that in quasi-saturation the stored
- The doping of emitter layer and collector layer is quite large typically 1019cm-3. A charges are smaller. At high collector currents beta gain decreases with increased
special layer called the collector drift region (n-) has a light doping level of 1014. temperature and with quasi-saturation operation such negative feedback allows careful
- The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the transistor. device paralleling.
The base thickness is made as small as possible in order to have good amplification
capabilities, however if the base thickness is small the breakdown voltage capability
of the transistor is compromised.
- Practical power transistors have their emitters and bases interleaved as narrow fingers
as shown. The purpose of this arrangement is to reduce the effects of current crowding.
- This multiple emitter layout also reduces parasitic ohmic resistance in the base current
path which reduces power dissipation in the transistor.

Steady State Characteristics

- Figure shows the circuit to obtain the steady state characteristics and output
characteristics of the signal level transistor.

- There are four regions on voltage–current (VI) characteristics for a vertical power
transistor as shown: Cutoff region, Active region, quasi saturation and hard
saturation.
- The cutoff region is the area where base current is almost zero. Hence no collector
current flows and transistor is off.
10
- In the quasi saturation and hard saturation, the base drive is applied and transistor - FET’s use field effect for their operation. FET is manufactured by diffusing two areas
is said to be on. Hence collector current flows depending upon the load. of p-type into the n-type semiconductor as shown.
- The power BJT is never operated in the active region (i.e. as an amplifier), it is - Each p-region is connected to a gate terminal; the gate is a p-region while source and
always operated between cutoff and saturation. drain are n-region.
- The BVSUS is the maximum collector to emitter voltage that can be sustained when - Since it is similar to two diodes one is a gate source diode and the other is a gate drain
BJT is carrying substantial collector current. diode.
- The BVCEO is the maximum collector to emitter breakdown voltage that can be - Unlike the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the MOSFET device belongs to the
sustained when base current is zero and BVCBO is the collector base breakdown Unipolar Device family, since it uses only the majority carriers in conduction.
voltage when the emitter is open circuited. - Unlike low power (signal devices), power devices are more complicated in structure,
- The primary breakdown shown takes place because of avalanche breakdown of driver design, and understanding of their operational i–v characteristics.
collector base junction. Large power dissipation normally leads to primary breakdown. - Power MOSFET’s are generally of enhancement type only.
The second breakdown shown is due to localized thermal runaway. - This MOSFET is turned ‘ON’ when a voltage is applied between gate and source. The
- MOSFET can be turned ‘OFF’ by removing the gate to source voltage. Thus gate has
control over the conduction of the MOSFET.
- The turn-on and turn-off times of MOSFET’s are very small. Hence they operate at
very high frequencies; hence MOSFET’s are preferred in applications such as
choppers and inverters.
- Since only voltage drive (gate-source) is required, the drive circuits of MOSFET are
very simple. The paralleling of MOSFET’s is easier due to their positive temperature
coefficient.
- But MOSFTS’s have high on-state resistance hence for higher currents; losses in the
MOSFET’s are substantially increased. Hence MOSFET’s are used for low power
applications.
- On the other side of n substrate, a metal layer is deposited to form the drain terminal.
Advantages of BJT’s Now p regions are diffused in the epitaxially grown n layer. Further n regions are
- BJT’s have high switching frequencies since their turn-on and turn-off times are low. diffused in the p regions as shown.
- The turn-on losses of a BJT are small. - SiO2 layer is added, which is then etched so as to fit metallic source and gate terminals.
- BJT has controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics since base drive control is A power MOSFET actually consists of a parallel connection of thousands of basic
possible. MOSFET cells on the same single chip of silicon.
- BJT does not require commutation circuits. - When gate circuit voltage is zero and VDD is present, n p junctions are reverse biased
and no current flows from drain to source.
Demerits of BJT - When gate terminal is made positive with respect to source, an electric field is
- Drive circuit of BJT is complex.
established and electrons from n channel in the p regions. Therefore a current from
- It has the problem of charge storage which sets a limit on switching frequencies. It
drain to source is established.
cannot be used in parallel operation due to problems of negative temperature
- Power MOSFET conduction is due to majority carriers therefore time delays caused
coefficient.
by removal of recombination of minority carriers is removed.
- Because of the drift region the ON state drop of MOSFET increases. The thickness of
Power MOSFET
the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of MOSFET

11
Static Induction Transistors (SITS)
- A static induction transistor (SIT) is a high-voltage, high-power, high-frequency
device that can be considered essentially the solid-state version of a triode vacuum
tube, which has been known for a long time.
- It is a short N-channel majority carrier device where the P-type gate electrodes are
buried within the drain and source N-type layers.
- A drawback of the device is that it is normally on, but if gate voltage is negative, the
reverse-biased P-N junction will inhibit drain current flow.
- Functionally, it is almost identical to a junction-FET, except that its lower channel
resistance causes lower conduction drop.
- The reliability, noise, and radiation hardness of an SIT are claimed to be superior to a
MOSFET. Although the conduction drop of the device is lower than that of an
equivalent series-parallel combination of MOSFETs, the excessively large con
duction drop makes it unsuitable in most power electronics applications unless
justified by a need for FET-like switching frequency.
- These devices have been used in AM/FM transmitters, high-frequency induction
heating, high-voltage, low-current power supplies, ultrasonic generators, and linear
power amplifier

12
TOPIC 2: RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

RECTIFICATION
A rectifier is a circuit that converts a.c voltages and currents to d.c voltage and current.
The output is pulsating in nature that consist d.c component and unwanted signal (ripple)
components. The ripple component are removed by filter and then stabilized by use of
regulator.
There two main categories of rectifier:
(i) Uncontrolled rectifiers.
(ii) Controlled rectifiers.
These rectifiers depend on the number of phases and the devices used for rectification,
whether diodes or controlled rectifying devices. Hence rectifiers are further classified as
- Half wave rectifiers
- Full wave rectifiers

1. Single-Phase Rectification
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier with R load and its waveforms
I. Half – wave Rectification.
It converts the a.c voltage into a pulsating voltage using only one-half cycle of the
applied a.c voltage. Let the applied voltage be Vi = Vm sint and the current that flow
ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms
through the diode or load resistance R is i

∫
Then i = IM sint for 0≤ t≤ 
Vrms = 1 VM2 sin2t d (t)
i=0 for ≤t≤ 2
2
And the peak current IM = VM
Rf + R

∫
Note that this current is a unidirectional current.
Vdc = VM 1 – cos2t d (t)
i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc 2

∫
= VM
Vdc = 1 VM sint d (t)
2
2
iii) Average value of load current Idc
Idc = Vdc = VM If Rf is negligible then;
= VM - cost
R+ Rf (R+Rf)
2 = VM
R
= VM
 iv) RMS value of current Irms
Irms = VM
2R

v) Peak value of load or diode current IM= VM/R

13
vi) Peak inverse voltage PIV is the maximum voltage that appears across the device b) A p-n diode used as a half wave rectifier has forward resistance Rf =40. The applied
during its blocking state. PIV = VM = √2.Vs = √2 (RMS value of transformer secondary input voltage is 40sin314t. No filter is used. Calculate: (a) peak, average and rms
voltage) values of the load current, (b) a.c power input and d.c power output for load resistance
vii) Power delivered to resistive load = (RMS load voltage). (RMS load current) RL =2000 (c) rectifier efficiency (d) ripple factor and (d) TUF.
= Vrms. Irms = VM. VM = VM2 = Vs2 = Irms2 R Ans: 19.6mA, 6.24mA ,9.8mA, 196mW, 79.43mW, , 39.73%, 1.21, 0.283.
2 2R 4R 2R
II Full Wave Rectification
viii) Input power factor = Power delivered to load There are two type of circuit used. i) Centre tapped transformer rectifier
Input in VA ii) Bridge rectifier
= Vrms. Irms = Vrms = √2Vs = 0.707 lag.
Vs . Irms Vs 2Vs
ix) Rectifier Efficiency : This is the ratio of the d.c output power Pdc to the a.c input
power Pin.
 = Pdc = Idc2 R = IM2 . IM2 = 4 = 40.53 %
Pac Irms2 R 2 4 

x) Ripple Factor This is the ratio of the effective value of the a.c component of voltage
or current to the direct or average value.
 = Iac = Irms2 – Idc2
Idc Idc2

For a half wave rectifier Irms = IM/2 and Idc = IM/

Hence ripple factor  = 1.21

Single-phase full-wave centre-tapped rectifier and its waveforms

Advantages and disadvantages half wave Rectifier

Advantages
- Simple circuit
- Low cost
Disadvantages
- Low rectification efficiency
- Higher ripple factor
- Low TUF
- Dc saturation of transformer core because the current through the secondary of
the power transformer flows in the same direction.

Question 1
a) Derive the expression for the transformer utilization factor (TUF)

14
 - Dc saturation of transformer core is avoided.
Disadvantages
- More circuit element
Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier and its waveforms - Higher cost

Question 2
i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc a) Outline the comparison of half wave and full wave rectifiers
b) State the merits and demerits of bridge rectifiers
Vdc = 1
 ∫ VM sint d (t) c) With aid of diagrams explain various types of power supply filters.
d) Explain the working of a simple zener diode d.c voltage stabilizer. State its merits
and demerits.
= 2VM e) A full wave centre tapped rectifier uses load resistor of 1200. No filter is used.
 Assume each diode to have idealized characteristics with Rf = 8 and Rr = ∞ . Sine
wave voltage applied to each diode has amplitude of 30volts and frequency 50Hz.
ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms Calculate: (a) peak, d.c and rms load current (b) d.c power output (c) a.c power
input (d) rectifier efficiency.
Vrms = 1
 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t) Ans: 24.8 mA, 15.79mA, 17.54mA, 299mW, 317.64mW, 80.4%

= VM = Vs 2. Polyphase Supplies Rectification

√2 - Diodes are used with polyphase supplies to give a rectified output that has basically
iii) Average value of load current Idc less ripples than rectifier operating from single-phase supplies. This is advantageous
= 2VM even in applications when filtering is not significant. In such applications, polyphase
R rectifier has higher efficiency since less power is wasted in the d.c operated load.
iv) RMS value of current Irms - Polyphase rectifier is preferred since electric power is mostly generated and
Irms = VM distributed in 3-phase network, and any high power rectifier should load all the three
√2R phases equally. Polyphase rectifiers operating from 3-phase supply are used when
large amount of d.c power are needed.
v) Power delivered to resistive load = (RMS load voltage). (RMS load current) - Another advantage of polyphase rectifier is that it needs lesser-associated equipment
= Vrms. Irms = Irms2 R such as transformers e.t.c.
- Although polyphase rectifiers operate from a three supply, they are called (i) two
vi) Input power factor = Power delivered to load phase (ii) three phase or (iii) six phase rectifiers depending on their operation methods.
Input in VA The following types of rectifiers are commonly used.
= Vrms. Irms = 1 a) Three-phase half-wave delta-wye rectifier
Vs . Irms b) Three- phase full-wave delta-wye bridge rectifier
Ripple factor for Half Wave Rectifier → 1.21 c) Six phase star half wave rectifier
Ripple factor for Full Wave Rectifier → 0.482
Uses of Polyphase Rectifiers
- In electric traction.
Advantages and disadvantages full wave Rectifier - In electro – chemical processes such as extraction of aluminium and magnesium.
Advantages - For d.c power supplies to higher power electronic equipment such as radio
- Higher rectification efficiency transmitter, electronic heater e.t.c.
- Low ripple factor - In large power d.c motors.
- Higher TUF

15
a) Three-phase half-wave delta-wye rectifier
The transformer primary is connected in delta while the secondary in star connected. ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms
The connection at the centre of Y forms the neutral.
It may be seen that for certain interval of time, more than one anode is positive with
respect to the neutral but only anode with the highest voltage at the instant conducts.
Vrms = 3
2 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t)

The arc transfers from one anode to the next at the instant their voltages become equal.
When diode D1 is conducting, then its cathode and the positive end of the load resistor = 0.838VM
RL are at the voltage V1. During this period of conduction of D1, the cathodes of D2 iii) Power input from the secondary of the transformer Pac
and D3 are positive with respect to their anodes and hence these diodes cannot conduct.
The cathode current of diodes D1 may be expressed as,
i1 = VM sint,  < wt < 5
Pac = 3
∫VM2 sin2t d (t)
2 RL
RL 6 6
The load current is 3 times the average current of one diode. = 0.706VM2
RL

iv) Rectifier Efficiency :

 = Pdc = 96.5 %
Pac

v) Ripple factor
 = Irms – 1 = 0.17
Idc

vi) PIV occurs when the peak voltage appears across a diode while non-conducting.
PIV = √ 3VM =√ 6Vrms = 2.09 Vdc

The d.c component of current flows through each transformer secondary. Hence
the circuit has the drawback of d.c saturation of the transformer core.

b) Six phase star half wave rectifier

The circuit resembles that three of single-phase full-wave rectifiers connected in
parallel but having their secondary voltages displaced from one another by 1200
electrically. The rectified voltage is as shown below by thick solid curve and
fundamental ripple frequency is six times the supply frequency.

Fig 2.4. 3-phase half-wave rectifier and its waveforms

i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc

Vdc = 3
2 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= 0.827VM
16
 iii) Power input from the secondary of the transformer Pdc

Pdc = 6
∫ VM2 sin2t d (t)
2 RL

= 0.9135 VM2
RL

v) Rectifier Efficiency :
 = Pdc = 99.84 %
Pac

v) Ripple factor
 = Irms – 1 = 0.04
Idc

vi) PIV occurs when the peak voltage appears across a diode while non-conducting.
PIV = VM = Vdc = 1.047 Vdc
6-phase half-wave rectifier and its waveforms 0.955
Zig-zag connection is used to eliminate d.c saturation of the transformer core. Each
The sine waves of voltage appearing across secondary coils, 1,2,3, etc are 600 out of the three transformers used in this circuit has one primary and two secondary
of phase with each other. windings which are placed on the same core parallel to each other with the result
The operation of a six-phase half-wave rectifier is similar to that of a three-phase that the two windings of each core carry d.c currents in the opposite directions
half wave rectifier. Thus at a time only one out of the six diodes conducts to feed thereby neutralizing the d.c fluxes.
current to the load resistor RL. It is the diode with the highest positive anode
voltage that conducts. The cathode current of diode D1 is expressed as: c) Three- phase full-wave delta-wye bridge rectifier
i1 = VM sint,  < wt < 2 The rectifier may be considered to be constituted by two three-phase rectifiers operating
RL 3 3 from the same 3-phase star secondary and connected in series. The advantage of this
The load current is 6 times the average current of one diode. circuit is that there is no necessity to have a neutral point.
i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc The rectifier elements D4, D5 and D6 conduct during positive halves of the phase voltage
and produce positive output voltage with respect to the neutral. Diode D1, D2 and D3
Vdc = 6
2 ∫ VM sint d (t) conduct during the negative halves of the phase voltages and produce output voltage with
respect to the neutral. The two outputs get added in series.
Diode D4, D5, D1 and D2 form a bridge rectifier circuit similar to that of a single phase full
= 0.955VM wave bridge between the R and Y lines. Similarly D5, D6 D2 and D3 between Y and B
lines and D4, D6, D1 D3 between the B and R lines. When VRY is at its maximum positive
ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms value diode D4, and D2 will be conducting. These two diodes will continue conducting
until VRB are more positive than VRY and diode D4 and D3 will start conducting. In this
Vrms = 6
2 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t) way, a pair of diode will conduct for one sixth of a cycle at a time. Each diode conducting
for one third of the cycle the waveform and circuits are shown below.

= 0.95577 VM

17
 Thyristor Converters (Phase Controlled Rectifiers)
Introduction
- Rectifier is a circuit, which converts a.c power into d.c power. It may be half wave
and full wave rectifier using diodes or controlled rectifiers using thyristors.
- Converter is a circuit which converts the nature of energy namely from a.c to d.c
(rectifier) or from d.c to a.c (inverter).

Classification of rectifiers
- Uncontrolled rectifiers.
- Controlled rectifiers.
i) Half controlled rectifiers or semi converters.
ii) Fully controlled rectifiers.
3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier, individual bridge circuits
i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc Half controlled rectifiers
- It consists of several thyristors and diodes, which conduct unilaterally but at the same
Vdc = 3
 ∫ VM sint d (t) time, allow adjustment of level of d.c voltage.

Fully controlled rectifiers (phase controlled rectifiers)

= 3VM - In this circuit, all rectifying elements are controlled rectifying devices. Turn-on phase
 angle of thyristors are suitably controlled to get the desired d.c (average) value of
ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms output voltage or current.
- It is also possible to reverse the d.c load voltage. In that case, the fully controlled
Vrms = 3
 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t) rectifier is called bi-directional converter since it permits flow of power in either
direction between the supply and the d.c load.

= VM Terminologies
1. Pulse Number: It describes the output characteristics of a given circuit and describes
the repetition rate in the output d.c voltage waveform over one cycle of the a.c supply.
Assignment E.g. six-pulse circuits has in its output a ripple of repetition rate six times the supply
a) For m-phase rectifier circuit, derive the expression for average load current and i.e fundamental ripple freq of 300 Hz for 50 Hz supply.
RMS load current, stating assumption made.
b) Explain how commutation takes place in polyphase rectifiers. 2. Commutating Diode (or Free Wheeling Diode): Several uncontrolled or half
c) Draw the circuit of a full wave rectifier using L-C filter. Explain how ripple controlled rectifier circuits use a diode across the load impedance. This diode is also
factor is minimized in this circuit. called free running diode, flywheel diode or bypass diode.
Functions:
- To prevent reversal of load voltage except for very small voltage drop.
- To transfer the load current away from the main rectifier thereby permitting all
the thyristors to regain their blocking state.

3. Over lap: The transfer or commutation of current from one thyristor to the next does
not take place instantaneously but requires a definite time. This is because of the
presence of inductance and reactance in the supply source. The current in outgoing
thyristor take a finite time to decay to zero and similarly the current in the incoming
thyristor uses at the same rate. Hence as the commutation takes place, there is a time
period during which both the outgoing and incoming thyristors are conducting. This
18
 period is called the period of overlap and the corresponding angle  is called the - At angle  > io reduces to zero and SCR is turned off since its already reverse
commutating angle or the angle of overlap. During this period, the total load current biased.
is the sum of the currents of the two thyristors. - Beyond t = , both Vo and io are zero.
- During the next positive half cycle, at t = 2 + , the SCR again gets triggered
Types of single-phase converters on and the cycle of operation repeats.
 Single-phase half-wave converter - This cycle repeats itself whenever the firing pulses are applied at the gate of SCR.
 Single phase full-wave converter - Angle  is the extinction angle. The SCR conducts during the angle  = ( – 
 Single phase full-wave bridge converter. known as conduction angle.
- VT (voltage across SCR) is:
Single phase half wave Converter i) VM sin at t = 
I. With R – L Load. ii) Zero for t =  to 
iii) VM sin  at t = 
- Hence the circuit turn-off time is given by
toff = 2 –  sec.

- For proper commutation in the circuit this toff (circuit turn-off time) should be
greater than the turn-off time of the SCR.

Load current Io
It consists of two components:
 The stead state component is.
 Transient component it.
a) is = VM = VM sin (t - )
Z √R2 + XL2
Where is the power factor angle of the load and is given by
tan  = XL = L
R R

b) it – is obtained through the following expression

R.it + Ldit = 0
dt
it = A e- (Rt/L)
- With R-L load connected, the load power depends on the value of firing angle 
of the SCR. Hence load current io = is + it
- At t = , V0 equals the source voltage Vs = VMsint and SCR conducts. = VM sin (t - ) + A e –(Rt/L)
Thereafter V0 follows the instantaneous source voltage Vs. However, due to the Z
presence of inductance L, the load current io does not follow Vs but rises
At t = , io = 0
gradually depending on the time constant of the entire circuit and reaches its
Hence io = 0 = VM sin (t - ) + A e –(R/L)t and t=
maximum value later than t = , depending on the load impendence and then
Z 
falls to zero value at angle  beyond  radians.
Thus A = - VM sin (- ) e R/L
- At time instant t = , Vs falls to zero but the load current io continues to flow.
Z
- Beyond t = , a negative voltage gets applied to the SCR but it does not turn off
as the load current io exceeds the holding current.
19
Hence io = VM sin (t - ) – VM sin (- ) e –R/l (t –  II For purely Resistive Load
Z Z L = 0, = 0, Z = R and = 
This equation is true during conduction period  ≤ t ≤ 
At t =, the load current Io again becomes zero.
Hence
0 = VM sin (t - ) – VM sin (- ) e –R/l (t – 
Z Z

sin ( - ) e –R/l (t – ) = sin  - )

i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc

Vdc = 1
2 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= VM (cos  – cos )
2

ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms

∫
Single Phase Half-wave controlled rectifier with purely resistive load and its waveforms
Vrms = 1 VM2 sin2t d (t)
2 i) Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc
= VM ( –  - ½ sin2 –sin2
2√
iii) Average value of load current Idc = Vdc /R
Vdc = 1
2 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= VM (cos  – cos ) = VM ( 1 + cos )

2R 2
iv) RMS value of current Irms ii) RMS value of output voltage Vrms
Irms = Vrms
R
Vrms = 1
2 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t)

= VM ( –  + ½ sin2
2√
iii) Average value of load current Idc
= VM ( 1 + cos )
2R

20
 iv) RMS value of current Irms  Mode I or conduction mode extending from  to  radians during which SCR
Irms = Vrms conducts.
R  Mode II extending from  to 2 + during which SCR does not conduct while diode
conducts. This mode is called non-conducting mode or freewheeling mode.
v) Output a.c power = Vrms . Irms
= VM2 ( – ) + ½ sin 2
4R

vi) Total volt ampere = (rms value of source voltage) X (total rms line current)
Vs Irms = √2 Vs2 ( – ) + ½ sin 2
2R √
vii) Efficiency as a rectifier
The d.c power developed across R
Pdc = Idc2.R = VM2 R (1 + cos )
42 R2
Input a.c power is
Pac = Vrms Irms = VM2 ( – ) + ½ sin 2
4R
Percentage rectifier efficiency = Pdc x 100
Pac
= (1 + cos  2 x 100
(– ) + ½ sin

III. Single Phase Half wave converter with free wheeling diode.
- A freewheeling diode is placed across the load in order to have a continuous load
current in the RL load circuit connected to the supply through the SCR.
- At t =, the SCR conducts and the source voltage Vs appears across the load as
load voltage V0.
- At t = , it just reverses polarity in the Vs. At this instant, the freewheeling Single Phase Half-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode and its
diode fd gets forward biases through the conducting SCR and contributes the load waveforms
current io.
- At t = , the current through the SCR falls below the holding current value and Mode I: During this mode, fd is reverse biased. The duration this mode in seconds is given
further the SCR is subjected to reverse voltage. As a result, SCR stops conduction. by
- It can be observed that during entire period freewheeling from t =  to ton = –
t = 2 + , the load current io does not decay to zero. 
- Beyond the time (2 + ), the SCR get fired again and sends current through the Freewheeling diode, being non-conducting, io
load impedance. io = VM sin (t - ) + A1 e –(R/L) t
- The voltage across freewheeling diode remains zero during the period of Z
freewheeling. At firing angle t = , io = Io
- The voltage across SCR varies with t, where it increases sinusoidally during A1 = Io – VM sin  - ) e R/ l
angle 0 to , remains zero fromto  and reverses during angle  to 2. Z
- Turn OFF time of SCR is = toff =  sec.
Hence the load current during conduction of SCR is
This circuit operates in two modes:
21
 io = VM sin (t - ) + Io – VM sin (- ) e –R(t – )/l 2 2
Z Z
b) d.c load power = Idc2.RL =
II. Mode II (Non-conduction mode) – from t =  to 2 + .
During this period, the load impedance receives current from the freewheeling diode.
The fd conducts during this period. Let the current at the beginning of this mode be Io. IV Single Phase Half wave converter with RLE Load
The voltage drop across the load is also zero. Hence The counter emf E in the load may be due to a battery or a dc motor. The minimum value
Rio + L dio = 0 of firing angle is obtained from the relation VM sin t = E. this is shown to occur at an
dt angle 1 where:
io = A2 e – Rt/L 1 = sin-1 (E/VM)
At t = , io = Io
Therefore A2 = Io e (2 / l )
io = Io e –R(t – /L

Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc

Vdc = 1
2 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= VM ( 1 + cos )
2

Merit of freewheeling diode

- Improved load current waveform.
- Improved input power factor.
- Improved overall performance.
Demerit
- When fd diode is used, the load draws power during both modes. Hence the
energy stored in the L is consumed in the load due to flywheel action. Thus
for the same value of firing angle , the power consumed by the load is more
when fd diode is used.

Example
A small water heater having a resistance of 7, which is constant with temperature, is
controlled by a half wave thyristor circuit at an operating 240 Vrms main supply.
Fig 2.10. Single Phase Half-wave controlled rectifier with RLE load and its waveforms
For firing angles of 2/3 and /3, determine;
a) The mean d.c load voltage
- In case T is fired at an angle then E Vs, SCR is reverse biased and not
b) d.c load power
c) p.f. turned on. Similarly, maximum value of firing angle is 
- During the internal io= 0, VO = E and during the time io  0, Vo follows Vs curve.
Solution - Using the KVL, the voltage differential equation is
a) i) Vdc = VM (1 + cos ) = √2 . 240 (1 + cos 2/3) = 27.01 V VM sin t= Rio +L dio + E
2 2 dt
- This equation contains two components.
ii) Vdc = VM (1 + cos ) = √2 . 240 (1 + cos /3) = 81.02 V
22
 (i) Steady state current component is There are two main categories for 1 full wave controlled converter, where adjusting the
(ii) Transient current component it. firing angle delay of the thyristors can control voltage at the output terminals.
- is = is1 +is2 i) Mid-point or centre tapped converter
where is1 is steady state current due to ac source voltage acting alone and ii) Bridge type converter
is2- due to dc counter emf E acting alone.
- Hence is1 due to the source voltage VM sint is is1 = VM sin ( t –) I. a) Mid-point or centre-tapped converter (Biphase)
Z - It uses two thyristors and power transformer with centre-tapped secondary.
- And if only E is present, then is2 = -E/R
- The transient current it = A e-(Rt/L)
- Thus total current io = is1 + Is2 + it.
= VM sin (t – ) – E + A e-(Rt/L)
Z R
- At t = , io = o, i.e. at t = , io= 0
This gives A = E – VM sin) e – R/L
R Z
Therefore,
io = VM sin (t – sin () e-RtL – E 1- e-RtL
Z R
- This is applicable for t .
- The extinction angle  depends upon load emf E, firing angle  and the load
impedance angle .
- Average voltage across inductance is zero. Thus, average value of load current can be
obtained by integrating
VM sint – E between  and .
R
Hence

Io = 1
2R ∫ (VM sint - E )d(t)

= 1 VM ( cos – cos ) – E ()

2R

Conduction angle  i.e.  Single Phase full-wave midpoint controlled rectifier with RL load and its waveforms
Then,
- The SCRs voltages Vs1 and Vs2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
= 1 VM ( cos – cos () – E . - T1 conducts during positive half cycle of the input and T2 during the negative half.
2R The thyristors are fired from a synchronized firing angle.
- At t = , Vs1 = VMsin, while Vs2 = -VMsin. Hence T1 fires while T2 remains
OFF. During this period, T1 sends a positive current through the load impedance;
while T2 remains cut off by the reverse input voltage. The load current is transferred
from incoming thyristor T1 to outgoing thyristor T2, a process known as natural or
line commutation.
Single-phase Full wave controlled converter. The turn off period of T2 is
23
 T2 off = –  seconds

T1 get turned off at t = +  It is then subjected to reverse voltage and it remains
non-conducting from the period t = + to 2.
Thus for T1, the turn off period is
T1 off = 2 – ( + )
t
=  –  seconds
t
Thus the turn off period is the same for the two thyristors.
 When commutation of an SCR is desired, it must be reverse biased and the
incoming SCR must be forward biased.
 When incoming SCR is gated on, current is transferred from outgoing SCR to
incoming SCR.
 The circuit turn-off time must be greater than SCR turn-off time.
It is seen from above that thyristor commutation achieved by means of natural
reversal of line voltage, called line or natural commutation, is simple: it is therefore
employed in all phase-controlled rectifiers, ac voltage controllers and cycloconverters.

The average value of the output voltage is

Vdc = 1
 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= 2VM cos 

- Thus the average output voltage is greater than that for half wave controlled
converter.
- This results in improved rectifier efficiency.
- Another merit is that the supply currents is1 and is2 flow through the secondary of
power transformer in opposite direction. This avoids dc saturation of the core of
the transformer.

b) Biphase converter with fd

The diode helps in giving continuous current in the RL load circuit.
- For T1, the supply voltage Vs1 becomes zero at t =  and reverses polarity beyond t
= . At this instant, the freewheeling diode gets forward biased through the still
conducting SCR and contributes the load current and thus prevents the load current Single Phase full-wave midpoint controlled rectifier with RL load and flywheel diode and
from decaying too much. its waveforms

24
 - The fd thus ensures that all the reactor energy is delivered to the load instead of - The Vo stays at zero value during commutation angle and jumps to its positive
most of it being returned to the system. value at the end of the commutation. However this angle is neglected and
- The output voltage Vo is never negative. The harmonic content in the output commutation is assumed to be instantaneous.
voltage is substantially reduced and the output current io is much smoother. - Hence:
Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc
Vo = 1
 ∫ VM sint d (t) = VM cos 
 Vdc = 1
∫ VM sint d (t)

RMS value of output voltage Vrms
= 2VM cos 
Vrms = 1
 ∫ VM2 sin2t d (t) 
For 0, Vdc is maximum and is given by
Vdc = 2VM
= VM 2 –  + sin2 
√2 Asis increased Vdc decreases.

II. Single phase bridge converter

The circuit uses four thyristor arranged in the form of a bridge.

Single Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier

- The operation is similar to that of single phase full wave controlled rectifier
except now during the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage Vs, T1 and T3
conduct in series at t = and the output is developed across the load impedance
in polarity show.
- When thyristor T3 and T4 fire, they take over current from T1 and T2 making the
negative half of transformer output voltage Vs appear as positive d.c output Single Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier waveforms without flywheel diode and
voltage. Similarly T1 and T2 take over and the cycle repeats. when  900 for a continuous mode
- In practice the transfer of current of the commutation from one pair of SCR to the
other takes a finite time and the corresponding angular displacement is called the NOTE: The fact that the load is inductive in nature makes io to lag behind Vo. Therefore
commutation angle. when Vo goes to zero and t = , io is still not zero through the load, a flywheel diode is
usually connected across the d.c circuit as shown above.

25
Single – Phase Converter with Discontinuous Load Current. - When T1, T2, pair is triggered at t = , load current begins to build up from zero. At
When considering two-pulse converter, assumption is made that load current is continuous. some angle , (extinction angle), io decays to zero. Here  .
- The term continuous means that load current never ceases but continuous to flow - After t = , T1, T2 are reverse biased, and the pair commutate at t =  when io = 0.
through SCR/Diode or their combination. - From  to , Vo follows Vs. From  to (+), no SCR conducts, the load voltage
- In practice, the output current may become discontinuous at high values of firing therefore jumps from VM sin to E.
angle or at low values of load current. - At t = , T3, T4, are triggered, load current start to build again as before and Vo
- The term discontinuous is applied to the condition when load current reaches zero follows Vs waveform.
during each half cycle before the next SCR in sequence is fired.
- At  + , io fall to zero, Vo changes from VM sin () to E as no SCR conducts.
- The load performance deteriorates if load current becomes discontinuous. It is
- Under some conditions, io may become zero at t = , where  is less than .
preferred that d.c load be operated in continuous mode.
- This action is allowed by having freewheeling action and using an external inductor in - At , Vo jumps from VM sin to E. No SCR conducts from  to () and during
series with the load. this interval, therefore Vo = E.
- Hence as summary:
Single Phase Full Converter with Discontinuous Current i) Conduction period, t, T1 T2 conducts and Vo = Vs.
ii) Idle period, t) no circuit element conducts and Vo = E.
NB.
The output voltage during discontinuous current mode is less than for continuous mode.
Load performance during discontinuous mode is impaired.

Single-phase bridge semi converter

- The load current io is assured to be continuous over the full periodic time.
- For t  0, voltage VAB= VM sin t exceed the firing voltage E, T1, fires at angle  =
sin-1 E/VM and the load impedance Z gets connected to the source via diode D1 and
load voltage Vo has the same shape as the source voltage during angle  to .
- Beyond t = , Vo tends to reverse as the ac source voltage changes polarity. But
them Fd gets forward biased and start conducting. The load current io is transferred
from T1, D1 to Fd.
- The load gets short circulated through the Fd and the Vo becomes zero during angle
to ()
- After t = , during the negative half cycle, T2 get forward biased and start
conducting.
- At t = , Fd is reverse biased and is turned OFF, and load current io shifts from
Fd to T2, D2.
- At t = 2, Fd is again forward biased and output current io flows through’T2, D2 and
Fd.
- The cycle then repeats.
- For semi converter the average output voltage

Vo = 1
 ∫VM sint d (t)

= VM (1 + cos 
Fig 2.15. Single Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier with RLE load, Voltage and

current waveforms for discontinuous conduction
- During period t =  to , T1, is conducting while thyristor T2 is cutoff. Thus:

26
 Turn off period of T2 is Toff =  sec Single phase semi converter with discontinuous current .

(a) When 
(i) Conduction period.
t, T1, DI conducts and Vo = Vs.
Also for (t, T2, D2 conduct and Vo = Vs and so on .
(ii) Freewheeling period.
t, Fd conducts, ifd = io and Vo = 0
Also for t, Fd conducts ifd = io and Vo= 0
(iii) Idle period
t no circuit components conduct io = 0 and Vo = E.

(b) When  and VM sin   E.

(i) Conduction period.
, T1, D1 conduct and Vo = Vs. Also for
t, T2, D2 conduct and Vo = Vs and so on.
(ii) Freewheeling period.
absent and ifd = 0.
(iii) Idle period
t and (  no circuit element conducts, io = 0 and
Vo = E.

For single phase full converter for or and also for single-phase semi converter
for , the average load current is:

Io = 1
R ∫ (VM sint - E )d(t)

= 1 VM ( cos – cos ) – E ()

(a) Single Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier with RLE load and flywheel diode R
and (b) Voltage and current waveforms for continuous conduction.

During the internal , T1 and D1 conduct and ac source delivers energy to the load Vo = E + IoR
circuit. This energy is stored in L as electric energy in load – circuit emf E and partially
dissipated as heat in R.
During the freewheeling period to  energy stored in inductance is recovered and
is dissipated partially in R and partially added to the energy stored in load emf E. No
energy is fed back to the source during freewheeling period.

27
 THREE PHASE CONVERTERS
For large power dc loads, 3-phase ac to dc converters are commonly used.
There are three types:
- 3 Ǿ half wave converter
- 3 Ǿ half wave controlled rectifier with flywheel diode
- 3 Ǿ bridge rectifier.
The advantages of 3-phase converters over single-phase converters are:
- For 3-phase, ripple frequency is higher hence filtering requirement is less.
- Load current is mostly continuous therefore superior to single phase.

I. Half wave controlled rectifier.

This converter is not commonly used in industries because it introduces d.c component in
supply current.

Fig 2.18. (a) Three Phase half-wave bridge controlled rectifier and (b) output
waveforms for (i) 0 30 (ii) 30  150

Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc

Vdc = 3
2 ∫ VM sint d (t)

(a) Single Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier with RLE load Voltage and current = 3√ 3VM cos 
waveforms for discontinuous mode conduction. 2

28
II. Full Wave Bridge
The single phase full wave bridge converter can be extended to accommodate a 3-Ǿ source.
The most popularly used is a 6-pulse converter. The circuit below employs delta connected
3-Ǿ source delivering d.c output to resistive load through bridge consisting of 6 controlled
switches.

Operation
- At = 0, SCRs behaves like diodes. The waveform will be like that of 3 Ǿ
uncontrolled rectifier.
- This circuit works as a three phase ac to dc converter for firing angle delay 00 
 900 and as three phase line commutated inverter for 900    1800 delivering
power from dc source to ac load only if the load has a direct emf E due to a
battery or a dc motor.

Average Value of output (or load) voltage Vdc

Vdc = 3
 ∫ VM sint d (t)

= 3VM cos 


Three Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier

Three Phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier Voltage and current waveforms for
different firing angles
29
Effects Of Source Impedance On The Performance Of Controlled Rectifier. - When T1 and T2 are triggered at a firing angle , the commutation of already
- The derivations of the output voltage for 1 Ǿ full converters are obtained on the conducting thyristor T3 and T4 begins.
assumption that current transfers from the outgoing SCRs to the incoming SCRs takes - Because of the presence of source inductance Ls, the current through T3 and T4
place instantaneously. decreases gradually to zero from its initial value of Io; while incoming T1 and T2
- This means that when incoming SCRs T1 and T2 are fired in a single-phase full the current builds up gradually from zero to full value of load current Io
converter outgoing SCRs T3 and T4 are turned off due to the application of reverse - During commutation, using KVL
voltage and the current swifts to SCRs T1 and T2 instantaneously. V1 – Ls di1 = V2 – Ls di2
- This is only possible if the voltage source has no internal impedance. dt dt
- Consider the source impedance as purely inductive. The major contributor to the V1 – V2 = Ls di1 – di2
supply impedance is the transformer reactance. The load inductance is assumed length dt dt
so that output current is virtually constant. V1 = Vm sint V2 = - Vmsint
- The source inductance causes the outgoing and incoming SCRs to conduct together.
During commutation period (when both incoming and outgoing SCRs are conducting Ls di1 – di2 = 2 Vm sint
together), the output voltage is equal to the average value of the conducting phase dt dt
voltage. di1 – di2 = 2Vm sint
- This commutation period is also known overlap period when the load voltage will dt dt Ls
be zero for single-phase converter. As the load is assumed constant throughout
- This angular period is commutation angle or overlap angle . i1 + i2 = Io
di1 + di2 = 0
Single-phase full converter dt dt
Consider the circuit below Adding above equations
di1 = Vm sint
dt Ls

Load current i1 through T1, T2 builds up from zero to I0 during the overlap angle  i.e. at
t = 
io = 0 and at t = ( + u), i1 = Io

∫ di1 = VM
Ls ∫ sint d (t)

Io = Vm (cos  – cos ()

Ls

Thus
Vdc = VM
 ∫ sint d (t)

= Vm cos () – cos ( + )


= Vm cos  +cos ()


30
 II a) Vo = 2Vm cos  – oLs Io
Therefore cos () = cos– Ls Io  
Vm = 2√2 x 230 cos 30 – 2 x 50 x 1.5 x 10-3 x 17.93
Vdc = 2Vm cos – Ls Io  
  = 176.614 V
Substituting Cos = Ls Io + Cos ()
Vm b) Io = Vm ( cos  – cos ()
Vdc = 2Vm cos () + Ls Io Ls
  17.93 = √2 x 230 x 103 (cos 30 - cos (30 + u)
2 x 50 x 1.5
Example  = 32.8550 – 300 = 2.8550
A single-phase full converter is supplied from 230 V, 50Hz source. The load consist of
R = 10 and a large inductance so as to render the load current constant. For a firing c) Power factor = VoIo = 176.614 x 17.93
angle delay of 300, determine VsIs 230 x 17.93
a) Average output voltage. = 0.7679 lag
b) Average output current.
c) Average and rms values of thyristor current. Three phase full converter bridge
d) Power factor. The of source inductance Ls is to reduce the average d.c output voltage. Thus average
II. If source inductance of 1.5mH, then determine voltage due to overlap is:
a) Average output voltage.
b) The angle of overlap.
c) The power factor. ∫
= 3 VLdt = 3
  ∫ Lsdi d (t)
dt

Solution
I. a) Vdc = 2Vm Cos = 2 √2 x 230 cos 30
 
b) Idc = Vdc = 179.303 = 17.93 A
= 179.303V
∫
= 3Ls di dt = 3Ls di
dt ∫
R 10
c) ITdc = Io = 17.93 = 8.965 A = 3Ls Io
2 2 
d) ITrms = Io = 17.93 = 12.68 A
√2 √2 Output voltage with no over lap = Internal voltage of the 3- phase full converter.
Irms = √Io2  = Io = 17.93 = 3Vm cos 
Load power = VoIo = 179.3 x 17.93 V 
Input power = Vs Is cos . Output voltage with overlaps Vo = 3Vm cos – 3 LS Io
For no loss in the power converter.
 
VsIs cos = VoIo
In general
P.F cos  = VoIo = 179.3 x 17.93 For m -pulse converter, fall in output voltage due to overlaps.
VsIs 230 x 17.93

∫
= 0.7796 lag. = m Lsdi d (t)
2dt

31
 I. Class A commutation: self commutation by resonating the load

∫
= mLsdi dt = mLs di
2dt ∫
2
(Load commutation)
- This is also resonant commutation or load commutation. It uses L and C components
in series with the load resistor R.
- For low value of R, L and C are connected in series with R, whereas for high values
= mLs Io of R, R is connected across C. It is necessary that the circuit be underdamped.
2 - In this method, the forward current of the device is reduced below the holding current
IH.
For 2 pulse converter, voltage drop due to overlap - When the circuit is energized from d.c source, it is seen that the device current I at
= Ls Io first rises to its maximum value at A and then declines to zero at B.
 - Beyond B it tends to reverse. However the thyristor TH gets turned off at B.
- The time for switching off the device is determined by the resonant frequency, which
6 pulse = 3 Ls Io
in turn depends on the values of commutating circuit elements L, C and the total load

resistance.
Therefore
- It is ideally suited for high frequency operation; for frequency above 1000 Hz because
Vo for 3 phase full converter
of the need for an L – C resonant circuit which carries the full load current.
Vo = 3 Vm Cos () + 3  Ls Io - Used in series inverter.
 

THYRISTOR COMMUTATION TECHNIQUES

The turn-off of a thyristor means bringing the device from forward conducting state to
forward blocking state. Thyristor turn-off requires that
- Its anode current falls below the holding current.
- A reverse voltage is applied to thyristor for a sufficient time to enable it to
recover to blocking state.
- Once thyristor start conducting, gate loses control over device; therefore external
means may have to be adopted to commutate the thyristor.
Categories
i) Class A- Self-commutation by resonating load (load commutation).
Class B – Resonant pulse commutation. Class A or load commutation (a) series capacitor (b) parallel capacitor
Class C – Complementary commutation.
Class D – Impulse commutation or auxiliary commutation. CASE A - Series
Class E – External pulse commutation. Vs = iR + Ldi + 1 idt
Class F – AC line commutation (natural commutation). dt C
Or
- Natural commutation or (line commutation.) – Class F.
- Forced commutation. – Class B, C, D. For underdamped case
- Load commutation. – Class A = 1 rad /sec – resonant frequency
- External pulse commutation. –Class E √LC
32
= 1 – R2 t=  Conduction time of thyristor t0 =  sec
LC 4L2 1 – R2 o 2887
LC 4L2 = 1.088 ms.
At point B Voltage across the T1 after turn off = -Vs
Condition for undamped response = -240V
 > 0 the necessary condition is Voltage across the capacitor C after turn off
1 - R2 > 0 1 > R2 or R √4L = 2Vs = 2 x 240
LC 4L2 LC 4L2 C = 480V

CASE II – Parallel Class B - Resonant pulse commutation

VS = L di + V - LC resonant circuit is placed across the T1 and not in series with the load.
dt - Vs charges C to voltage Vs. Both the T1 and auxiliary TA are OFF. Positive direction of
Undamped natural frequency capacitor voltage VC and the ic is as shown.
n = 1 rad/sec
√LC
Underdamped natural frequency
= 1 - 1
LC 4R2C2

Example
The circuit is initially relaxed. T1 is turned on at t = 0. Determine:
a) Conduction time of thyristor T1
b) Voltage across T1 and capacitor after SCR is turned off.
Take, L = 4mH, C = 30F and VS = 240V

Solution
When thyristor is turned on, it behaves like a diode. Therefore, with SCR ON the device
acts like closed switch.
KVL
L di + 1 ∫ idt = Vs (use laplace inverse)
dt C
i(t) = Vs C sinot.
L
Where o = 1 - resonant frequency of the circuit.
√LC
Class B or resonant-pulse commutation (a) circuit diagram (b) waveforms
It is seen from above equation that at time t = t0 = /, i(t) = 0 and Vc(t) = +2Vs. This
shows that /w0 sec or √LC sec after thyristor is closed at t = 0, the charging current
- At t = 0, T1 is turned on by gate current ig1 and I0 flows to load circuit. It is assumed
becomes zero.
constant.
to = √LC - At t = t1, for initiating the commutation of T1 the TA is turned ON.
- Conduction of the thyristor. During time 0 to T1, VC = VC, ic = 0 iq = I0 and it1 = I0.
VT = -2Vs + Vs = -Vs - At instant T1 with TA switched ON, resonant circulating current ic start flowing from
Therefore o = 1 = 1 = 2887 rad/s C through TA and L. This resonant current ic is
√LC √4 x 10-3 x 10 x 10-6 ic = -Vs C sinot = - Ip . sino t.
L
33
 vc(t) = 1 ∫ icdt = Vs . coso t. a) Conduction time for auxiliary thyristor
C t=  sec = 35.14 s
- At half a cycle at ic i.e. at t2, ic = 0, vc = -Vs and it1 = Io. o 0.0894 x 106
- After t2 ic tends reverse and TA is turned OFF.
- At t2, vc being equal to –Vs implies that C is charged with positive. b) o (t3 – t2) = sin –1 Io/Ip
- Beyond t2, current ic flows through C, L, D and T1 and builds up to oppose the current = sin –1 200 = 0.3659rads
it1 through T1. 559
- The net forward current through T1 is it1 = Io – ic and it decreases to become zero at Voltage across the T1 get turned off when
time t3 when ic = Io. T1 is turned off at t3. Vx = Vscos o (t3 – t2)
- For reliable commutation, Ip must exceed Io. Thus the gradual build up of resonant = 250cos (0.3659) = 233.45V
current commutates T1.
- After T1 is turned off at t3, Io flows source Vs to load through C, L and D and capacitor c) Circuit turn off time for main thyristor
charges linearly. tc = t4 – t3 = C Vc = 25 x 10-6 x 233.45
- T1 gets turned off when Io 200
Vs C sino (t3 – t2) = Io` = 29.18s
L
o (t3 – t2) = sin-1 Io Class C: Complementary Commutation
Ip - In this method, a thyristor carrying load current is commutated by transferring its load
Where Ip = Vs C – peak resonant current. current to another thyristor.
L - Firing of main thyristor T1 commutates the additional T2 and subsequently firing of T2
- Beyond t3, C charges linearly at constant current Io and its voltage changes from –Vx turns off T1.
at t3 to zero at t4. - C is assumed initially uncharged.
- T1 remain reverse biased by vc for the period tc = t4 – t3 - T1 be turned ON at t = 0. This results in current i1 = Vs/R1 through R1 and ic = Vs/R2.
Hence turn off time for T1 is Then the it1 = i1 + ic
tc = t 4 – t 3 = C V x = Vs 1 + 1
Io R1 R2
- The waveform of vc shows that the magnitude of the reverse voltage Vx across T1 - C charges through R2, then ic
when it get commutated is given by ic = Vs e –t/R2C
Vx = Vs cos o(t3 – t2) R2 and vc(t) = Vs (1-e-t/R2C)
Voltage across T2 is VT2 = vc(t)
Example - When charging is complete vc = VT2 = VS while ic(t) reduces to zero.
A class B commutation circuit uses C = 25 F and L = 5H. Initial voltage across the - At t1, T1 turned OFF and T2 turned ON: capacitor voltage vc applies reverse potential
capacitor is Vs = 250 V. For constant load current Io = 200A, compute: Vs across T1 turning it OFF. Thus at T1
a) Conduction time for the TA. VT2 = 0, VT1 = -Vs, ic = 2Vs and iT2 = Vs 2 + 1
b) Voltage across the main thyristor when it gets commuted. R1 R2 R1
c) Circuit turn off time for the main thyristor. The charging takes place across the circuit consisting of Vs, R1, C and T2.
At that instant
Solution R1.ic + 1 ∫ic dt = Vs (KVL)
Peak value of resonant current C
Ip = Vs C = 250 x 25 x 10-6 = 559Amp ic(t) = 2Vs e-t/R1 C
L 5 x 10-6 R1
This current flows in opposite direction hence
o = 1 1 = 0.0894 x 106 rad / sec ic(t) = -2Vs e –t/R1C.
√LC √5 x 10-6 x 25 x 10-6 R1

34
Capacitor vc(t) = Vs(2e-t/R1C – 1) Class D . Impulse Commutation
Current iT2 reduces from its value Vs
Vs -2 + 1 - Consider ideal thyristors and lossless components, the waveform of currents and
R1 R2 to Vs/R2 exponentially with time constant R1C voltages are as follows.
At t3, T1 is turned ON to commutate T2 and the new values of voltages and currents - An inductor L is used to ensure correct polarity of charge on capacitor C.
are iT2 = 0 iT1 = Vs 2 + 1 VT2 = -Vs, VT1 = 0 - T1 and load resistor R form the power circuit while L, D and T2 form the commutation
R2 R1 circuit.
- And ic = 2Vs /R2. Now cycle of event repeats. - For initial operation, with Vs connected, no current flows since both T1 and T2 are
- At t1 when T2 is turned ON, capacitor voltage magnitude Vs suddenly appears as OFF. C is at zero voltage.
a reverse bias across T1 to turn it OFF. Similarly at t3, when T1 is turned ON,
capacitor voltage of Vs appears as a reverse bias across T2 to turn it OFF.
- The turn off time for t1 is obtained by equating VT1 to zero.
VT1 = 0 = Vs (1- 2e –tc1/R1C)
-
Hence tc1 = R1 C ln 2

Mode 1
- At time t = 0, T2 is turned ON. Source voltage Vs charges capacitor C to full Vs in the
polarity shown with upper plate positive.
- The charging path is Vs-C-T2-R-Vs.
- As soon as capacitor C is fully charged to Vs, T2 turns off since as the voltage across
C increases, current through T2 decreases ultimately turning T2 OFF. At this point T1
is ON, T2 is OFF and vc = Vs.

Mode 2
- At t = 0, with T1 ON current flows in two paths:
- Load current Io through Vs – T1 – R – vs
- Oscillatory circuit having commutation (oscillatory) current through C-T1-L-D-C.
This oscillation current and capacitor current is given by:
35
 ic = Vs C sinot = Ip sinot
L From the waveform, when T1 conducts and during the time upper plate of C is positive.
where o = 1/√LC and Ip = Vs√C/L VT2 = -vc i.e. T2 is reverse biased. This gives;
- At ot = , ic becomes zero. Between 0 < t < /o, iT1= Io + Ip sinot. Capacitor tc2 =  o = 1
voltage changes from +Vs to -Vs co-sinusoidally and the lower plate becomes positive. 2o √LC
- Thus at o= , ic= 0, iT1= Io and vc = -Vs. Reverse discharge of C will not be possible = √LC = √ 25 x 10-6 x 50 x 10-6 = 55.5364s
due to the presence of blocking diode D. 2 2
- At this point, T1 is ON, T2 OFF and vc= -Vs.
Class E. External Pulse Commutation
Mode 3 In this technique, a reverse voltage is applied to the current carrying thyristor from an
- At time t1, T2 is turned ON, capacitor C discharge through the path C – T2 – T1 – C. external source.
- The capacitor voltage vc = Vs applies a reverse across T1 resulting in VT1 = -Vs at t1.
T1 is turned OFF and iT1 = 0. Now load current flows through C and T2.
- During t1 to t2, C again gets charged from –Vs to +Vs without constant load current Io.
At t2, vc = +Vs, ic = 0 and T2 is turned off. During time interval t1 to t2, T2 is ON and
vc = VT1.
- At instant of firing of T2, a reverse voltage Vs is suddenly applied across T1. Hence
this technique is also called voltage commutation, Auxiliary commutation or
parallel-capacitor commutation.

Example
A voltage commutation circuit has the following parameters: Vs = 200V, L = 25 H, C =
50F. For a constant load current Io of 100A,
Calculate:
i) Peak values of currents through the C, the main thyristor T1 and the auxiliary
T2.
ii) Circuit turn off times for the T1 and T2.

Solution
When T1 is ON, oscillating current (C, T1, L, D). - The commutating pulse is applied through a designed pulse transformer having
a) ict = Vs √C/L Sinot. tight coupling between the primary and secondary and having a small air gap to
Peak value of this current is Ip = Vs √C/L avoid saturation when pulse is applied to its primary.
= 200√50/25 - The transformer is capable of carrying the desired load current with small voltage
= 282.843 A. drop compared with the supply voltage Vs.
Peak value of current through the T1 - When commutation of T1 is desired, a pulse of duration equal to or slightly
Ip + Io = 282.843 + 100 greater than the turn off time specification of the thyristor is applied.
= 382.843 A. - Once T1 is triggered, current flows through the RL and the pulse transformer.
Peak value of current through T2 - When a high frequency pulse of voltage vp is applied to the primary of the pulse
= Io = 100 A. transformer, the voltage induced in the secondary appears across the T1 as a
b) Io = C Vs/tc reverse voltage -vp and turns T1 OFF.
Hence circuit turn off time for the main thyristor is - The pulse on the secondary is of high frequency hence capacitor C offers almost
tc1 = C Vs = 50 x 10-6 x 200 sec zero impedance.
Io 100 - Once T1 is turned OFF, the load current decays to zero.
= 100 s. - This technique provides very high efficiency since very small energy is required
and both the time ratio and pulse width regulation are easily incorporated.
36
TOPIC 3: CYCLOCONVERTERS - Thus TP1 and TN2 are alternatively force commutated and VO is as shown below.
- It is an electronic system which converts input ac power at one frequency to output ac - At t = , O becomes positive with respect to term A. Hence during negative cycle
power at different frequency using one stage conversion. t < , TP2 and TN1 get forward biased. At t = , TN2 is force commutated
- There are two types: while TP2 turned ON.
- Step-down cycloconverter – the output frequency fo is less than input frequency fs. - TP2 and TN1 are switched alternatively between positive and negative envelops at the
- Step-up cycloconverter -the output frequency fo is higher than the input frequency fs. chosen frequency fo. Current io = Vo/RL
- Most cycloconverters are applied in speed control of high power ac drives, induction
heating, static VAR generation, interconnecting two power grids operating at different
frequencies in HVDS, etc.

Principle of Operation
There are two types of single-phase cycloconverters, step up and step down which can
further be classified to two; mid point type or bridge type.

Single-Phase to Single-Phase Circuit-Step-up Cycloconverter

For simplicity, the load is assumed resistive. It should be noted that a step-up
cycloconverter requires forced commutation.

I. Mid point (center tapped) step up cycloconverter II Single Phase Bridge Type Step Up Cycloconverter.
- Assumption is made that load is purely resistive. It uses center tapped transformer - It uses eight thyristors TP1 to TP4 forming the positive group and TN1 to TN4 forming
and four thyristors. the negative group.
- TP1 and TN1 are connected in anti parallel and also for TP2 and TN2. Forced - During the positive half cycle of supply voltage Vs, A is positive with respect to X.
commutation is applied for all thyristors. TP1 and TP2 from the positive group and Hence pairs TP1, TP2, TN2 and TN1 get forward biased during interval 0t  radians.
TN1 and TN2 form the negative group. - TP1 and TP2 are turned ON simultaneously at t=0, the load current through the load
- During the positive half cycle of source voltage Vs a positive with respect to O, TP1 impedance RL make the load VO positive i.e. C is positive with respect to O.
and TN2 are forward biased for 0 t . TP1 get turned ON at t = 0. As a result - Vo traces the positive envelop up to angle t1. At t1, TP1 and TP2 are forced
Vo becomes positive and follow the positive envelop of the Vs. commutated and TN1 and TN2 are turned ON. Vo is now negative.
- At t1, Tp1 is force commutated and forward biased TN2 is turned ON. As a result, - Beyond t1, Vo follows the negative envelop of source voltage up to t2. At t2, TN1
Vo becomes negative i.e. terminal C becomes negative with respect to O. Hence and TN2 are forced commutated and TP1 and TP2 are turned ON. Vo is now positive and
beyond t1 Vo traces the negative envelop of Vs traces envelop of source voltage till t3. This process repeats it self.
- At t2, TN2 is forced commutated and TP1 is turned ON. V0 becomes positive and - At t =  TP3, TP4, TN3 and TN4 are forward biased and they are turned ON and force
traces the positive envelop of Vs. commutated from t=  to t = 2.
- Thus firing of various thyristor is controlled to get the desired output frequency. The
waveform is similar to midpoint step-up cycloconverter.

37
 - Thyristor P1 is thus naturally commutated at t which is already reverse biased after
Single-Phase to Single-Phase Circuit Step-Down Cycloconverter . After half a cycle, b is positive with respect to 0.
- It should be noted that a step-down cycloconverter does not requires forced - Now forward biased thyristor P2 is triggered at t. Load current is again positive
commutation. It only need line commutation which is provided by ac supply. from A to 0 and builds up from zero as shown in waveform.
- There are two types: Mid-point and Bridge type. For R-L load, the load current may be - At t io decays to zero and P2 is naturally commutated. At , P1 is again
either continuous or discontinuous. turned on. Load current in waveform(c) is seen to be discontinuous.
- After four positive half cycles of load voltage and load current, thyristor N2 (after P2, N2
I. Mid-point (center tapped) Step-Down Cycloconverter should be fired) is gated at () when 0 is positive with respect to b.
- It provides at its output a frequency fo less than the supply frequency fs. - As N2 is forward biased, it starts conducting but load current direction is reversed, i.e. it
- It does not require forced commutation but requires phase controlled converters is now from 0 to A.
connected as below that require natural commutation. - After N2 is triggered, load current builds up in the negative direction as shown in
waveform. In the next half-cycle, 0 is positive with respect to a but before N1 is fired, i0
a) Discontinuous Load Current. decays to zero and N2 is naturally commutated.
- When a is positive with respect to 0, forward biased SCR P1 is triggered at t= - Now when N1 is gated at (), i0 again builds up but it decays to zero before thyristor
N2 in sequence is again gated. In this manner, four negative half cycles of load voltage
and load current, equal to the number of four positive half cycles, are generated.
- Now P1 is again triggered to fabricate further four positive half cycles of load voltage
and so on. For discontinuous load current, natural commutation is achieved, i.e. P1 goes
to blocking state before P2 is gated and so on.
- In waveforms, mean output voltage and current waves are also shown. It is seen from
this figure that frequency of output voltage and current is f0=1/4 fs

b) Continuous Load Current.

- When a is positive with respect to 0 in Fig (a), P1 is triggered at t, positive output
voltage appears across load and load current starts building up, as in waveform (c).
- With this, load current i0 starts building up in the position direction from A to 0. Load
current i0 becomes zero at t but less than (), waveform (c).

38
- At t supply and load voltages are zero. After t P1 is reverse biased. As load Three Phase Cycloconverter
current is continuous P1 is not turned off at t
- When P2 is triggered in sequence at , a reverse voltage appears across P1, it is Three Phase Half-Wave Cycloconverters
therefore turned off by natural commutation. I. Three-phase to Single-phase Cycloconverters
- When P1 is commutated load current has built up to a value equal to RR, waveform (c). - For converting three-phase supply at one frequency to single-phase supply at a lower
With the turning on of P2 at (), output voltage is again positive as it was with P1 on. frequency, the basic principle is to vary progressively the firing angle of the three
- As a consequence, load current builds up further than RR as shown in waveform (c). thyristors of a 3-phase half-wave circuit.
- At (), when P1 is again turned on, P2 is naturally commutated and load current - In waveform, firing angle at A to 900, at B firing angle is somewhat less than 900, at C
through P1 builds up beyond RS as shown. At the end of four positive half cycles of the firing angle is still further reduced than it is at B and so on.
output voltage, load current is RU.
- When N2 is now triggered after P2, load is subjected to a negative voltage cycle and load
current i0 decreases from positive RU to negative AB (say) as shown in waveform (c).
- Now N2 is commutated and N1 is gated at (). Load current i0 becomes more
negative than AB at (), this is because with N1 ON, load voltage is negative.
- For four negative half cycles of output voltage, current i0 is shown in waveform (c).
- Load current waveform is redrawn in waveform (d) under steady state conditions. It is
seen from load current waveform that i0 is symmetrical about t axis in waveform (d).
- The positive group of voltage group and current wave consists of four pulses and same
is true for negative group of wave.
- In this manner, a small delay in firing angle is introduced at C, D, E, F and G. At G, the
- One positive group of pulses along with one negative group of identical pulses
firing angle is zero and the mean output voltage, given by V0=Vdo cos , is maximum at
constitute one cycle for the load voltage and load current. The supply voltage has,
G.
however, gone through four cycles.
- At A, the mean output voltage is zero as a=900. After point G, a small delay in firing
- The output frequency is, therefore f0=1/4 fs
angle is further introduced progressively at points H, I, J, K, L and M.
- At M, the firing angle is again 900 and the value of mean output voltage is zero. The
II. Bridge Type Step-down Cycloconverter
gating circuitry is suitably designed to introduce progressive firing angle delay as
- The operation of the bridge circuit can be both continuous and discontinuous load
discussed.
current.
- The single-phase output voltage, fabricated from 3-phase input voltage, is shown by
- The voltage and current waveforms for continuous and discontinuous load current is
thick curve. Mean output voltage wave is obtained by joining points pertaining to
the same as mid-point type.
average voltage values.
- For example, at A, =900, Vo=0; at G, =00, therefore V0 has maximum mean output
voltage and so on.
- It is seen that fabricated output voltage given by thick curve can be resolved into
fundamental frequency output voltage plus several other harmonic components.
- The load inductance can, however, filter out the high-frequency unwanted harmonics. It
reveals that for one half-cycle of fundamental frequency output voltage (marked mean
output voltage in this figure), there are eight half cycles of supply frequency voltage.
- This shows that output frequency f0=1/8 fs where fs is the supply frequency.
- It is obvious that for obtaining positive half cycle of low-frequency output voltage,
firing angle is varied from 900 to zero degree and then to 900.
- For obtaining one cycle (consisting of one positive half cycle and one negative half
cycle) of low frequency output voltage, the firing angle should be varied from 900 to
zero degree to 900 for positive half cycle and from 900 to 1800 and back to 900 and back
to 900 for negative half cycle.
- This is illustrated in waveform below.
39
 - In a thyristor converter circuit, current can only flow in cycle of load current; two three-
phase half-wave converters must be connected in anti-parallel as shown in the figure.
- The converter circuit that permits the flow of current during positive half cycle of low-
frequency output current is called positive converter group.
- The other group permitting the flow of current during the negative half cycle of output
current is called negative converter group.
- This figure uses two 3-phase half wave converters in anti-parallel, the positive group for
the conduction of positive load current and the negative group for the floe of negative
load current.

II. Three-Phase to Three-Phase Cycloconverters

- When 3-phase low-frequency output is required, then three sets of phase-controlled 3-
phase to single-phase circuits are interconnected as shown (fig a). Each phase of the 3-
phase output must have a phase displacement of 1200.
- Fig b shows the circuit arrangement of 3-phase to 3-phase cycloconverter using three
sets of three-phase half –wave circuits employing a total of 18 thyristors.
- The circuit is also called three-pulse 3-phase to 3-phase cycloconverter.
- It is thus seen from above that a complete cycle of low-frequency output voltage can be
fabricated from the segment of 3-phase input voltage waveform by the use of phase-
controlled converters.
- Examination of waveform, reveals that when output current is positive (above the
reference line t), positive converter conducts.
- Under this condition, positive converter acts as a rectifier when output voltage is
positive and as an inverter when output voltage is negative.
- When output current is negative, the negative converter conducts; under this condition,
negative converter act as a rectifier when output voltage is negative and as an inverter
when output voltage is positive.
- It can thus be inferred, in general, that one to two component converters figure below
would operate as rectifier if the output voltage and current have the same polarity and as
an inverter if these are of opposite polarity.

40
Three-Phase Bridge Circuit Output Voltage Equation for a Cycloconverter
- Out of several configurations of 3-phase to 3-phase cycloconverters; here only one - A cycloconverters is essentially a dual converter but so operated as to produce an
important scheme, used for large industrial drives, is presented. alternating output voltage.
- This scheme employs thirty–six thyristors and is called 6-pulse, 3-phase to 3-phase - Each SCR in a cycloconverter works as a phase-controlled converter with a varying
cycloconverter. firing angle.
- In this circuit, each phase group consists of a 3-phase dual-converter with two IGRs.
The load phase, shown in star, must not be interconnected.
- If is done, then positive group of one output phase and negative group of other output
phase would be joined together through IGRs without load impedance which is
undesirable.

- In a 3-phase half-wave converter, each phase conducts for 2/3 radians of a cycle of
2 radians.
- In general, for an m-phase half-wave converter, each conduct for 2/m radians in one
cycle of 2 radians.
- With time origin AA” taken at the peak value of supply voltage, the instantaneous
phase voltage is
- In case it is essential to interconnect the load phase in star or delta, then each phase
group is supplied separately from three secondary winding S1, S2 and S3 of a three-
phase transformer. - It is seen from diagram that conduction takes place from -/m to /m for =00. For
- In this arrangement, as individual phase group are isolated from each other on the input any firing angle , the conduction is from
side, the interconnection of load phase in star or delta is permissible.
- The magnitude of output voltage in 3-phase bridge circuit is double of that in the 18- - Thus average value of output dc voltage Vd, equal to the average height of shaded area
thyristor circuit. in the diagram, is
- In case voltage and current rating of all the SCRs are identical, then total VA rating of
bridge circuit would be double of that of the 18-thyristor circuit.
- Three-phase bridge circuit gives a smooth variation of output voltage, but its control
circuit is complex and expensive. - For zero firing angle delay, the average value of direct voltage Vdo is given as

- In an actual cycloconverter, the firing angle is gradually varied. For any angle, the
output phase voltage at any point of the low-frequency voltage wave is equal to
Vdocos  on the assumption of continuous conduction.
- Note that the reaction Vdocos  neglects the voltage fluctuations superimposed on the
average low-frequency waveform.
- If Vor is the fundamental rms value of per phase output voltage of cycloconverter, the
peak output voltage for zero firing angle is

41
- In practice, the firing angle p of positive group cannot be reduced to zero, for this  HVDC transmission systems
firing angle corresponding to n = 1800 – p=1800 for negative group.  Static Var Generation
- Actually, inverter firing angle can never be equal to 1800 because of commutation  Aircraft or shipboard power supplies
overlap and thyristor turn off time.  Speed control of high power AC drives
- As a result, firing angle for positive group can never be zero but must have some  Grinding mills
finite value.  Cement mill drives
- Let this minimum value of firing angle for positive group be mn that is possible in a  Mine winders
practical cycloconverter.
- For this firing angle, maximum output voltage per phase is
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclo-converter
Advantages
- In a cyclo-converter, ac power at one frequency is converted directly to a lower
frequency in a single conversion stage.
- Thus the expression for the fundamental rms phase value of the voltage of a
- Cyclo-converter functions by means of phase commutation, without auxiliary forced
cycloconverter is given by
commutation circuits. The power circuit is more compact, eliminating circuit losses
associated with forced commutation.
- Cyclo-converter is inherently capable of power transfer in either direction between
- As mn is always greater than zero, the voltage reduction factor, r, is always less than source and load. It can supply power to loads at any power factor, and is also capable
unity. of regeneration over the complete speed range, down to standstill. This feature makes
- Equation above gives the rms value of the per phase output voltage for a 3-phase to 3- it preferable for large reversing drives requiring rapid acceleration and deceleration,
phase or 3-phase to single phase cycloconverter employing m-phase half –wave thus suited for metal rolling application.
circuits. - Commutation failure causes a short circuit of ac supply. But, if an individual fuse
- Also the equation is applicable for 3-phase to 3-phase or 3-phase to single-phase blows off, a complete shutdown is not necessary, and cyclo-converter continues to
cycloconverter employing 6-pulse bridge converter circuit, but then m is equal to the function with somewhat distorted waveforms. A balanced load is presented to the ac
number of pulses and Vph in equation must be replaced by line to line voltage supply with unbalanced output conditions.
- Cyclo-converter delivers a high quality sinusoidal waveform at low output
Load-Commutated Cycloconverter frequencies, since it is fabricated from a large number of segments of the supply
- A load-commutated cycloconverter differs from the force-commutated and line- waveform. This is often preferable for very low speed applications.
commutated cycloconverters discussed so far. - Cyclo-converter is extremely attractive for large power, low speed drives.
- In load-commutated circuit, the thyristors are commutated by the reversal of the load
voltage. Disadvantages
- This implies that the load circuit must have a generated emf that should be - Large number of thyristors is required in a cyclo-converter, and its control circuitry
independent of the source voltage. becomes more complex. It is not justified to use it for small installations, but is
- The most usual example for such a load is wound-field or permanent – magnet economical for units above 20 kVA.
synchronous machine. - For reasonable power output and efficiency, the output frequency is limited to one-
- For such loads, the load frequency maybe equal to or greater than the source third of the input frequency.
frequency and for both of these cases, thyristors will be naturally commutated by the - The power factor is low particularly at reduced output voltages, as phase control is
reversal of the load circuit emf. used with high firing delay angle.
Applications of Cyclo-converters
- Cyclo-converters are mainly used for producing low frequency AC voltage. The main
application of such requirement is the electric traction system where low frequencies,
typically 25 Hz or 16 2/3 Hz are preferred.
- In such systems, three-phase squirrel cage induction motor is controlled by a suitable
cyclo-converter circuit.
- Other applications of Cyclo-converter include:
42
TOPIC 4: INVERTERS - The main disadvantage of this inverter is that it requires 3- wire dc supply.
- Rectification involves of energy from ac source to dc load. In practice in certain
conditions, the power flow can be reversed, and the circuit is said to be operating in the
inverting mode i.e. energy conversion from dc to ac.
- Inverter converts dc power into ac power at the desired voltage and frequency.
- Some applications of inverters are: for induction heating, UPS, aircraft power supplies,
etc.
- Requirement of a practical inverter are:
a) Ability to operate into an inductive load.
b) Provision for overcurrent protection.
c) Controllable output
d) Driving rating should not be exceeded.
e) Close proximity of output waveform to sinusoidal waveform.
- Inverters are broadly classified into two types depending to the nature of driving d.c
source.
i. Voltage source inverter- dc voltage force has very small internal resistance.
ii. Current source inverter- dc source has large internal resistance i.e. fed with
adjustable current from a dc source of high impedance. The load does not affect
output current waves.
Or can be classified depending to the number of phases.
a) Single phase
b) Three phase
Single phase half bridge inverter (using center tapped dc supply)
Single Phase bridge Inverters
I Single phase half bridge inverter (using center tapped dc supply) II Single phase full Bridge inverter
- It consist two SCRs, two diodes and 3-wire supply. Two feedback diodes D1 and D2 - It overcomes the demerits of half bridge inverter. It also doubles the amplitude of
are connected across T1 and T2 respectively in inverse parallel. output voltage and power. However, it uses twice the number of thyristors and diodes
- These diodes provide path for return of reactive energy, from reactive loads to the used in half-bridge.
dc supply. For the purely resistive load, these diodes are not needed. - When T1, T4 conduct, load voltage is Vs and when T2,T3 conducts load voltage is –Vs.
- An inductive load implies lagging load current, thus when an SCR is turned OFF, an - Note that T1 and T2 or T3 and T4 must not conduct simultaneously. Further the
alternative part has to be made available for allowing this lagging current. commutating circuit must ensure that a thyristor is always turned off before its series
- A diode connected across any thyristor does not interfere with the thyristor ON period partner is gated in.
operation. - T1 and T2 are gated and commutated such that they conduct for alternate 1800 interval.
- However, when T1 is turned OFF due to inductive load while the other thyristor T2 is Node A gets connected alternately for positive and negative sides of the dc supply,
still non-conducting, D2 conducts to carry the load ID2 until this ID2 becomes zero and producing a voltage VAN of node A with respect to negative terminal N.
then T2 start conducting carrying current IT2. - Similarly when T3 and T4 conduct alternately the voltage at node B is VBN with
- For 0 < t < T/2, T1 conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage Vs/2 due to the respect to N.
upper voltage source Vs/2. - If T1 and T4 conduct simultaneously, supply voltage +V0 gets applied to the load
- At t = T/2 , T1 is commutated and T2 is gated on. impedance.
- On the other hand, when T2 and T3 conduct simultaneously, supply voltage –V0 get
- During the period T/2 < t < T, T2 conducts and the load is subjected to a load (-Vs/2) applied to the load impedance.
due to the lower voltage source Vs/2. - With inductive load, the load current lags behind the applied voltage and with T1 and
- Hence the output is an alternating voltage waveform of amplitude Vs/2 and of T4 turned OFF; the load current continues to flow in the same direction for sometime.
frequency 1/T Hz.
- Controlling T can change frequency of the inverter output voltage.

43
- During this period, the current circulates through D2 and D3 and the dc supply and - During time interval ab, thyristor T1 is OFF and the load is open circuited, hence C
reactive energy stored in the inductance during conduction of T1 and T4 is returned to retains its charge.
the dc source. - At time ‘b’ T2 is fired. Since T1 is OFF, duration ab =TOFF should be more them the
- Further feedback diodes prevent the ac load voltage from exceeding the dc input turn off time it requires.
voltage and a square voltage waveform of constant amplitude is obtained at the output - C now discharges through T2 and the under damped series circuit. Load current i
at all frequencies and under all load conditions. now flow opposite direction and again become zero at point c. T2 now gets turned
off.
- A similar operation takes place when T1 is turned ON.
- The frequency of the output voltage is given by:
f= 1 = 1
T/2 +TOFF +TOFF
- Thus with the same LC components, variable frequency output may be obtained by
varying the off time TOFF.
- Also attenuation factor  is given by:
 = exp (-RT/2L) nepers

III. Single phase bridge inverter with parallel capacitor commutation.

- When T1 and T4 are conducting, C gets charged with the left hand plate positive.
- When T2 and T3 are gated, C discharges around two parallel paths reducing the
current in T1 and T4 to zero and reverse biasing them.
- C then charges in the reverse polarity through T2 and T3 and the series inductor L.
- With circuit component properly selected, sufficient recovery time is provided for
the commutating capacitors.
- A similar set of event occurs 1800 latter when T1 and T4 are triggered. Example
A series inverter has the following parameters:
L = 15mH, C = 0.2f, load resistance R= 2000 and TOFF = 0.2ms.
Determine:
a) The frequency of the output voltage (2599Hz)
b) Attenuation factor (0.085 neper)

Solution

f = 1
+TOFF
IV. Series inverter
- When T1 is turned on, current flows for a half a cycle T/2.  = 1 - R2
- At a time instant ‘a’ load current i becomes zero and T1 gets turned OFF. During LC 4L2
this time, C gets charged to voltage Vc in reverse direction. =

44
TOPIC 5: ELECTRIC DRIVES - A working machine is the driven machine that performs the required production
- With the availability of large capacity semiconductors devices (especially SCR), the process.
motor – generator set has been replaced completely by thyristors converters for the - Examples of working machines are lathes, centrifugal pumps, drilling machines, lifts,
speed control of dc drives. conveyer belts, food mixers etc. Other examples of electric drives are: a food-mixer
without food to be processed, a motor and conveyer-belt without any material on its
Advantages of thyristorized control belt.
- Response of the control device is faster as it eliminates the time long introduced by - Some examples of electric-drive systems are a ceiling-fan motor with regulator and
the inductances of the generator field and the armature. also with blades, a food-mixer with food to be processed, a motor and conveyer-belt
- Due to low voltage across the thyristor, the efficiency of the control system is high. with material on its belt and so on.
- The control device is smaller in size, light in weight, less costly, requiring less space - Figure shows an electric drive system. The electric drive, consisting of electric motor,
and minimal maintenance. The operation is simple and valuable its power controller and energy-transmitting shaft. A modern electric drive system
Disadvantages using a feedback loop is also illustrated.
- Because of higher ripple content of the converter output, motor heating and
communication problem is serious.
- Due to switching action of thyristors and sinusoidal nature of current, there is more
possibility of interference with the communication network.

Concept of thyristorized control

- Using thyristor as a basic element, the following three methods are used to control the
speed of a d.c drive.
 Phase control
 Integral cycle control
 Chopper control
- All these methods required the supply to be connected and disconnected rapidly from
the motor terminals through the use of thyristors and the motor, therefore responds to
the average output voltage.
- Incase of both the phase control and integral cycle control a.c is converted into d.c
using rectification process.
- In the phase control, the thyristor output is fed to the motor during certain periods in
each half cycle and for the remainder of each half cycle, the output is not fed whereas - Electric drives are mainly of two types: dc drives and ac drives. The two types differ
in integral cycle control, output from the thyristor is fed to the motor for a few half from each other in that the motive power in dc and ac drives is provided by dc motors
cycles and for several cycles the output is not fed. and ac motors respectively.
- Phase controlled converters are simple to operate and are less expensive as they do
not require additional circuitry for commutation process. In these converters natural
communication is obtained i.e. when an incoming thyristor is turned on, it DC DRIVES
immediately reverse biases the outgoing thyristor and turns it off. - DC motors are used extensively in adjustable-speed drives and position control
applications.
Concept of Electric Drives - Their speeds below base speed can be controlled by armature-voltage control.
- A complete production unit consists primarily of three basic components; an electric - Speeds above base speed are obtained by field-flux control.
motor, an energy-transmitting device and the working (or driven) machine. - As speed control methods for dc motors are simpler and less expensive than those for
- An electric motor is the source of motive power. ac motors, dc motors are preferred where wide-speed control range is required.
- An energy transmitting device delivers power from electric motor to the driven - Phase-controlled converters provide an adjustable dc output voltage from a fixed ac
machine (on the load); it usually consists of shaft belt, chain, rope etc. input voltage.
- DC choppers also provide dc output voltage from a fixed dc input voltage.

45
- The use of phase-controlled rectifiers and dc choppers for the speed control of dc - It is seen from equation (Vt = I a + I a r a.) that speed can be controlled by varying (i)
motors has revolutionized the modern industrial controlled systems. armature terminal voltage Vt, known as the armature-voltage control and (ii) the
- The dc motors used in conjunction with power-electronic converters are dc field flux , known as the Field-flux control.
separately excited motors or dc series motors. - Base speed is defined as the speed at which motor runs under rated armature voltage,
- Depending upon the type of ac source or the method of voltage control, dc drives are rated field current and rated armature current.
classified as under: - Speeds below base speed are obtained by armature-voltage control. During this
- Single phase dc drives control, armature current and field flux (or field current) is kept constant so as to
- Three-phase dc drives meet the torque demand.
- Chopper drives - So the armature voltage control method is also termed as constant-torque drive
method because motor torque Te = KaIa remains almost constant.
Basic Performance Equations of DC motors - Speeds above base speed are obtained by varying the filed current or field flux and
- Equivalent circuit and basic performance equations for a separately-excited dc motor by keeping Vt and Ia constant at their rated values.
and a dc series motor are presented as follows. - As flux decreases, speed increases so that motor e.m.f Ea remains almost constant.
- Consequently, field-flux control method is also called constant-power drive
a) Separately-excited dc motor. method as power P = Ea Ia remains substantially constant.
- The equivalent circuit for a separately-excited dc motor coupled with a load is - The variations of Te, P, Ia, I f, 0 and Vt against speed are shown below for a
shown in figure below under steady state conditions. separately-excited dc motor.

- The load torque TL opposes the electromagnetic torque Te. For field circuit, Vf =
If T f. For armature circuit, Vt = I a + I a r a.
- Motor back e.m.f or motor armature e.m.f.

b) DC Series Motor
- For a series motor, field winding in series with the armature circuit is
designed to carry the rated armature current.

46
- For the armature circuit in figure above Single-Phase DC Drives
- Figure below illustrate the general circuit arrangement for the speed control of a
separately excited dc motor from a single-phase source.

- The firing angle  control of converter 1 regulates the armature voltage applied to dc
motor armature.
- Thus, the variation of delay angle 1 of converter 1 gives speed control below base
speed.
- The variation of the firing angle 2 of converter 2 installed in the field circuit gives
speeds above base speed.
- At low values of 1 for converter 1, armature current causes:
- more losses in the armature and
- Poor speed regulation.
- It is usual to insert an inductor L in series with the armature circuit to reduce the
ripple in the armature current and to make the armature current continuous for low
values of motor speeds.
- Depending upon the type of power electronic converter used in the armature circuit,
- For speed control up to base speed, armature terminal voltage Vt is varied single-phase dc drives may be subdivided as under:
with Ia kept constant therefore, P (=Vt I a) varies linearly and torque Te = k I2a o Single-phase half-wave converter drives
remains constant. o Single phase semi-converter drives
- For speeds above base speed, series field flux is decreased by the use of o Single-phase full-converter drives
diverter or tapped-field control and Ia is kept constant. o Single-phase dual converter drives
- Therefore, torque Te = Ka Ia decreases but power P = EaIa remains - In all these types, it is assumed that armature current I a is constant
substantially constant.
47
1. Single-phase Half-wave Converter Drives
- A separately-excited dc motor, fed through single-phase half-wave converter, is
shown.

2. Single-phase Semi-converter Drives

- A separately-excited dc motor, fed through two single-phase semi-converters, one for
the armature circuit and the other for the field circuit, is shown in Fig (a). Both
converters 1 and 2 are connected to the same single-phase source.

- Motor field circuit is fed through a single-phase semi-converter in order to reduce the
ripple content in the field circuit.
- Single-phase half-wave converter feeding a dc motor offers one-quadrant drive, Fig
(b).
- The waveforms for source voltage Vs, armature terminal voltage Vt, armature current
ia, source current is and freewheeling diode current ifd are sketched in Fig (c).
- Note that thyristor current IT=is. The armature current is assumed ripple free. Such
types of drives are used up to about ½ KW dc motors.
- For single-phase half-wave converter, average output voltage of converter, V0 =
armature terminal voltage, Vt is given by

48
- This converter also offers one-quardrant drive and is used up to about 15kW dc drives.
The waveforms for currents and voltages are sketched in Fig (b) on the assumption of
ripple free armature current. Load voltage waveform for V0 = Vt is the same as shown
in figure.

is given by

3. Single-Phase Full Converter Drives

- Two full converters, one feeding the armature circuit and other feeding the field
circuit of a separately-excited dc motor, are shown in Fig (a).
- This scheme offers two-quadrant drive, Fig (b) and its use is limited to about 15 kW.
- For regenerative braking of the motor, the power must flow from motor to the ac
source and this is feasible only if motor counter emf is reversed because then eaia
would be negative.
- Note that direction of current cannot be reversed as SCRs are unidirectional devices.
So, for regenerative braking, the polarity of ea must be reversed which is possible by
reversing the direction of motor field current by making delay angle of full converter
2 more than 900.
- In order that current in field winding can be reversed, the field winding must be
energized through singe-phase full converter as in Fig (a).

49
 Three-Phase DC Drives
- Large dc motor drives are always fed through three-phase converters for their speed
control.
- A three-phase controlled converter feeds power to the armature circuit for obtaining
speeds below base speed.
4. Single-phase Dual Converter Drives - Another three-phase controlled converter is inserted in the field circuit for getting
- A single-phase dual converter, obtained by connecting two full-converters in anti- speeds above base speed.
parallel is shown feeding a separately-excited dc motor in Fig (a). - The output frequency of three-phase converters is higher than those of single-phase
- Its use is limited to about 15 kW dc drives. It offers four-quadrant operation, Fig (b). converters. Therefore, for reducing the armature current ripple, the inductance
required in a three-phase dc drive is of lower value than that in a single-phase dc drive.
- As the armature current is mostly continuous, the motor performance in 3-phase dc
drives is superior to those in single-phase dc drives in superior to those in single-
phase dc drives.
- The three-phase dc drives, as in single-phase dc drives, may be subdivided as under:
1. Three-phase half-wave converter drives
2. Three phase semi-converter drives
3. Three -phase full-converter drives
4. Three -phase dual converter drives
- Armature current is assumed ripple free for inconvenience.

1. Three-phase half-wave converter drives

- Figure below illustrates a 3-phase half-wave converter drive consisting of two
converters and a separately-excited dc motor.

For working in first and fourth quadrants, converter 1 is in operation. For operation in
second and third quadrants, converter 2 is energized. Four-quadrant operation demands
that field winding of the motor is energized from a single-phase, or three-phase, full
converter.

- Note that in figure above,

i) Converter 1 with 1<900 operates the motor in forward motoring mode in
quadrant 1.
ii) Converter 1 with 1>900 and with field excitation reversed operates the motor in
forward generative braking mode in quadrant 4.
iii) Converter 2 with 2<900 operates the motor in reverse motoring mode in
quadrant 3
iv) Converter 2 with 2>900 and with field excitation reversed operates the motor in - The armature circuit of the motor is fed through a 3-phase half wave converter
reverse regenerative braking mode in quadrant 2 whereas its field is energized through a 3-phase semi-converter.
50
- This converter offers one-quadrant operation and may be used up to about 40 kW - On the assumption of continuous and ripple free armature current, waveforms for line
motor ratings. current iA and thyristor current iT1 are sketched for firing angle 1 = 300 and also for
- Two-quadrant operation can also be obtained from three-phase half-wave converter 1 = 900.
drive in case motor field winding is energized from single-phase or three-phase full - An examination of these waveforms would reveal that
converter. i) for firing angle 1 ≤ 600, each thyristor conducts for 1200 and
- For a 3-phase half-wave converter, average value of output voltage or armature ii) for 600<1<1800, each thyristor conducts for (1800 –1)
terminal voltage is

Where Vml = maximum value of line voltage and a1 is the firing angle
for converter 1.
- The voltage expression is valid only for continuous armature current. For three phase
semi-converter, the average value of field voltage, is given by.

- A three-phase half-wave converter drive is not normally used in industrial

applications as it introduces dc component in the ac supply line
- It is seen from the waveforms that:

2. Three-phase Semi-converter drives

- The circuit diagram for a 3-phase semi-converter feeding a separately-excited dc
motor is shown. The field winding of the motor is also connected to three-phase
semi-converter.
- This drive offers one quadrant operation and is used up to about 115 kW ratings.

51
 3. Three-phase Full-converter drives
- As armature current is ripple free, rms value of armature current, Iar = Ia,. It is also - The circuit diagram, consisting of one three-phase full converter in the armature
seen from waveforms as under: circuit and another 3-phase (or 1-phase) full converter in the filed circuit, is as shown.
- It offers two-quadrant drive and is used up to about 1500 kW drives. For regenerative
purposes, the polarity of counter emf is reversed by reversing the field excitation by
making the firing-angle delay of converter 2 more than 900

- For converter 1 in the armature circuit, the average output voltage is given by:

- Voltage and current waveforms for =300 and for constant armature current are
sketched below.

52
- It is seen from this figure that each thyristor conducts for 1200 for continuous
armature current.
- This gives:
rms value of armature current, Iar = Ia

- It may be observed in waveforms that source current iA is positive when first subscript
with voltage is a, as in Vab, Vac.
- Similarly, source current iA is negative when second subscript is a, just as it is in Vba,
Vca. On this basis, source current waveforms for phases B and C can also be sketched.

CHOPPER DRIVES
- When variable dc voltage is to be obtained from fixed dc voltage, dc chopper is the
ideal choice. Use of chopper in traction systems is now accepted all over the world.
- A chopper is inserted in between a fixed voltage dc source and the dc motor armature
for its speed control below base speed.
- In addition, chopper is easily adaptable for regenerative braking of dc motors and thus
kinetic energy of the drive can be returned to the dc source.
- This results in overall energy saving which is the most welcome feature in
transportation systems requiring frequent stops, as for example in rapid transit
systems.
- Chopper drives are also used in battery-operated vehicles where energy saving is of
prime importance.
- Though choppers can be used for dynamic braking and for combined regenerative and
dynamic control of dc drives, only the following two control modes are discussed:-
4. Three-phase Dual Converter Drives 1. Power control or motoring control
- Below is the schematic diagram for a 3-phase dual converter. Converter 1 allows 2. Regenerative-braking control
motor control in I and IV quadrant where converter 2, the operation in II and III
quadrant is obtained. The applications of dual converters are limited to about 2MW
drives. 1. Power Control or Motoring Control
- For reversing the polarity of motor generated emf for regeneration purposes, field - Figure below shows the basic arrangement of a dc chopper feeding power to a dc
circuit must be energized from single phase or three phase full converter. series motor.
- The chopper is shown to consist of a force commutated thyristor, it could equally well
be a transistor switch.

53
 - It is seen from above equation that by varying the duty cycle  of the chopper,
armature terminal voltage can be controlled and thus speed of the dc motor can be
regulated.
- So far, armature current ia has been assumed tipple free and accordingly, waveforms
in figure above are sketched.
- Actually, the motor armature current will raise during chopper on period and fall
during off period as shown in figure below.

- It offers one-quadrant drive, figure (b). Armature current is assumed continuous and
ripple free. The waveforms for the source voltage Vs, armature terminal voltage
Vt=V0, armature current ia, dc source current is and freewheeling-diode current ifd are
sketched in fig (c). - By referring to this chopper, armature current ia(t) during on period, is given by
- From these waveforms, the following relations can be obtained:

- The armature current during the off-period, is given by

54
 - When chopper is turned off, Ea being more than Vs, diode D conducts and energy
stored in armature inductance is transferred to the source. During Toff, Vt=Vs.
- From the waveforms, the following relations can be derived:

2. Regenerative-Braking Control -
- In regenerative-braking control, the motor act as a generator and the kinetic energy of -
the motor and connected load is returned to the supply.
- During motoring mode, armature current i.e armature current is positive
and the motor consumes power
- In case load drives the motor at a speed such as that average value of motor counter
emf Ea (=kmm) exceeds Vt, Ia is reversed and power is delivered to dc bus. The motor
is then working as a generator in the regenerative braking mode.

- For active loads, such as a train going down the hill or a descending hoist, let it be Above
assumed that motor counter emf Ea is more than the source voltage Vs.
- When chopper CH is on, current through armature inductance La rises as the armature
terminals get short-circuited through CH. Also Vt=0 during Ton .

55
- The equation above gives the condition for the two voltages and their polarity for the - Motoring mode: When Chopper CH1 is on, the supply voltage Vs gets connected to
regenerative braking control of dc separately excited motor. armature terminals and therefore armature current ia rises. When CH1 is turned off, ia
free wheels through D1 and therefore ia decays. This shows that with CH1 and D1,
motor control in first quadrant is obtained.
- Regenerative mode: When CH2 is turned on, the motor acts as a generator and the
armature current ia rises and therefore energy is stored in armature inductance La.
When CH2 is turned off, D2 gets turned on and therefore direction of ia is reversed.
Now the energy stored in La is returned to dc source and second quadrant operation is
obtained.
- In this figure, first-quadrant operation of dc motor is sometimes called forward-
motoring mode and second-quadrant operation as forward regenerative-braking
mode.

4. Four-quadrant Chopper Drives

- In four-quadrant dc chopper drives, a motor can be made to work in forward-
motoring mode (first quadrant), forward regenerative braking mode (second
quadrant), reverse motoring mode (third quadrant) and reverse regenerative-
braking mode (fourth quadrant).
- The circuit shown below offers four-quadrant operation of a separately-excited dc
motor. This circuit consists of four choppers, four diodes and a separately-excited dc
motor.

3. Two-quadrant Chopper Drives

- Motoring control circuit for chopper drives offer only first-quadrant drive, because
armature voltage and armature current remain positive over the entire range of speed
control.
- In regenerative braking, second-quadrant drive is obtained as armature terminal
voltage remains positive but direction of armature current is reversed.
- In two-quadrant dc motor drive, both motoring mode and regenerative braking
mode are carried out by one chopper configuration.
- One such circuit is shown in figure below which consists of two choppers CH1, CH2
and two diodes D1, D2 and a separately-excited dc motor.
- Forward motoring mode: During this mode or first-quadrant operation, choppers
CH2, CH3 are kept OFF; CH4 is kept ON whereas CH1 is operated. When CH1,
CH4 are on, motor voltage is positive and positive armature current rises. When CH1
is turned off, positive armature current free-wheels and decreases as it flows through
CH4, D2. In this manner, controlled motor operation in first quadrant is obtained.
- Forward regenerative-braking mode: A dc motor can work in the regenerative-
braking mode only if motor generated emf is made to exceed the dc source voltage.
For obtaining this mode, CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept OFF whereas CH2 is operated.
When CH2 is turned ON, negative armature current rises through CH2, D4, Ea, La, ra.
56
 When CH2 is turned off, diodes D1, D2 are turned on and the motor acting as a
generator returns energy to the dc source. This results in forward regenerative-
braking mode in the second-quadrant.
- Reverse motoring mode: This operating mode is opposite to forward motoring mode.
Choppers CH1, CH4 are kept OFF, CH2 is kept ON whereas CH3 is operated. When
CH3 and CH2 are ON, armature gets connected to source voltage Vs so that both
armature voltage Vt and armature current ia are negative. As armature current is
reversed, motor torque is reversed and consequently motoring mode in third quadrant
is obtained. When CH3 is turned off, negative armature current freewheels through
CH2, D4, Ea, La, ra; armature current decreases and thus speed control is obtained in
third quadrant. Note that during this mode, polarity of Ea is opposite to that shown in
figure (a).
- Reverse regenerative-braking Mode: As in forward braking mode, reverse
regenerative-braking mode is feasible only if motor generated emf is made to exceed
the dc source voltage. For this operating mode, CH1, CH2 and CH3 are kept OFF
whereas CH4 is operated. When CH4 is turned ON, positive armature current ia rises
through CH4, D2, ra, La, Ea. When CH4 is turned OFF, diodes D2, D3 begin to
conduct and motor acting as a generator returns energy to the dc source. This leads to
reverse generative-braking operation of the dc separately-excited motor in fourth
quadrant.

- Note that in Fig (a), the numbering of choppers is done to agree with the quadrants in
which these are operated. For example, CH1 is operated for first quadrant, CH2 is
operated for second quadrant, CH3 is operated for third quadrant and CH4 for fourth
quadrant.

57
TOPIC 6: ELECTRIC HEATING is quite efficient. It is employed in resistance welding, in electric boilers and in salt bath
 Out of the various methods of heating materials, electrical heating is the most furnaces.
convenient in operation and clean. Further the heat may be controlled accurately.
 When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot Indirect Resistance heating
(resistance heating) The current is passed through a high resistance wire known as heating element. The heat
 Also it was found that when a magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an produced due to I2R loss in the element is transmitted by radiation or convention to the
alternating magnetic field, heat is produced in the magnetic material (induction body to be heated. Uses: Room heater, immersion water heater oven.
heating).
Requirement of a good heating material
 When an electrically insulated material is subjected to an electrical stress, it
- High specific resistance: - It should have high specific resistance so that a short
undergo a temperature rise (dielectric heating)
length of wire will be required for a particular resistance or for the same length and
current the heat produced will be more.
Reasons and advantages for electric heating
- High melting point: - should have high melting point so that higher temperature be
- Cleanliness: - Complete elimination of dust and ash hence charge is clean and
obtained.
not contaminated.
- Free from oxidation – Should not oxidize at high temp, otherwise its life will be
- Ease to control: - easy to control and regulate the temperature of furnace using
shortened.
automatic or manual devices.
- Low temperature coefficient of resistance - so that its resistance does not change
- Uniform heating: - The heat is uniformly distributed and hence change is
during its temp range of operation. Also with this, the current drawn by the element at
uniformly heated.
cold (start) will not be much different from that when it is hot,
- Absence of flue gases: No space has to be used in providing flues and there is no
risk of contamination of the atmosphere or of the objects being heated.
Some materials used
- Low attention and maintenance costs- Electric heating equipment in general
Alloy of Ni–chromium, Ni-chromium iron, Nickel – chromium – aluminium or Nickel
requires no attention, while maintenance costs are negligibly small. This results
copper.
in considerable savings in labour costs over alternative heating systems.
- Special heating requirements- special heating requirements such as uniform
Temperature control of Resistance furnace
heating or heating one particular portion of a job without affecting the other parts
- There are 3 ways by which the temp (I2Rt) can be controlled.
or heating with no oxidation is met only by electric heating.
- Higher efficiency- Heat produced electrically does not go away waste through  Voltage or current.
the chimney or other products. Most of the heat produced is utilized for heating  Time.
the material.  Resistance.
- These three methods are used to control the heat loss in the oven.
Methods of Electric Heating - Voltage can be varied by using tapped transformer for supply to the oven or by using
1. Power Frequency Method a series resistance so that some voltage is dropped across the series resistors.
- Direct resistance heating - Time is utilized for controlling temp of smaller capacity oven. An ON-OFF switch is
- Indirect resistance heating used. The time for which the oven is connected to the supply and the time for which
- Direct arc heating. the oven is connected to the supply and the time for which it remains isolated from the
- Indirect arc heating. supply determine the temperature.
2. High Frequency Heating - Temperature can also be controlled by switching in various combination of group of
- Induction heating – core type or low frequency induction resistances used.
- Coreless type or high frequency induction. - In a single-phase supply, various series and parallel combination along with source
- Dielectric heating. resistances being in the circuit, other out of the circuit give various temps. For 3-phase
oven, however, different connections with star – delta arrangement gives different
Direct Resistance heating temperature.
The current is passed through the body to be heated. The resistance offered by the body to - If the temp is to be controlled automatically some form of thermostat should be used
the flow of current produces ohmic loss I2R that results in heating the body. This method in the circuit so that it operates and switches out or switches in the oven whenever the
temp goes above or below a certain predetermined value respectively.
58
Design of heating element Electric Arc Furnace
- The heating element is usually a circular cross section wire where the size and the They are of two types
length of the wire can be obtained if the voltage of the heating element is known. - Direct arc and indirect arc
- Also is the operating voltage and ambient temperature and heating element temp are - In direct arc heating, the arc is formed between the electrodes and the charge whereas
known. in case of indirect are heating the arc is formed between the electrodes and the heat is
- Initially when the heating element is switched on to supply, the temp goes on transmitted to the charge through radiation only. The electrodes are made of carbon or
increasing and finally a high steady state temperature is reached when it can be graphite.
assumed practically all the heat is being transferred through radiation.
Let P – Wattage of the heating element to be operated at V volts.
T1 – Temp of the radiating surface.
T2 – Temp (in degree absolute) of the absorbing surface.
- Then determination of length and the size of heating element is as below.
P = V2/R where R = L
A
P = V2 A
L
Surface area of the element = r2
- Therefore dissipated or input to the element per sq M
P = V2r2
L
Heat dissipated per sq M according to Stefan’s Ian.

H = 5.72 Ke T1 4 - T2 4
Watt/m2
100 100

Now total heat generated = total heat dissipated.

Where T1 - Temperature of the black body in 0C

T2 – Temperature of the absorbing body in 0C
K – Constant known as radiating efficiency depending on the
disposition of heating element.
K = 1 for single element
= 0.5 to 0.8 for more than one element.
e – Emissivity = 1.0 for a black body
0.9 For resistance heating element.
Input power P = H 2 rL
- The most important feature of the direct arc furnace is that since the current flows
Example through the charge, the stirring action is inherent due to the electromagnetic force set up
A 20 KW 1Ǿ 220V resistance oven employs circular nichrome wire for its heating element. by the current. This results in uniform heating of the charge.
If the wire temperature is not exceeding 11270C and the temperature of the charge is to be - In an indirect arc heating, the charge is heated due to radiation only. Also as current
4270C, calculate the size and length of wire required. Assume e = 0.9 and radiation does not flow through the charge there is no inherent stirring action provided and the
efficiency K = 0.6, what would be the temperature of wire when the charge is cold. Take e furnace must be rocked mechanically. This is why these furnaces are usually cylindrical
in shape.
= 1.09 x 10-6 -M and room temp 250C.
Application: Direct arc heating - Production of steel melting and refining.
Indirect arc heating – Melting of non-ferrous metals.
59
Example - Hence as the frequency of the heating current increases, greater part of the induced
A 3 phase arc furnace has to melt 10 tons of steel in 2 hrs. Determine the average KW heating current tend to concentrate close to the surface of the metal. The heat of the
input to the furnace if its overall efficiency is 50%. If the current input is 9000A with the disc can be increased by:-
above KW input and the resistance and reactance of the furnace are 0.003 and - High coil current
0.005respectively, determine the arc voltage and the total KVA taken from the supply. - Large number of coil turns
Assume: Latent heat of steel 0.12 - High frequency supply
Latent heat of fusion of steel – 8.89K cal/kg - The disc may be at magnetic material (higher permeability)
Melting point of steel 13710c. - Higher electrical resistively of the disc (magnetic material)
- In case the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, the heat generated is due to eddy
Induction Heating current, and if it is magnetic material, there will be hysterisis loss in addition.
- This works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. - Hysterisis loss is proportional to frequency whereas eddy current loss is proportional
- Consider a disk of metal surrounded by a copper coil in which an alternating current is to square of frequency when operating at low frequencies. At high frequency the
flowing. heating due to hysterisis becomes very small compared to eddy current.
- The disk has a finite value of diameter and thickness and is spaced a given distance
from the coil and concentric to it. Application of Induction Heating
- It is found that a secondary current is is caused to circulate around the outer surface of - Surface hardening of steal.
the disc. - Annealing of brass and bronze – softening.
- Brazing – soldering
- Welding
- Drying paints on metals.
- Sterilizing surgical instruments etc.
- An a.c voltage source sends a current ip through say N turns on the metallic core. This
ac current ip produces an a.c magnetic field in core. Types of Induction Furnace
- Considering the closed magnetic path in the metal core, the passage of magnetic flux 1. Core Type or Low Frequency induction furnace
results in an induced voltage e in the coil given by e = - Nd/dt volts - The furnace consist of a circular hearth in the form of a through which contains the
= - Ldi/dt volts charge to be melted in the form of an annular ring.
- Since the core is a closed circuit, with a single turn coil, any induced emf e results in a
circulating current through the core (metal disk).This current is called the eddy
current.
- Every closed path at right angles to the flux acts as short circuited secondary with
definite resistances and inductance.
- Hence the magnitude of this current depends on the emf induced and the impedance
offered by the closed circuit of the core material to the flow of the eddy current.
- If eddy current is flows through R resistance of the core material, then the power
dissipated by the core is is2R. This power results in production of heat in the metal
core. - The metal ring is magnetically interlinked with an electrical winding which is
- If a piece of magnetic material is magnetized, demagnetized and again magnetized, energized from an a.c source.
then some energy is lost in the process. The energy so lost is called the hysteresis loss - The furnace is therefore essentially a transformer In which the charge to be heated
and it appears in the form of heat. forms a single turn short-circuited secondary and is magnetically coupled to the
- The higher the frequency of the current flowing through the coil surrounding a metal primary by an iron core.
object, greater is the tendency of the resulting eddy current in the metal object to - The magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary is very poor. This
concentrate near its surface this is referred to as the skin effect. It is basically due to results in a high leakage reactance ad a low p.f hence the furnace is operated at a low
magnetic shielding action of induced currents. frequency.
- The melting is rapid and clean and the charge is capable of accurate control as far as
temp and alloy current is concerned.
60
 - When there is no molten metal in the annular ring, the secondary becomes open Depth of Penetration
circuited thereby cutting off the secondary current. Hence to start the furnace, molten - The depth of penetration or depth of heating of induced current into the disc is
metal has to be poured in annular hearth. considered as following:
- If the transformer secondary current density exceeds 500A/cm2, then due to the - Let Depth of penetration
interaction of secondary current with the alternating magnetic field, the molten metal specific resistance of metal charge in m
is squeezed to the extent that secondary circuit is interrupted. This effect is known as F = frequency in Hz
pinch effect H = Magnetizing force At/m
I = Current A
- The furnace suffers the following drawbacks N = Number of turns
- Suffers from pinching effect B= Flux Density Wb/m2
- Does not function if there is no molten metal in the hearth. i = flux in Webers
- Runs on low frequency supply hence need for motor-generator set or freq uency or =  absolute permeability
converter. l = length of cylinder in m
- Very inconvenient in tapping the molten charge due to its odd shape of crucible. r = radius of the cylinder m
- Magnetizing force H produced by N turns carrying current I and wound over the
2. Coreless type or high frequency induction furnace length l
- The furnace consists of a ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed within a coil H = NI/l At/m
which forms the primary winding and the charge in the crucible, the secondary of the  Wb/m2
transformer. - Flux density B   
l
- If r is the radius of the cylindrical job to be heated and the depth of heating,
the cross-section penetrated by fields
A= 2r
- Since the field at outer edge is H and reduces to zero in depth  average field
= H/2
- Hence the total flux penetrating through cylinder metallic portion is given as
i = flux density x area
- The flux produced by the primary windings set up eddy current in the charge which 
flows concentrically with those in the primary winding. i   2 r
2
- These currents heat up the charge to the melting point and provide stirring action to 
the charge. i  2 r
- Since the frequency of supply is very high, the skin effect in the primary coil 2
increases the effective resistance of the coil and hence the copper losses that tend to - Sinusoidal voltage induced E
be high thus need artificial cooling system. d i
E sin  t
- Stray magnetic field due to the current in the primary coil may induce eddy current in dt
the metal supporting structures and cause overheating of these structures and therefore d  H 
care must be taken while designing the primary coil. E 2 r  sin  t
dt  2 
E   r H cos  t
Advantages
- Fast in operation E m occurs at cos  t  1
- Produce uniform quality of product. E m   r H
- Low installation and operating cost. - Resistance of cylinder skin for flow of current circumferentially for length l meters
- Its operation is free from smoke, dust, dirt and fumes. l
- Intermittent operation possible. The thermal capacity of furnace being shall, no R Where l = 2r m (circumference)
warm-up time is required. A A=lx
 .2 r
R 61
l
 Dielectric Heating
- This is used for heating insulator like wood, plastic and ceramic etc which cannot be
- Circulating current I (secondary) heated easily and uniformly by other methods.
E  r H  2 Hl - The supply frequency required for dielectric heating is between 10-50MHz and the
I=  
R  2 r 2 voltage is up to 20 KV.
l - The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is about 50%.
- In length l, since primary Ampere turns is equal to secondary ampere turns. - All dielectric materials can be considered to be imperfect capacitor and can be
NI (Primary) = 1xI (Secondary) represented by a parallel combination of a resistance R and capacitor C as shown.
 2lH  2l NI
NI   .
2 2 l
- Depth of penetration
2


2

4  107 r .2 f
1 107 
 metres
2 r f

Question
Determine the efficiency of a high frequency induction furnace which takes 10minutes to
melt 1.815Kg of aluminum, the input to the furnace being 5KW and the initial temperature
15oC. Take specific heat of aluminum = 0.212, Melting point = 6600C, Latent heat of
fusion of aluminum = 76.8Kcal/Kg.

Question
The power input to the charge in a ½ ton 960Hz induction furnace having 20 turns on the
primary winding is 325KW. The cylindrical crucible has an internal diameter of 45cm and
the depth of the charge in it is 50cm. Determine the equivalent resistance of the charge and - The current IR through the equivalent resistance represents the leakage current, Ic
the current in the primary winding which is required to counter-balance the mmf due to represent the changing current of the dielectric
secondary. Take resistance of charge as 200-cm. - Dielectric loss P = V2
R
Question - From the phasor diagram V/R = tan 
A low frequency induction furnace has a secondary voltage of 15V and takes 500KW at VC
0.6 p.f when the hearth is full. If the secondary voltage is maintained at 15V, determine the
power absorbed and the p.f when the hearth is half full. Assume the resistance of the or V/R = VCtan 
secondary circuit to be thereby doubled and the reactance to remain the same.
- Therefore P = V2 Ctan 
- Normally  is small therefore tan =  hence P = V2 C
where  is in radian and is known as the loss angle.

62
- It is an indication of the state of the dielectric whether it is healthy or unhealthy. The Sources of High Frequency
higher the value of , the less healthy is the state of the dielectric material. There are three types of equipment used for converting electrical energy at low freq to one
- Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given as at high freq suitable for induction heating.
C = orA - The motor generation set.
d - The spark gap converter.
where o is permittivity constant - Vacuum tube oscillation.
r – relative permittivity of the medium
A – Area of the plate
d – Thickness of the medium
- Therefore dielectric loss P = V2 Ctan 
= V2 f orA
d
- The product r is known as loss factor.
- The relative permittivity is an indication of the retained energy due to molecular
deformation where  is an indication of the amount of leakage current which will flow
through the insulator and so produce a heat loss.

Advantages of dielectric heating

- Heating becomes faster with increasing frequency
- The only method used to heat bad conductors.
- Heating can be stopped immediately as and when desired.
- Since heat is generated within the dielectric medium, it results in uniform heating.

Applications of dielectric heating

- Heat – sealing of plastic sheets (electronic sewing)
- Bonding laminated woods
- Drying of textiles
- Dehydration of food and tobacco
- Sterilizations of cereals, pasteurizing milk and beer inside of bottles

Question 1
A slap of material 2cm thick and 15cm2 in area having relative permittivity of 4 and P.F of
0.04 is to be heated using dielectric heating. The power required is 200w and a frequency
of 30MHz. Determine the voltage required and the current that will flow through the
material. If the voltage were to be limited to 600v, what should be the frequency for the
same power requirement?

Question 2
A wooden board 30cm x 15cm x 2cm is to be heated from 200c to 1800c in 10 minutes by
dielectric heating using 40MHz supply. Specific heat of wood 0.35, r = 5, P.F = 0.05 and
capacity 0.55gm/cc. Estimate the voltage across the specimen and current during heating.
Assume loss of energy by conduction, convention and radiation as 10%

63