Ajit K. Srivastava, Carroll E. Goering, Roger P. Rohrbach, and Dennis R. Buckmaster. 2006.

Machinery Selection and Management. Chapter 15 in Engineering Principles of

Agricultural Machines, 2nd ed., 525-551. St. Joseph, Michigan: ASABE, Copyright American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers. (Corrected reprint 2012).

MACHINERY
SELECTION AND
MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Because of the seasonal nature of farm work, farm machinery is used during rela-
tively short periods of the year. With growth in average farm size, machines of high
capacity are required to accomplish their task during these short periods. Unlike fac-
tory machines, whose costs can be amortized over thousands of hours of annual use,
farm machines are typically amortized over hundreds of hours of annual use. The need
to amortize machine costs over low hours of annual use puts tight constraints on the
manufacturing costs of farm machines. At the same time, since lost time is very costly
during the limited periods of annual use, farm machines must be designed to have high
reliability and high field efficiency. As early as 1924, it was noted that “time is the
essence of farming” and that whatever helps to shorten the time required for planting
and harvesting will help overcome the effects of adverse weather (Mount, 1924).
Thus, machinery selection and management techniques are of great interest to both the
designer and user of farm machinery. ASAE (now ASABE) has fostered research on
machinery selection and management for many years and currently has three related
documents in its annual standards book. They are Standard S495 on uniform terminol-
ogy, Engineering Practice EP496 on machinery management, and D497 on machinery
management data.

15.1 FIELD CAPACITY AND EFFICIENCY

15.1.1 Field capacity
Field capacity refers to the amount of processing that a machine can accomplish
per hour of time and was first calculated by McKibben (1930). Field capacity can be
expressed on a material or area basis. On an area basis, the field capacity is:
v w ηf
Ca = (15.1)
10
On a material basis, the field capacity is:
526 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

v w Y ηf
Cm = (15.2)
10
where Ca = field capacity, area basis, ha/h (Cat when ηf = 1.0)
Cm = field capacity, material basis, Mg/h (Cmt when ηf = 1.0)
v = travel speed, km/h
w = machine working width, m
Y = crop yield, Mg/ha
ηf = field efficiency, decimal
The term theoretical field capacity is used to describe the field capacity when the
field efficiency is equal to 1.0, i.e., theoretical field capacity is achieved when the ma-
chine is using 100% of its width without interruption for turns or other idle time. For
cultivators and other machines that work in rows, the machine working width is equal
to the row spacing times the number of rows processed in each pass. An operator with
perfect steering skills would be required to use the full width of mowers and other
machines that do not work in rows. Since operators are not perfect, less than the full
width of such machines is used in order to ensure coverage of the entire land area, i.e.,
there is some overlapping of coverage.
The travel speed of balers, forage choppers, and other machines that process a prod-
uct may be limited by the Cmt, i.e., by the theoretical field capacity of the machine on a
materials handling basis. For a given Cmt, W, and Y, Equation 15.2 could be used with ηf
=1.0 to find the allowable forward speed. Equation 15.2 is not relevant to machines that
do not process a product, e.g., tillage machines; the speed of such machines is limited by
one or more other factors, including available power, quality of the work accomplished,
safety, etc. Typical operating speeds for various machines are listed in Table 15.1.
15.1.2 Field efficiency
The theoretical time, τt, required to perform a given field operation varies inversely
with the theoretical field capacity and can be calculated using the following equation:
A
τt = (15.3)
C at
where τt = theoretical time required to perform operation, h
Cat = theoretical field capacity, ha/h
A = area to be processed, ha
The actual time required to perform the operation will be increased due to overlap,
time required for turning on the ends of the field, time required for loading or unload-
ing materials, etc. Such time losses lower the field efficiency below 100%. The fol-
lowing equation can be used to calculate the field efficiency:
τt
ηf = (15.4)
τe + τ h + τa
where τe = τt/Kw = effective operating time, h
Kw = fraction of implement width actually used
τa = time losses that are proportional to area, h
τh = time losses that are not proportional to area, h
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 527

Table 15.1. Field efficiency, field speed , and repair and maintenance cost
parameters (adapted from ASAE Data D497).
Effic. Typ. Speed Typ. Est. Total Life R
Range Effic. Range, Speed, Life, & M[b] Cost,
Machine % % km/h km/h h % of list price RF1 RF2
Tillage and Planting
Moldboard plow 70-90 85 5.0-10.0 7.0 2000 100 0.29 1.8
Heavy-duty disk 70-90 85 5.5-10.0 7.0 2000 60 0.18 1.7
Tandem disk harrow 70-90 80 6.5-11.0 10.0 2000 60 0.18 1.7
Chisel plow 70-90 85 6.5-10.5 8.0 2000 75 0.28 1.4
Field cultivator 70-90 85 8.0-13.0 11.0 2000 70 0.27 1.4
Spring tooth harrow 70-90 85 8.0-13.0 11.0 2000 70 0.27 1.4
Roller-packer 70-90 85 7.0-12.0 10.0 2000 40 0.16 1.3
Mulcher-packer 70-90 80 6.5-11.0 8.0 2000 40 0.16 1.3
Rotary hoe 70-85 80 13-22.5 19.0 2000 60 0.23 1.4
Row crop cultivator 70-90 80 5.0-11.0 8.0 2000 80 0.17 2.2
Rotary tiller 70-90 85 2.0-7.0 5.0 1500 80 0.36 2.0
Row crop planter 50-75 65 6.5-11.0 9.0 1500 75 0.32 2.1
Grain drill 55-80 70 6.5-11.0 8.0 1500 75 0.32 2.1
Harvesting
Corn picker sheller 60-75 65 3.0-6.5 4.0 2000 70 0.14 2.3
Combine 60-75 65 3.0-6.5 5.0 2000 60 0.12 2.3
Combine (Sp)[a] 65-80 70 3.0-6.5 5.0 3000 40 0.14 2.1
Mower 75-85 80 5.0-10.0 8.0 2000 150 0.46 1.7
Mower (rotary) 75-90 80 8.0-19.0 11.0 2000 175 0.44 2.0
Mower-conditioner 75-85 80 5.0-10.0 8.0 2500 80 0.18 1.6
Mower-condition (rotary) 75-90 80 8.0-19.0 11.0 2500 100 0.16 2.0
Windrower (SP) 70-85 80 5.0-13.0 8.0 3000 55 0.06 2.0
Side delivery rake 70-90 80 6.5-13.0 10.0 2500 60 0.17 1.4
Rectangular baler 60-85 75 4.0-10.0 6.5 2000 80 0.23 1.8
Large rectangular baler 70-90 80 6.5-13.0 8.0 3000 75 0.10 1.8
Large round baler 55-75 65 5.0-13.0 8.0 1500 90 0.43 1.8
Forage harvester 60-85 70 2.5-8.0 5.0 2500 65 0.15 1.6
Forage harvester (SP) 60-85 70 2.5-10.0 5.5 4000 50 0.03 2.0
Sugar beet harvester 50-70 60 6.5-10.0 8.0 1500 100 0.59 1.3
Potato harvester 55-70 60 2.5-6.5 4.0 2500 70 0.19 1.4
Cotton picker (SP) 60-75 70 3.0-6.0 4.5 3000 80 0.11 1.8
Miscellaneous
Fertilizer spreader 60-80 70 8.0-16.0 11.0 1200 80 0.63 1.3
Boom-type sprayer 50-80 65 5.0-11.5 10.5 1500 70 0.41 1.3
Air-carrier sprayer 55-70 60 3.0-8.0 5.0 2000 60 0.20 1.6
Bean puller-windrower 70-90 80 6.5-11.5 8.0 2000 60 0.20 1.6
Beet topper/stalk chopper 70-90 80 6.5-11.5 8.0 1200 35 0.28 1.4
Forage blower 1500 45 0.22 1.8
Forage wagon 2000 50 0.16 1.6
Wagon 3000 80 0.19 1.3
[a]
SP indicates self-propelled.
[b]
R & M is repair and maintenance.
528 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

τa and τh represent the two extremes for types of time losses and some losses may
fall between these extremes. Examples of τa-type losses include unclogging of spray
nozzles, adding filling fertilizer or seed boxes, or filling spray tanks. For a given yield,
time spent in unloading harvested crop is proportional to area but unloading time also
increases with yield. Many τh-type losses are proportional to effective operating time,
τe; these include rest stops, adjusting equipment, and idle travel at field ends if such
travel is at normal operating speed. Field shape can have an important effect on τh, i.e.,
τh will be much smaller relative to τe if the field is long and narrow. Then the machine
will make fewer turns at the end for a given field area. Time required to move a ma-
chine to or from a field is not included in field efficiency calculations; else the field
efficiency would vary widely depending upon distance between fields and distance
from the machine storage site. Calculation of field efficiency and capacity is illustrated
in Example Problem 15.1.

Example Problem 15.1

A self-propelled combine with a 12-row corn head for 75 cm row spacing travels at 5
km/h while harvesting corn yielding 12 Mg/ha. Losses proportional to area total to 5.2
minutes per hectare and are primarily due to unloading grain from the combine. Ne-
glecting any other losses, calculate (a) the field efficiency and the field capacity on (b)
an area basis and (c) material basis.
Solution
(a) In calculating the field efficiency, consider the time uses while harvesting one hec-
tare. From the given information, τa = 5.2 minutes and τh = 0. To determine τe, note
that a row crop header uses the full width, so that Kw = 1.0 and thus τe = τt. From Equa-
tion 15.1, the theoretical field capacity on an area basis is:
Cat = 5(12 × 0.75)1.0/10 = 4.5 ha/h
Then, from Equation 15.3:
τe = τt = 1/4.5 = 0.222 h or 13.3 minutes
Finally, from Equation 15.4, the field efficiency is:
ηf = 13.3/(13.3+5.2+0) = 0.72
(b) Now the actual field capacity on an area basis can be calculated:
Ca = 4.5(0.72) = 3.24 ha/h
(c) Finally, by multiplying by the crop yield, the field capacity on a material basis can
be calculated:
Cm = 3.24(12) = 38.9 Mg/h
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 529

Machine breakdowns cause time losses and reduction of field efficiency if the
breakdowns occur during planned working hours. The probability of machine down-
time is equal to one minus the operational reliability of the machine. One useful way
of expressing machine reliability is as the mean time between failures. As shown in
ASAE EP456, the reliability of a group or components or machines with a serial rela-
tionship is the product of the individual reliabilities, i.e.:
100r1r2 ...rλ
Rm = (15.5)
100 λ
where Rm = reliability of the entire machine, percent
r1, r2, etc. = reliabilities of individual components, percent
λ = total number of components in series
Components are said to be in series if the failure of any one of the components
stops the operation of the entire machine. Conversely, reliability can be increased
through redundancy, i.e., through use of components in parallel such that, when a
component fails, a parallel component will take over the function. Equation 15.5 is
valid for calculating the reliability of a single machine based on the reliabilities of its
components, or for calculating the overall reliability of a group of machines based on
their individual reliabilities. For example, if a successful hay harvesting operation re-
quires the use of a mower, a rake, and a baler in sequence, the overall reliability of the
harvesting operation is the product of the individual reliabilities of the mower, rake,
and baler. The reliability probability for a machine or group of machines is essentially
one for the next minute, but decreases with time. Thus, the probability that a large,
complex machine will operate extensively over several seasons without a breakdown
is essentially zero. Farmers repair machines during the off-season or trade old ma-
chines for new in order to maintain an acceptable level of reliability.
Careful consideration of Equation 15.4 leads to the conclusion that time losses are
much more critical for a large machine than for a smaller one. As τe declines with in-
creasing Cat, time losses τa and τh become larger relative to τe. Thus, as a company
increases the theoretical field capacity of its combines, for example, it becomes essen-
tial to also increase the rate at which the grain tank can be unloaded, decrease the field
time needed to service the machine, and decrease any other time losses. Similarly, in
increasing a planter size from 4-row capacity to 12-row capacity, for example, it is
important to provide a quicker means for refilling seed boxes on the larger planter.
Otherwise, the field efficiency will decrease and the effective field capacity will in-
crease less than the increase in theoretical field capacity. Table 15.1 provides a range
of field efficiencies and a typical field efficiency for a variety of machines.

15.2 DRAFT AND POWER

REQUIREMENTS
Draft and power requirements are in important in selecting tractors and implements
because tractors must be large enough to meet the implement draft requirements. Also,
the engine in tractors or self-propelled machines must be large enough to supply the
530 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

power requirements of the field operations. The following equation can be used to
estimate draft requirements:
( )
D I = Fi A + B v + C v 2 w d
(15.6)

where DI = implement draft, N

Fi = dimensionless texture adjustment factor from Table 15.2
i = 1 for fine, 2 for medium, or 3 for coarse textured soils
A, B, and C = implement-specific constants from Table 15.2
Units for w may be tools or rows as per Table 15.2, not meters as page 526.
d = tillage depth, cm (use 1.0 for minor tillage tools and seeders)
Draft estimates from Table 15.2 are averages and can vary by plus or minus the
percentages shown in the right-most column of the table. After the implement draft is
determined, the drawbar power can be calculated using the following equation:
Dv
Pdb = I (15.7)
3.6
where Pdb = drawbar power, kW
v = travel speed, estimated from Table 15.1.
Tractors are often rated by brake power or PTO power rather than drawbar power.
After the drawbar power is calculated, the PTO power and/or net flywheel power can
be estimated using Figure 15.1.
Table 15.2. Draft parameters for tillage and seeding implements
(adapted from ASAE Data D497).
Width Range,
Implement units A B C F1 F2 F3 ±%
Major Tillage Tools
Subsoiler/manure injector
Narrow point tools 226 0.0 1.8 1.0 0.70 0.45 50
30 cm winged point tools 294 0.0 2.4 1.0 0.70 0.45 50
Moldboard plow m 652 0.0 5.1 1.0 0.70 0.45 40
Chisel plow
5 cm straight point tools 91 5.4 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 50
7.5 cm shovel/35 cm tools 107 6.3 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 50
sweep
10 cm twisted shovel tools 123 7.3 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 50
Sweep plow
Primary tillage m 390 19.0 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 45
Secondary tillage m 273 13.3 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 35
Disk harrow, tandem
Primary tillage m 309 16.0 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 50
Secondary tillage m 216 11.2 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 30
Disk harrow, offset
Primary tillage m 364 18.8 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 50
Secondary tillage m 254 13.2 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 30
Disk gang, single
Primary tillage m 124 6.4 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 25
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 531

Secondary tillage m 86 4.5 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 20

Coulters
Smooth or ripple tools 55 2.7 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 25
Bubble or flute tools 66 3.3 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 25
Field cultivator
Primary tillage tools 46 2.8 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 30
Secondary tillage tools 32 1.9 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 25
Row crop cultivator
S-tine rows 140 7.0 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 15
C-shank rows 260 13.0 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 15
No-till rows 260 13.0 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 15
Rod weeder m 210 10.7 0.0 1.0 0.85 0.65 25
Disk Bedder rows 185 9.5 0.0 1.0 0.88 0.78 40
Minor Tillage Tools
Rotary hoe m 600 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 30
Coil tine harrow m 250 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 20
Spike tooth harrow m 600 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 30
Spring tooth harrow m 2000 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 35
Roller packer m 600 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 50
Roller harrow m 2600 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 50
Land plane m 8000 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 45
Seeding Implements
Row crop planter, prepared seedbed
Mounted
Seeding only rows 500 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
Drawn
Seeding only rows 900 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
Seed, fertilizer, rows 1550 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
herbicides
Row crop planter, no-till
Seed, fertilizer, her- rows 3400 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.94 0.82 35
bicides, 3 fluted
coulters per row
Grain drill w/press wheels
<2.4 m drill width rows 400 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
2.4 to 3.7 m drill rows 300 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
width
>3.7 m drill width rows 200 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25
Grain drill, no-till
1 fluted coulter/row rows 720 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.92 0.79 35
Hoe drill
Primary tillage m 6100 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 50
Secondary tillage m 2900 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 50
Pneumatic drill m 3700 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 50
532 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 15.1 – Power relationships for agricultural tractors.

Some machines have a rotary power requirement, where the power is supplied via
the tractor PTO or, in the case of self-propelled machines, from the engine on the self-
propelled machine. Equation 15.8 can be used to estimate rotary power requirements.
Prot = a + bw + cC m (15.8)

where Prot = rotary power, kw

a,b,c = machine specific constants from Table 15.3
For some machines, a drawbar power requirement must be added to the rotary
power requirement to obtain the total power requirement. For example, the potato har-
vester in Table 15.3 has such a requirement as indicated in the footnote in Table 15.3.
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 533

Table 15.3. Rotary power requirements. (Adapted from ASAE Data D497).
a, b, c, Range[a],
Machine Type kW kW/m kW h/Mg ±%
Baler, small rectangular 2.0 0 1.0[b] 35
Baler, large rectangular bales 4.0 0 1.3 35
Baler, large round (var. chamber) 4.0 0 1.1 50
Baler, large round (fixed chamber) 2.5 0 1.8 50
Beet harvester[c] 0 4.2 0 50
Beet topper 0 7.3 0 30
Combine, small grains 20.0 0 3.6[d] 50
Combine, corn 35.0 0 1.6[d] 30
Cotton picker 0 9.3 0 20
Cotton stripper 0 1.9 0 20
Feed mixer 0 0 2.3 50
Forage blower 0 0 0.9 20
Flail harvester, direct-cut 10.0 0 1.1 40
Forage harvester, corn silage 6.0 0 3.3[e] 40
Forage harvester, wilted alfalfa 6.0 0 4.0[e] 40
Forage harvester, direct cut 6.0 0 5.7[e] 40
Forage wagon 0 0 0.3 40
Grinder mixer 0 0 4.0 50
Manure spreader 0 0 0.2 50
Mower, cutterbar 0 1.2 0 25
Mower, disk 0 5.0 0 30
Mower, flail 0 10.0 0 40
Mower-conditioner, cutterbar 0 4.5 0 30
Mower-conditioner, disk 0 8.0 0 30
Potato harvester[c] 0 10.7 0 30
Potato windrower 0 5.1 0 30
Rake, side delivery 0 0.4 0 50
Rake, rotary 0 2.0 0 50
Tedder 0 1.5 0 50
Tub grinder, straw 5.0 0 8.4 50
Tub grinder, alfalfa hay 5.0 0 3.8 50
Windrower/swather, small grain 0 1.3 0 40
[a]
Range in average power requirement due to differences in machine design, machine ad-
justment, and crop conditions.
[b]
Increase by 20% for straw.
[c]
Total power requirement must include a draft of 11.6 kN/m (+40%) for potato harvesters
and 5.6 kN/m (+40%) for beet harvesters. A row spacing of 0.86 m for potatoes and 0.71
m for beets is assumed.
[d]
Based on material-other-than-grain (MOG), throughput for small grains and grain
throughput for corn. For a PTO driven machine, reduce parameter “a” by 10 kW.
[e]
Throughput is units of dry matter per hour with a 9 mm length of cut. At a specific
throughput, a 50% reduction in the length of cut or cut setting or the use of a recutter
screen increases power by 25%.
534 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Example Problem 15.2

A farmer is using a tandem disk harrow for primary tillage in a medium texture soil.
The disk width is 6 m, the travel speed is 10 km, and the tillage depth is 20 cm. Esti-
mate the implement draft, the drawbar power and the equivalent PTO power of the
MFWD tractor.
Solution
From Table 15.2, the draft parameters are A = 309, B = 16.0, C = 0 and F2 = 0.88. Then
the draft is:
DI = 0.88 [309 + 16 (10)] (6) (20) = 49,526 N = 49.5 kN
The drawbar power is:
49.5(10)
Pdb = = 138 kW
3.6
From Figure 1, assuming the soil ahead of the disk and under the tractor is firm, the
ratio between drawbar and PTO power is 0.77. Then the equivalent PTO power is 138
/ 0.77 = 179 kW.

Example Problem 15.3

A farmer is using a 12-row corn head on a combine to harvest corn planted in 75-cm
rows at a speed of 5 km/h. The corn is yielding 12 Mg/ha. Calculate the rotary power
requirement.
Solution
The first step is to calculate the theoretical field capacity on a material basis using
Equation 15.2 with ηf = 1.0. Theoretical field capacity is used because the combine
engine must supply sufficient power during periods when the combine is moving
through the field, i.e., not turning. Note that the header width is
w = 12(75)/100 = 9 m.
5(9)(12)(1.0)
C mt = = 54Mg / h
10
From Table 15.3, a = 35 kW, b = 0 kW/m and c = 1.6 kW h/Mg. Note from Table 15.3
that the combine throughput is based on only the grain as the stalks do not pass
through the combine. Then the rotary power is:
Prot = 35 + 0(9) + 1.6(12) = 54.2 kW
Note that this estimate is for average conditions. The actual power requirement could
be 30% higher or lower as indicated in Table 15.3.
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 535

15.3 MACHINERY COSTS

Machinery costs include costs of ownership and operation as well as penalties for
lack of timeliness. Ownership costs tend to be independent of the amount a machine is
used and are often called fixed or overhead costs. Conversely, operating costs increase
in proportion to the amount the machine is used. Total machine costs are the sum of
the ownership and operating costs. Ownership, operating, and total machine costs can
be calculated on an annual, hourly, or per-hectare basis. Total per-hectare cost is cal-
culated by dividing the total annual cost by the area covered by the machine during the
year. A custom cost is the price paid for hiring an operator and equipment to perform a
given task. A farm operator can compare total per-hectare costs to custom costs to
determine whether it would be better to purchase a machine or to hire the equipment
and an operator to accomplish a given task. Per-hectare ownership costs vary inversely
with the amount of annual use of a machine. Therefore, a certain minimum amount of
work must be available to justify purchase of a machine and, the more work available,
the larger the ownership costs that can be economically justified.
15.3.1 Ownership costs
Ownership costs include depreciation of the machine, interest on the investment,
and cost of taxes, insurance and housing of the machine.
15.3.1.1 Depreciation
Depreciation is the reduction in the value of a machine with time and use. It is often
the largest single cost of machine ownership, but cannot be determined until the ma-
chine is sold. However, several methods are available for estimating depreciation. One
of these is to estimate the current value using various price guides for used equipment.
Annual depreciation is generally highest in the first year of the life of a machine and
declines each year. The sum-of-the-year digits and the declining-balance methods both
give rapid depreciation in the early years and lower depreciation as the machine ages
(Thuesen et al., 1971). Rapid early depreciation is used by many machine owners to
obtain the income tax advantages associated with such methods. For simplicity in ma-
chinery management calculations, straight-line depreciation can be used. With
straight-line depreciation, the difference between the purchase price and the salvage
value is divided by the machine life to obtain the annual depreciation. Alternatively,
the cost of depreciation and interest can be recovered through use of a capital recovery
factor. The capital recovery factor is discussed in the Total Annual Ownership Costs
section.
15.3.1.2 Machine life
The life of a machine can be terminated by wear out or by obsolescence. Wear out
does not occur at a definite point in time. Rather, the repair costs required to keep the
machine operational gradually increase until it becomes uneconomical to continue
making repairs. Obsolescence occurs when the machine is out of production and repair
parts are no longer available, or when it can be replaced by another machine or
method that will produce a greater profit. Table 15.1 gives the estimated life of a num-
ber of machines based on total number of hours until the machine is worn out. The
number of years of life until wear-out can be obtained by dividing by the annual hours
536 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

of use. In many cases, because of limited annual use, machines will become obsolete
before reaching the wear-out lives given in Table 15.1. The term economic life is de-
fined as the length of time after purchase of a machine that it is more economic to re-
place the machine with another than to continue with the first, whether because of
wear-out or obsolescence. The economic life is then the appropriate life to use in cal-
culating ownership costs.
15.3.1.3 Interest on investment
The money spent to purchase a machine is unavailable for other productive enter-
prises. Therefore, the cost of ownership includes the interest on the money that is in-
vested in the machine. If a loan is used to purchase a machine, the interest rate is
known. If a machine is purchased for cash, the relevant interest rate is the prevailing
rate that could have been obtained if the money had been invested instead of being
used to purchase the machine. The principal on which the interest is assessed is equal
to the remaining value of the machine in any given year. For simplicity, when the
straight-line method of depreciation is used, the annual interest cost is assumed to be
constant over the life of the machine. It is calculated on the average investment, i.e.,
the average of the new cost and salvage value of the machine. Alternatively, it can be
included in the capital recovery factor.
15.3.1.4 Taxes, insurance, and shelter
Taxes include sales tax assessed on the purchase price of a machine and property
tax assessed on the remaining value in any given year. For simplicity, both kinds of
taxes are distributed over the life of the machine. Some states have neither a sales tax
nor property tax and, in such states, no tax cost should be included. The machine de-
signer may not know which tax rate to use, especially if a machine can be used in any
of a number of different states. If actual taxes are unknown, it is reasonable to estimate
the annual tax charge at 1% of the purchase price of the machine.
Machines may be insured against loss by fire or other causes, in which case the cost
of insurance is known. If no insurance policy is purchased, the owner has elected to
carry the risk himself but an insurance cost should still be included. Insurance costs
should be based on the remaining value of a machine. If insurance costs are unknown,
a reasonable estimate of annual insurance cost is 0.25% of the purchase price of the
machine.
There are no conclusive data to prove the economic value of sheltering farm ma-
chines. Nevertheless, providing shelter is often associated with better care and mainte-
nance of machines that can result in longer life, improved appearance, and better re-
sale value. If shelter is provided, the cost of providing that shelter can be calculated. If
no shelter is provided, there is probably an economic penalty associated with reduced
machine life and/or resale value. Thus, a shelter cost should be included whether or
not shelter is provided. The annual cost of shelter is considered to be constant over the
life of the machine. If shelter cost data are unavailable, it is reasonable to estimate
annual shelter cost as 0.75% of the purchase price of the machine.
The total cost of taxes, insurance and shelter can be estimated at 2% of the purchase
price of a machine unless more accurate data are available. Although taxes, insurance,
and shelter are small relative to total ownership costs, they should be included.
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 537

15.3.1.5 Total annual ownership costs

The total annual ownership costs, as discussed above, can be expressed in the fol-
lowing equation:

C oa  I (1 + I r ) τ L  K tis
C os = = (1 − S v )  r τ + (15.9)
Pu  (1 + I r ) L − 1  100
where Cos = specific annual ownership costs, 1/yr
Coa = total annual ownership costs, dollars/yr
Pu = purchase price of machine, dollars
Sv = salvage value as fraction of purchase price
Ir = real annual interest rate, decimal
τL = economic life of machine, years
Ktis = annual cost of taxes, insurance and shelter as percent of purchase price
As noted above, Ktis may be assumed to be 2% unless better data are available. The
factor in the square brackets in Equation 15.9 is the capital recovery factor. The need
for capital recovery is reduced to the extent that the machine has a salvage value at the
end of its economic life. In the absence of better data, Sv is often assumed to be 0.1,
i.e., the salvage value is estimated at 10% of the purchase price.
The real interest rate, as defined by Bartholomew (1981) is:
Ip − Ig
Ir = (15.10)
1 + Ig

where Ip = prevailing annual interest rate, decimal

Ig = general inflation rate, decimal
Equation 15.10 adjusts the prevailing interest rate for inflation. If there is no inflation,
the real interest rate is equal to the prevailing rate. If the inflation rate is greater than
or equal to the prevailing interest rate, the real interest rate is zero and the ownership
costs are limited to the cost of taxes, insurance, and shelter. Purchasing a machine
during times of high inflation tends to “lock in” costs and make machine ownership
more attractive than leasing. Example Problem 15.4 illustrates the calculation of own-
ership costs.

Example Problem 15.4

The self-propelled combine of Example Problem 15.1 has a purchase price of

$100,000, an expected economic life of 10 years, and an expected salvage value of
10% of new cost. At time of purchase, the prevailing interest rate is 6.0%, while the
general rate of inflation is 3%. Calculate (a) the specific annual ownership costs and
(b) the total annual ownership costs.
538 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Solution
(a) No data were given concerning taxes, insurance, and shelter, so they will be as-
sumed to be 2% of the purchase price, that is, Ktis = 0.02. From Equation 15.10, the
real interest rate is:
Ir = (0.06-0.03)/(1+0.03) = 0.029 or 2.9%
Then, from Equation 15.9, the specific ownership costs are:

 0.029(1 + 0.029)10  2
C os = (1 − 0.1)  10 + = 0.125
 (1 + 0.029) − 1  100
(c) Finally, the total annual ownership costs are:
Coa = $100,000(0.125) = $12,500/year

15.3.2 Operating costs

Operating costs are costs associated with use of a machine. They include the costs
of labor, fuel and oil, and repair and maintenance. A constant hourly labor cost can be
determined for hired operators. If the owner operates the machine, the labor cost is
determined from alternative uses of the owner’s time. If the cost of labor is unknown
at the time of the analysis, a typical community labor rate can be used. Dividing the
hourly labor cost by Ca gives the labor cost per hectare of land worked by the ma-
chine.
15.3.2.1 Costs of fuel and oil
For any given operation, per-hectare fuel (or oil) cost can be calculated using the
following equation:
p LQi
Cs = (15.11)
Ca

where Cs = per-hectare fuel (oil) costs, $/ha

pL = price of fuel (oil), $/L
Qi = fuel (oil) consumed by engine, L/h
Ca = effective field capacity during the operation, ha/h
Of the three independent variables in Equation 15.11, Qi is the variable for which it
is most difficult to determine a realistic value. The first step is to estimate the engine
power required to perform the operation. In Section 15.2, the power requirements of
various operations was discussed. Power requirements computed at the drawbar must
be converted into equivalent PTO power, as was done in Example Problem 15.2. After
the total equivalent PTO power is calculated, the specific fuel consumption of the en-
gine can be estimated. ASAE Data D497 provides specific fuel consumption equations
for gasoline, diesel, or LPG engines, but since most farm tractors now have diesel en-
gines, only the diesel equation is given here:
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 539

SFC v = 3.91 + 2.64X − 0.203 173 + 738X

If X > 0.856, SFCv = 0.411 L/kW h (15.12)

where SFCv = specific fuel consumption, volume basis, L/kW h
X = ratio of equivalent PTO power requirement to maximum available PTO
power
Typical values of X range from approximately 0.2 for spraying operations to 0.85
for primary tillage. Multiplying SFCv by the equivalent PTO power needed for the
operation gives Qi, the estimated fuel consumption to perform the operation.
The per-hectare cost of oil consumption can be calculated using Equation 15.11
with the word oil substituted for the word fuel. ASAE D497 gives equations for esti-
mating oil consumption of gasoline, diesel, or LPG engines. The equation for diesel
engines is:
21.69 + 0.59Pr
Qi = (15.13)
1000
where Qi = oil consumption, L/h
Pr = rated engine power, kW
Equation 15.13 is based on replacement of oil in the crankcase at the manufac-
turer’s recommended change intervals; it does not include oil that must be added be-
tween oil changes, nor does it include hydraulic/transmission oil or other lubricants.
Total cost of all lubricants is approximately equal to 10% to 15% of fuel costs.
15.3.2.2 Costs of repairs and maintenance
Costs for repairs and maintenance are highly variable depending on the care pro-
vided by the manager of the machine. Some expenditures will always be necessary to
replace worn or failed parts and/or to repair damage from accidents. Repair and main-
tenance costs tend to increase with the size and complexity, and thus with the purchase
price of the machine. The following equation from ASAE EP496 can be used to esti-
mate accumulated repair and maintenance costs:
RF 2
Cm  t 
= RF1  (15.14)
Pu 1000 
where Crm = accumulated repair and maintenance costs, dollars
t = accumulated use, h
RF1, RF2 = repair factors from Table 15.1
To correct for inflation, the purchase price in Equation 15.14 is multiplied by
(1+Ig)n, where n is the age of the machine in years. Note that the accumulated repair
and maintenance costs vary from year to year. Average hourly costs of repairs and
maintenance can be estimated by estimating the total economic life of the machine in
540 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 15.2 – Accumulated repair and maintenance costs of two machines

as a percent of purchase price of the respective machines.

hours, using Equation 15.14 to calculate the total repair and maintenance costs over
the life of the machine, and dividing the total by the economic life in hours. Then, by
dividing the average cost by Ca, one can obtain the average repair and maintenance
cost per hectare of area worked by the machine. Repair and maintenance costs are an
important component of total costs. For example, use of Equation 15.14 with the data
in Table 15.1 shows that, for a tractor, the total repair and maintenance costs over the
life of a tractor can equal the purchase price of the tractor. Figure 15.2 illustrates the
accumulation of repair and maintenance costs for two different machines. As a percent
of purchase price, the chisel plow accumulates repair and maintenance costs much
faster than the self-propelled combine. At the end of 2000 hours, for example, the ac-
cumulated repair and maintenance costs for the plow are 79.2% of purchase price. The
corresponding figure for the combine is only 34.3%. However, the purchase price of
the combine is about ten times that of the plow. Thus, in terms of dollars, the accumu-
lated repair and maintenance costs for the combine are over 4 times those of the plow.
15.3.3 Timeliness costs
There is an optimum time of the year to perform some field operations and eco-
nomic penalties are incurred if the operations are performed too early or too late.
When harvesting a crop, for example, increasing fractions of the yield may be lost
and/or the crop quality may be reduced if the harvest is started too early or delayed
beyond the optimum time. In the extreme case, insufficient machine capacity may
prevent completion of a harvest before adverse weather destroys the remainder of the
crop. It is thus economically justifiable to increase machine costs through purchase of
a machine of greater capacity when the larger machine will accomplish more timely
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 541

work. Thus the term timeliness cost is important in machinery cost analyses. The time-
liness cost can be calculated by using the following equation:
K τA Y V
Ct = (15.15)
λ o T C a p wd
where Ct = timeliness cost, $/ha
Kτ = timeliness coefficient, fraction of annual crop value lost per
day (see Table 15.4)
A = crop area, ha/yr
Y = crop yield, Mg/ha
V = crop value, $/Mg
λo = 2 if operation commences or ends at the optimum time
= 4 if operation can be balanced evenly about the optimum time
T = expected time available for field work, h/day
Ca = effective field capacity of machine, ha/h
pwd = probability of a good working day, decimal (see Table 15.5)
The factor, Kτ, is the fraction of the crop yield that is lost for each day of delay of
an operation. It is apparent that the timeliness coefficient varies with the type of opera-
tion. Given an optimum planting date, for example, planting earlier or later than that
date will diminish the crop yield. Since the actual planting period can be balanced
around the optimum date, λo = 4 for planting. Conversely, there is no timeliness coef-
ficient associated with tillage unless tillage delays subsequently delay planting. For
most harvesting operations, λo = 2 because it is often not feasible to begin harvesting
until the crop is mature. Note that the denominator of Equation 15.15 relates to the
rapidity with which an operation can be completed, i.e., working more hours per day
and/or using a machine of greater capacity decreases the time required to complete an
operation. Use of λo = 4 indicates an early start on the operation and thus earlier com-
pletion. Weather also affects the number of calendar days required to complete an op-
eration, since the operation must be interrupted during bad weather. As indicated in
Table 15.5, pwd varies with geographic location and also varies throughout the year in
most geographic locations. Example Problem 15.5 illustrates the calculation of operat-
ing costs.

Example Problem 15.5

The self-propelled combine of Example Problems 15.1 through 15.4 is harvesting corn
in the midwest USA in early September. The crop value is $78/Mg. The combine is
used an average of 10 hours per day and 200 hours per year. From Example Problem
15.3, the engine uses 54.2 kW of power on average during combining. However,
power demand for combining can be 30% higher and additional power is needed if the
grain bin is unloaded while the combine is combining; thus, a 100 kW engine is on the
combine. Diesel fuel costs $0.50/liter, while motor oil costs $1.20/liter. Labor costs
are $12.00 per hour. Calculate (a) the total operating costs per hectare, excluding time-
liness costs, (b) the timeliness penalty costs, and (c) total costs per hectare.
542 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Table 15.4. Timeliness coefficients (ASAE Standard D497).

ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 543

Table 15.5. Probabilities for a good working day (ASAE Data 497.4).
544 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Solution
(a) From Example Problem 15.1, the field capacity of the combine is 3.24 ha/h. Thus,
the per-hectare labor costs are:
$12.00 / 3.24 = $3.70/ha
Next, the per-hectare fuel and oil costs will be calculated. From Equation 15.12, the
ratio of actual to maximum power is 54.2/100 = 0.54. Then the specific fuel consump-
tion of the engine is:
SFCv = 3.91 + 2.64(0.54) – 0.203(173 + 738 × 0.54)0.5 = 0.483 L/kW h
The hourly fuel consumption is:
Qif = 0.483(54.2) = 26.2 L/h
From Equation 15.11, making use of the effective field capacity from Example Prob-
lem 15.1, the per-hectare fuel costs are:
Csf = 0.50(26.2) / 3.24 = $4.03/ha
Next, from Equation 15.13, the estimated oil consumption rate is:
Qio = (21.69 + 0.59 × 100) / 1000 = 0.08 L/h
Again, from Equation 15.11, the per-hectare oil costs are:
Cso = 1.20(0.08) / 3.24 = $0.03/ha
To calculate the per-hectare costs of repair and maintenance, Equation 15.14 is first
used to calculate the accumulated repair and maintenance costs after 10 years of use at
200 hours per year. Also, the purchase price is corrected for the 3% inflation rate, that
is, the adjusted price is:
Pu = $100,000(1 + 0.03)10 = $134,392 adjusted price
Then, from Equation 15.14 and using RF factors from Table 15.1:
Crm = 134,392(0.14)(2000/1000)2.1 = $80,661 total repair and maintenance costs
Harvesting at a rate of 3.24 ha/h for 2000 hours, the combine harvests 6840 ha during
its economic lifetime. Therefore, the per-hectare costs for repair and maintenance are:
80,661/6840 = $11.79/ha
The total per-hectare operating cost, excluding the timeliness penalty cost, is:
3.70 + 4.03 + 0.03 + 11.79 = $19.55/ha
(b) The timeliness penalty cost is calculated using Equation 15.15. From Table 15.4,
Kτ = 0.003. From Table 15.5, averaging values for Illinois and Iowa in late October,
pwd = 0.61 at the 90% probability level. Harvesting at the rate of 3.24 ha/h for 200
hours per year, the combine harvests 648 ha/year. Then, inserting values into Equation
15.15 as given in the three example problems, the timeliness cost penalty is:
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 545

0.003(648)(12)(78)
Ct = = $46.03 / ha
2(10)(3.24)(0.61)

(c) From Example Problem 15.4, the $12,500 annual ownership costs divided over 648
ha harvested annually are $19.29 per hectare. Thus, the total per-hectare costs are:

$19.29/ha ownership costs

19.55/ha operating costs excluding timeliness penalty
46.03/ha timeliness penalty cost
$84.87/ha total costs

Harvesting costs consumed about 9% of the total revenues from growing the corn
crop, that is, 12 Mg/ha($78)/Mg = $936/ha. The combine used in Example Problems
15.1 through 15.3 may not have been of optimum capacity. In Section 15.5, a method
for selecting the optimum capacity will be presented.

15.4 MACHINERY SELECTION

AND REPLACEMENT
15.4.1 Machinery selection
Choosing the appropriate field capacity for a machine is an important problem for
both the machine designer and the farm operator. From the farm operator’s viewpoint,
there is an optimum field capacity for maximum profit and the goal is to determine
that optimum capacity. Since the farm operator will want to purchase a machine of
optimum capacity, the machine designer also has a vital interest in designing machines
of optimum size for various farm sizes. The problem of machinery selection is illus-
trated in Figure 15.3, in which machines of various sizes are considered for a farm of a
given size. Three types of costs are illustrated in the figure. The machinery costs in-
clude all ownership and operating costs except labor, which is displayed separately.
The timeliness costs are also shown. The per-hectare machinery costs increase with
machine size because the land area is fixed and larger machines cost more than small
machines. Larger machines decrease the labor costs by completing the work more
quickly. Note that, if timeliness is not considered, the smallest machines would be
most economical. However, timeliness costs rise sharply when machines are too small
to complete the work in a timely manner. As indicated in Figure 15.3, the optimum
machine size is one that minimizes the sum of the timeliness costs and the machinery
costs including labor.
546 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 15.3 – Costs related to machinery size for a specific farm

(Burrows and Siemens, 1974).

Mathematically, the field capacity giving least total cost for an individual machine
can be determined by combining all of the cost equations into one equation and differ-
entiating with respect to field capacity. The result is given in the following equation:

A  K τA Y V 
C aopt = L c + Tfc +  (15.16)
C os K p  λ o T p wd 

where Caopt = optimum effective field capacity, ha/h

Lc = labor cost, $/h
Tfc = specific ownership costs of tractor, $/h
Kp = unit price function, described below
A value for Tfc can be determined by using the following equation:
C oat
Tfc = (15.17)
τ At

where Tfc = Amount charged to machine for tractor use, $/h

Coat = annual ownership cost of tractor, $/yr (from Equation 15.6)
τAt = total annual use of tractor, h/yr
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 547

An alternative method of estimating Coat makes use of the following equation de-
veloped by Buckmaster:
0.122 −0.437 −0.958 0.244
C oat = 278 Ppto τ Lt τ At Ir Pact (15.18)

where Ppto = rated PTO power of tractor, kW

Pact = actual power demand on tractor used in operation, kW
τLt = economic life of tractor, years
The remaining quantities in Equations 15.16 and 15.18 were previously defined,
except for Kp, the unit price function. It is defined as the increased price for one addi-
tional unit of field capacity. A value for Kp can be determined by comparing the prices
of a group of machines that vary only in capacity. If the sales price is plotted versus
field capacity for the group of machines, the slope of the line is equal to Kp. If the in-
creased capacity is expressed on a width basis, as for a tillage machine, then the pur-
chase price should be plotted versus width. The slope of the line is then the price per
unit of increased width and Kp can be calculated using the following equation:
10Pw
Kp = (15.19)
v ηf

where Kp = unit price function, $ . h/ha

Pw = price per unit of increased width, $/m
v = travel speed, km/h
ηf = field efficiency, decimal
Equation 15.16 can estimate the optimum capacity of a single machine. Usually,
however, a family of machines is required in farming operations and these machines
should have field capacities that are compatible with each other and with the tractor.
For example, a tractor, plow, disk, planter, combine, and possibly other implements
may be required to grow soybeans. Each of the implements has a definite period dur-
ing the year during which its work should be accomplished. The term scheduling is
defined as determining the time periods during the year when each operation can be
performed. After the scheduling is completed, the required capacity can be calculated
by using the following equation:
A
Ca = (15.20)
τ ad T p wd

where Ca = effective field capacity required to complete the work, ha/h

A = area to be worked, ha
τad = available time to complete the work, days
T = length of each working day, h/day
pwd = probability of a good working day, decimal (see Table 15.5)
The tractor must be large enough to provide power to the implement with the great-
est power demand. If the implements vary widely in power demand, the tractor will be
used inefficiently on the implements with the lowest power demand. Thus, to provide
greatest overall efficiency and profit, it may be best to choose some implements with
greater capacity than would be calculated using Equation 15.16 or 15.20. The calcula-
548 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

tions become even more complex when the size of the farm justifies ownership of
more than one tractor and/or more than one combine. Further, the use of constant
timeliness coefficients (Kτ) is an over-simplification. Realistically, there is little or no
reduction in crop yield if operations can be accomplished during the normally sched-
uled periods. The daily penalty for delayed work should be assessed only after the
scheduled period. To achieve greater realism, digital computer programs have been
developed for scheduling farm machinery operations and for selecting optimum sys-
tems of farm machinery (see, for example, Rotz et al., 1983, or Siemens et al., 1990).
Except for the simplest of systems, it is necessary to use such programs to obtain real-
istic results. Example Problem 15.6 illustrates the calculation of optimum size of a
single machine.

Example Problem 15.6

Using data from Example Problems 15.1 through 15.5, calculate the optimum combine
capacity for harvesting the corn. Assume that, from an analysis of the purchase prices
of two self-propelled combines, the unit price function is $20,000 h/ha.
Solution
The required data for use in Equation 15.16 are already available. Note that
Tfc = 0 in this example, since no tractor is used with the self-propelled combine. The
optimum size is:

648  0.003(648)(12)(78) 
C aopt = 12 + 0 +  = 6.46 ha / h
0.125( 20,000)  2(10)(0.61) 

By using Equation 15.1, the reader may verify that a combine traveling at 5 km/h
with a 24-row corn head working in 75-cm rows with a field efficiency of 72% would
have the optimum capacity. It would be instructive to rework Example Problems 15.1
through 15.5 to observe the changes in the various costs as a result of using the larger
combine.
15.4.2 Machinery replacement
All machines eventually reach the end of their economic life and the owner must
decide when to replace each machine. There are a number of reasons why the owner
might decide to replace a given machine. Machine damage suffered as a result of an
accident might be so great that replacement would be less expensive than repairing the
damage. The machine might become obsolete. As previously mentioned, a machine is
obsolete when it is out of production and repair parts are no longer available, or when
it can be replaced by another machine or method that will produce a greater profit.
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 549

Table 15.6. An example of average unit accumulated costs.

Unit
End Remain- Total Acc. Acc.
of ing R&M Acc. Acc. Acc. Acc. Use, Costs,
Year Value Costs Depr. Int. Depr. Int. R&M Costs, $ ha $/ha
1 2000 10 1000 200 1000 200 10 1210 100 12.10
2 1400 50 600 136 1600 336 60 1996 200 9.98
3 1000 70 400 96 2000 432 130 2562 300 8.54
4 700 100 300 68 2300 500 230 3030 400 7.58
5 500 200 200 48 2500 548 430 3478 500 6.96
6 350 300 150 34 2650 582 730 3962 600 6.60
7 225 350 125 23 2775 605 1080 4460 700 6.37
8 125 450 100 14 2875 619 1530 5024 800 6.28
9 100 550 25 9 2900 628 2080 5608 900 6.23
10 75 600 25 7 2925 635 2680 6240 1000 6.24

Combines, balers, and other processing machines generally become obsolete faster
than tractors, since tractors need only supply power. A machine should be replaced
when the anticipated frequency of breakdowns becomes so large that the machine is
no longer reliable. Large economic penalties can result when field work is delayed and
an unreliable machine can cause delays. Finally, a machine should be replaced when it
is anticipated that the cost of repairs will begin to increase the average unit accumu-
lated cost above the minimum. For example, Table 15.6 shows repair and mainte-
nance, depreciation, and interest costs over the life of a $3000 machine that is used on
100 ha annually. The unit accumulated costs reach a minimum at the end of year 9 of
the machine life in this example. The machine should be replaced before the tenth year
unless it is replaced earlier for other reasons.

PROBLEMS
15.1 A self-propelled combine is equipped with an 8-row corn head for 75-cm
rows. (a) What is the maximum speed the combine should be operated in
corn yielding 9.4 Mg/ha if the theoretical field capacity of the combine is
28 Mg/h? (b) What is the theoretical field capacity of the combine in ha/h?
15.2 A self-propelled combine is equipped with a 5-m grain platform. (a) At what
speed must the combine be operated to fully use its separating capacity of
28 Mg/h in harvesting soybeans with a yield of 2.7 Mg/ha? (b) Considering
the data in Table 15.1, what is the maximum recommended speed for harvest-
ing the soybeans? (c) What is the theoretical capacity of this combine, in
ha/h, in harvesting soybeans? (d) Is the theoretical field capacity limited by
gathering capacity or separating capacity of the combine?
15.3 A company is planning to design a family of self-propelled combines with a
range of field capacities. All of the combines will be designed to operate at
the typical speed listed in Table 15.1. Corn heads with 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12
550 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

rows will be marketed, all for 75-cm row spacing and with separating capaci-
ties to match the corn heads. (a) If the field efficiency of the 2-row machine
is 70%, calculate the total time losses, τa + τh, that are incurred in harvesting
one hectare. (b) Assuming that these time losses would remained unchanged
for the combines larger than 2-row capacity, calculate and plot the field effi-
ciency versus size of the corn heads. (c) As an alternate assumption, calculate
and plot the allowable total time losses, τa + τh, that could be tolerated per
hectare if all of the combines were to have the same field efficiency.
15.4 Same as Problem 15.3, except that a family of row-crop planters is to be de-
signed. All of the planters will operate at a typical speed of 6.4 km/h and the
field efficiency of the 2-row planter is 60%.
15.5 (a) Assuming that 100% of the machine width is utilized, calculate and plot
the total allowable lost time as a fraction of theoretical operating time, i.e.,
(τa + τh) / τt, versus field efficiency. (b) Repeat part a but with 95% of the ma-
chine utilized. Plot both curves on the same graph. (c) Using data from Table
15.1, mark the curves to show the allowable lost time for typical field effi-
ciency of a potato harvester and a field cultivator assuming 95% of the width
of the field cultivator is utilized.
15.6 Calculate and plot specific annual ownership costs versus economic life for
life ranging from 1 to 20 years. Include two curves, one for a general infla-
tion rate of 2% when the prevailing interest rate is 7% and one for a general
inflation rate of 20% when the prevailing interest rate is 25%. Assume sal-
vage value is 10% of purchase price, while taxes, insurance, and shelter are
2% of purchase price.
15.7 Same as Problem 15.6, except calculate and plot specific annual ownership
costs versus real interest rate for interest rates ranging from 0% to 10%. Plot
two curves, one for a 5-year economic life and one for a 10-year life.
15.8 A tractor with rated PTO power of 90 kW is used to perform a tillage opera-
tion which requires 75 kW equivalent PTO power. The effective field capac-
ity is 2 ha/h. Fuel cost is $0.75/L and oil cost is $1.25/L. Calculate (a) the
specific fuel consumption, (b) the fuel consumption in L/h, (c) the per-hectare
fuel costs, (d) the oil consumption in L/h, and (e) the per-hectare oil costs.
15.9 Same as Problem 15.8, except that the rated power of the tractor is 80 kW.
15.10 Same as Problem 15.8, except that the rated power of the tractor is 120 kW.
15.11 (a) Assuming a zero rate of inflation, calculate and plot accumulated repair
and maintenance costs as a percent of machine purchase price for a chisel
plow. These dimensionless costs are to be plotted versus accumulated hours
of use from zero to the estimated life of the plow, as given in Table 15.1. (b)
Repeat part a, but with an inflation rate of 10%. Put the curves for zero and
10% inflation on the same graph. Assume 200 h of annual use.
15.12 Repeat Problem 15.11, except for a rectangular baler.
15.13 Repeat Problem 15.11, except for a self-propelled combine.
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES 551

15.14 An 12-row conventional row-crop planter is to be used to plant 180 ha of

soybeans with 75-cm row spacing in early June in Central Illinois. The soy-
beans have an anticipated yield of 2.7 Mg/ha and an anticipated selling price
of $250/Mg. (a) Using typical travel speed and field efficiency for the plant-
ing operation (see Table 15.1), calculate the field capacity and (b) the timeli-
ness cost assuming the farmer works 10-hour days and wants to be assured of
a 90% probability of having the required number of good working days.
15.15 Repeat Problem 15.14, except use a 6-row planter.
15.16 Repeat Problem 15.14, except use the planter to plant 200 ha of soybeans.
15.17 A conventional row-crop planter is to be used to plant 200 ha of soybeans
with 75-cm row spacing in early May in Central Illinois. The soybeans have
an estimated yield of 2.7 Mg/ha and an anticipated selling price of $190/Mg.
The farmer works 10-hour days. The planter is pulled by a $70,000 tractor
that is used 400 hours per year (only a fraction of that total time is used with
the planter) with an economic life of 15 years. For both the planter and trac-
tor, assume salvage value of 10%, interest rate of 5% and Kti s= 2%. The eco-
nomic life of the planter is 10 years and labor costs are $10.00 per hour. List
prices are $22,000, $38,000 and $60,000 for 8, 12 and 16-row planters, re-
spectively. Calculate (a) the total annual ownership costs and (b) specific
ownership costs of the tractor, (c) the specific annual ownership costs,
(d) unit price function and (e) optimum effective field capacity of the planter.
(f) If the planter works at the typical speed and field efficiency given in Table
15.1, select the best available planter, i.e., how many rows would it have?
15.18 Same as Problem 15.17, except that the planter is used to plant corn (maize)
in Iowa in early May. Also, there are 30 cm of available moisture in the root
zone. The anticipated corn yield is 9.4 Mg/ha and the anticipated selling price
of the corn is $78/Mg.
15.19 Suppose that 10 days were available to do the planting described in Problem
15.17. What size planter would be selected to allow such scheduling?
15.20 Rework Example Problem 15.6, except let the hours worked per day vary
from 6 to 16 hours. From the results, plot optimum capacity versus hours
worked per day.

SIMULATION PROBLEMS
The simulator, Machinery Size Selector, on the CD-ROM was developed to explore
the effect of relevant variables on the optimum size of some common farm machines.
The simulator is based on theory in Chapter 15. Machine purchase price – size rela-
tionships were based on costs in 2005. The user can use the fifth web site above to
find the CPI adjustment factor to use to adapt the spreadsheet for later years. Most of
the other input variables in the simulator can be taken from the tables in Chapter 15.
The user should use judgment in applying the results. If the optimum machine size
seems excessive, for example, column K may show only a relatively small increase in
total cost to use a much smaller machine.
552 CHAPTER 15 MACHINERY SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT

S15.1 (a) Use the simulator to find the optimum width of a moldboard plow to be
used on 400 ha per year when the tillage depth is 20 cm. Assume the crop is
corn yielding 12 Mg/ha and the corn price is $78/Mg. The real interest rate is
3%, fuel is $0.50/liter, oil is $1.25/liter, the plow is used 10 hrs/day and the
labor cost is $10/hr. The remaining variables can be found in the tables in
Chapter 15. Use a mid-range value for the timeliness coefficient, i.e., 0.005.
Some iteration will be required to find an acceptable machine life and engine
size. (b) After the optimum machine size is found, observe the changes in the
various columns as the machine size is increased and consider whether the
trends seem reasonable. (c) Now explore the effect of various input variables,
e.g., crop yield and price, interest rate, fuel and oil prices, and labor hourly
cost on the optimum machine size.
S15.2 Rework Simulation Problem S15.1, except use a field cultivator at a depth of
18 cm.
S15.3. Rework Simulation Problem S15.1, except use a tandem disk at a depth of 14
cm.
S15.4 Rework Simulation Problem S15.1, except use a big round baler on 70 ha
annually. The crop yield is 8 Mg/ha and the crop value is $100/Mg.
S15.5 Rework Simulation Problem S15.1, except use a self-propelled forage har-
vester on 150 ha annually. The crop yield is 8 Mg/ha and the crop value is
$90/Mg.
S15.6 Rework Simulation Problem S15.1, except use a self-propelled combine on
400 ha annually. The crop yield is 12 Mg/ha and the crop value is $78/Mg.
Relevant websites
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM952.pdf
http://www.farmdoc.uiuc.edu/manage/machinebuilding_index.html
http://www2.agriculture.purdue.edu/ssmc/Frames/June04_SSMC.pdf
http://cost.jsc.nasa.gov/inflateCPI.html