ASTRONOMY

Astronomy made great progress in ancient India. The movement of

planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. The Rig Veda
spoke of a year of 360 days divided in to 12 equal parts and used a five
year Yug or Era to reconcile the lunar and solar years. The Yajur Veda
considered a lunar year of 354 days and a solar year of 365 daysand
divided the year in to 6 ritus or seasons of two months each.
Jyotish Vedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy
but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His
Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses. It contains
separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining
the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun
and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for
eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when
the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and
when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused solar eclipse.
On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the
demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described
by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of
the five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated
from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which becomes a
guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in
ancient India.
Chemistry
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had
developed and elaborate urban system, they also had the means of mass
production of pottery, houses of baked bricks and the script of their own.
So, the early chemistry in India begins from here.
Glass making, Pottery, Jewellery making, dyeing of clothes and tanning
of leather etc. were the major chemical arts and crafts in the later
periods, as a result of this expanded activity, the alchemical knowledge
increased. Following where the major chemical products that contributed
to the development of chemistry in India –
1. Glass – There is simple evidence to suggest that ancient India
glass making was quite widespread and high degree of perfection
was achieved in this craft. There was a traditional glass factory at
Kopia in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. Glass slag was found at
Kolhapur, Nevasa, Paunar and Maheshwar. Glass furnaces of Late
mediaeval period were found at Mysore.
2. Paper – The process of paper making was simple and more or less
similar in all parts of the country. The main centres of paper
making in medieval India were Sialkot, Zafrabad, Murshidabad,
Ahmedabad, Mysore etc.
3. Soap – For washing clothes ancient Indian used certain plants and
their fruit like the soap nuts of Ritha and Sikakai. Fruits like
Sriphala and Sarsapa were also used to wash different kinds of
clothes.
4. Dyeing – A number of classical texts like Atharva veda (1000 BC)
mentioned some dye stuffs. Dyes were extracted from inorganic
substances by repeatedly soaking and mixing them in water and
allowing the materials to settle. Then the solution was taken out
and spread on a pot and evaporated to get the dry dye.
5. Cosmetics and Perfumes – A large number of references to
cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit literature were found like ain
Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. Cosmetics and perfume making
were mainly practiced for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual
pleasure.
 6. Ink – An ink was unearthed during the excavations and Taxila
which suggests that I was known and used in India from 4 th
century BC.
7. Alcoholic liquors – Somarasa, which was mentioned in Vedas was
probably the earliest evidence of the use of intoxicants in India.
Kautilya,s Arthashastra also lists a variety of liquors. Alcoholic
liquors were classified in to various categories depending upon
their applications in alchemical operations.

Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good
knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD
mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian
mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulabhsutras.
Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry
involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge
helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered
sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were
the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The
notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These
numerals replaced the Roman numerals.
Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta,s
Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as
a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found
zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta
discovered algebra and also formulated the area of triangle, which led to
the origin of Trigonometry. The Surya Siddhanta is very famous work.
Varahamihira,s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD id another
pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the
moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found
recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion.
Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and
cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became
the cornerstones for further research and progress.

PHYSICS
1. From the Vedic times Indians had classified the material word in to
five elements viz., Earth, Fire, Air, Water and Akasha.
2. Indians philosophers believed that accept Akaasha, all other
elements were physically tangible and hence comprised of tiny
particles of matter. The last tiny particles of matter which could not
be subsided further was termed as Parmanu (Atom).
3. The term Parmanu is suggestive of the possibility that Indian
philosophers in ancient times had conceived the possibility of
splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic
energy.
4. In the Vaisheshika one of the six philosophical system of ancient
India, the concept of Parmanu appeared.
5. Besides, substance had 24 different qualities (gunas) including
fluidity, viscosity, elasticity and gravity. Fludity was related to
flow of water, earth and water. Viscosity was unique to water and
gravity to earth.
6. Distinctive characteristics of sound, heat and lightwere also
discussed, which often came close to later discoveries of Physics.
Lacking mathematical instruments, they did not evolve into
scientific theories.
AGRICULTURE
The history of agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley
civilization and in some parts of southern India, it was found to be
practiced even before the Harappans. India has one of the most
extensive agricultural lands in the world. India,s monsoon is nature,s
abundant irrigating system. India is also blessed with a large network
of perennial rivers that over ages have created vast stretches of highly
productive soil. India has been an agricultural economy and
civilization and has evolved a long, rich and diverse tradition of
agricultural practices. In the medieval period, the pattern of
agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in early
ancient India. Some important changes were brought about by the
foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and
horticultural plants. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley,
millets, pulses, oil seeds, cotton and sugarcane. Tobacco, chillies,
potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were introduced
in India during 16th and 17th centuries. Improved horticultural
methods were adopted with great success. In the field of irrigation,
wells, tanks, canal and rahats were used to lift water with the help of
oxen, which continued to be the means of irrigation. In the medieval
period the system of land measurement and land classification,
beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers were introduced.

GEOGRAPHY
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to
study geography. Though the people were clear about their own
physical geography and also the Western countries, they were
unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with other
countries. Indian also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient
period, voyages and navigation was not a familiar foray for the
Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of a
dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the
early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha
and tirtha yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was
accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas.

METALLURGY
Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, glowing
and application of metals. For over 7000 years, India had a high
tradition of metallurgical skills. The glazed potteries and bronze and
copper artifacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a
highly developed metallurgy. By the first century AD, mass
production of metals like Iron, copper, silver, gold and alloys like
brass and bronze were taking place. Metal artifacts produced by the
Harappans were arrowheads, axes, chisels, sickles, blades, needles,
hooks and vessels such as jars, pots and pans. Many bronze figurines
have been unearthed from Harappan sites. These figurines were cast
by the lost wax process. Harappan also used gold and silver to
produce a wide variety of ornaments such as pendants, bangles,
beads, rings or necklace parts. The Ganges civilization which
emerged in the first millennium BC belong to the iron age. Recent
excavations in central parts of the Ganges valley and in the Eastern
Vindhya hills have shown that iron was produced there possibly as
early as in 1800 BC. Its use appears to have become widespread from
about 1000 BC. India was major innovator in the field, producing two
highly advanced types of iron. The first, wootz steel, produced in
South India from about 300 BC, was iron carburized under controlled
conditions. The second advance iron is the one used in the famous
1600- year-old Delhi iron pillar. It is indicative of the high quality of
alloying that was being done. Indian metallurgists were familiar
several other metals, of which zinc deserve a special mention. Pure
zinc could be produced only after a sophisticated downward
distillation technique in which the vapour was captured and
condensed in a lower container.

BIOLOGY
The bulk of the Ayurvedic medicines belongs to the plant kingdom.
All the Ayurvedic text deal with botanical aspects, mainly the
identification and categorization of plants as source of drugs. The
Charaka Samita has a chapter dealing with the classification of plants.
The Susruta Samita also deals with several aspects of botany such as
morphology and taxonomy. Susruta also provide a classification of
plants on the basis of medicinal properties.
Plant in the Vedas – The most celebrated plants that find frequent
mention in the Rig Veda and later Samhita is the Soma plant. The
second most mentioned plant was Peepal for the Asvattha during the
Vedic period. The Vedic Indians knew about many flowers bearing
and fruit bearing plants. Parasara,s Vrksayurveda is supposed to be
the most ancient work in actual botany to have been composed during
first century BC and first century AD.
Plant Pathology – Many references to plant diseases and their
treatment are also available in the Vedic literature. Vinaya, the
famous Buddhist text describes the blight and mildew diseases.
Sukraniti gives a detail account of danger to grains from various
agents such as fire, snow, worm, insect etc. Gunaratna observes that
plants are affected by diseases, displacement or dislocation of
flowers, fruits, leaves and barks in the same way as the human body
suffers from jaundice, dropsy, emaciation etc., and respond to
treatment like human bodies.
Germination – The technical term used for seed is vija. Germination
of seed is called ankurodbheda. According to Susruta, proper season,
good soil requisite supply of water and good seeds are required for
germination of the seed.
Hamsadeva compiled Marga-pasi-satra in the thirteenth century
which gives a general account of some of the beasts and birds of
hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals
such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Akbar showed special
interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and
horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, described about thirty six
species of animals. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the
study of plants and his court artists in their floral portraiture describe
some fifty-seven plants.

MEDICINE
Diseases cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the
Atharva Veda. Fever, cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, sores,
leprosy and seizure are the diseases mentioned. In Ancient India,
Medical Science was highly developed as it has the indigenous
system of medicine called Ayurveda which literally means the
science of good health and longevity of life. Ayurveda with the help
of herbal medicine aims at removing the cause of diverse by striking
at the roots. It is the oldest medical system.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and
Varanasi emerged as the centres of medicine and learning. Charak,
Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted Ayurvedic practitioner of
that time. The two important texts in the field are Charaksamhita by
Charak Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. Their work was reached as far as
China and Central Asia through translations in various languages. The
plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in
Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream
around 4th century AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He
considered surgery as the highest division of the healing arts and least
liable to fallacy. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. In Sushruta
Samhita over 1100 diseases were mentioned with 760plants are
described to provide remedy. All parts of the plant roots, barks,
flowers, leaves etc. were used. He mentioned the process of
preserving the dead body for the purpose of study. He was greatest
contribution in the field of Rhinoplasty (Plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic Surgery (Removal of Cataracts). Along with this he also
mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on.
Stress was laid on diet (e.g., salt free diet for nephrites). Both the
Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of
the development of Indian medicine in the later centuries.
HARAPPAN TECHNOLOGY OF ANCIENT INDIA
When we deal with humanity’s early stages, the word ‘Technology’
applies to any made modification of the natural environment from a
stone tool to a woven piece of clothing or a construction. One
mainstay of the Indus or Harappan civilization was agriculture. Along
with it, ceramic technology developed and produced fine fire bricks
as well as pots.
POTS – The pots were used to carry water, store seeds and grains and
to cook food. Harappans produced wheel-turned pots in various
shapes and sizes, some of them glazed or painted. Their pottery was
generally covered with red slip. On the pots white floral, animal or
geometric designs were painted in black. The black pigment was the
result of mixing iron oxide with black manganese.
BRICKS – Harappan fired bricks had proportions of 1x2x4 (width
equals to two heights, length equals two widths). There was a
practical reason for this proportion to make stronger walls with the
least quantity of bricks. Along with baked or mud bricks , stone was
also used on a huge scale as a building material. Harappan cities
generally followed the grid plan and made a sanitation system that
collected used water from individual bathrooms into municipal
drains.
BEAD MAKING – Harappan craftsman took bead-making to a
different level and perfected techniques of polishing, colouring,
glazing, drilling and bleaching. Their favourite semiprecious stones
were carnelian, agate and jasper. The long-perforated carnelian beads
were highly prized in royal families of Mesopotamia; their length-
wise drilling with special drill bits represented a technological feat.
OTHER CRAFTS – Other crafts include stone and ivory carving ,
carpet making and inlaid wood work. Harappans also manufacture
bangles from gold, bronze, conch-shell and terracottas. Weavers used
wheel-spun thread like cotton and silk.
Textile Technology in India
The Vedas refer to various types of garments as well as fabrics such
as wool, silk and also to weaving and looms. We get some
information on weaving skills from Buddhist literature. The Ajanta
paintings are rich source of information of clothes worn some 2000
years ago and on the techniques of weaving including different dyes.
By the time trade with the Roman Empire reached its peak; India was
a major exporter of textiles especially cotton and silk. India exported
cotton to china, silk to Indonesia and all the way to the far East. Until
the colonial era, textile production was one of the chief sources of
india,s wealth. Some of the Indian specialties in the field of textile
have been-
Muslin – This thin, loosely woven cotton fabric is highly suitable for
hot climate. It was introduced in Europe from Bengal.
Calico – It is plain-woven textile made from unbleached cotton; it
was originally from Kozhikode or Calicut (kerla).
Chintz – It is a form of calico printed with floral and other colour
pattern. India also produced large quantities of very useful fabrics
from fibres such as hemp, flax or linen and jute. Two important
technologies associated with textile are weaving technology and
dying technology. Weaving technology saw the development of
complex looms, with different regional characteristics. Dyes were
extracted from both vegetal and mineral sources; blue usually from
indigo, red from various plants such as madder, yellow from turmeric,
pomegranate rind or mango bark and black from iron acetate.

WRITING TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Traditionally, in India the manuscripts were written on materials
such as birch bark and palm leaves. Birch bark was mainly used for
north Indian scripts and the writing was done with ink made of finely
ground charcoal powder in a medium of gum or soot from oil lamps.
With palm leaves, a sharp point was used to tear the leaf’s surface
film; it would then be smeared with a paste of charcoal powder mixed
in oil and wiped off, leaving the charcoal to adhere to the incised
characters. In both cases, considerable skills were developed to
preserve manuscripts from insects and fungi. The art of paper making
was introduced into India by the 11th century, perhaps from China
through Nepal. The earliest extent Indian paper manuscripts are
datable to 1105 CE; it was made from the fibres of a mountain plant.
By the later half of 15th century, Kashmir was producing paper of
attractive quality from the pulps of raga and hemp, with lime and
soda added to whiten to pulp. Sialkot, Zafrabad, Patna, Murshidabad,
Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore were among the well-known
centres of paper production. Several European visitors from the 15th
to 18th century testify that Indian paper was of high quality.
PYROTECHNICS IN INDIA
Pyrotechnic is the science of using materials capable of undergoing
self-sustained exothermic chemical reactions for the production of
heat, light, gas, smoke and sound. The use of firecrackers is not new
to India. While they originated in China, the crackers soon made their
way into India through trade and military contact. The earliest
evidence we have of firecrackers in India dates back to the Mughal
times. Some historians have pointed out that the knowledge of
materials used to make firecrackers existed in India as back as 300
BC. Historians believe that knowledge of gunpowder existed in India
back in the 8th century. Sanskrit texts such as Nitiprakasika of
Vaisampayana which was compiled in the 8th century mentions a
similar substance. But the potential of gunpowder had not been
realized during this time. Though a section of historians is of opinion
that Indians were aware of the existence of saltpetre as agnichurna or
a powder that creates fire. It is believed that Chinese pyrotechnic
formulas were brought to India around 1400 AD and then modified
with the use of Indian substitutes for the Chinese ones not available in
India. Gunpowder became an article of warfare at the beginning of
the 16th century. The Indian craftsmen learned the technique from the
Mughals and were able to evolve suitable explosive compositions.
Fireworks and pyrotechnic shows existed as a form of royal
entertainment in many medieval Indian kingdoms during festivals,
events and special occasions like weddings. 16th and 17th century
Sanskrit treatise contains a description of preparation of the
gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios.
From 16th century onward, rockets too began being used in wars
waged in India. The rockets consisted of a tube of soft hammered Iron
tube closed at one end and strapped to a shaft of bamboo, with a
sword often fitted at the other end. The Iron tube contained well-
packed black powder propellent. Though not very accurate, when
fired they could cause damage as well as panic among the troops. The
British took a few rockets to England for study, which ended up
boosting rocket technology in European warfare.
Trade in Ancient India
During ancient times Hindus were the masters of the sea-borne trade
of Europe, Asia and Africa. Till about the beginning of the 18th
century most of the Nations obtained to a large extent its supplies of
fine cotton and silk fabric, spices, indigo, sugar, drugs, precious
stones and many other works of art from India in exchange of gold
and silver. This traditional prosperity of India began to vanish only at
the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the west.
In industrial production ancient India was far ahead in comparison
with other countries of those times. The skills of the Indians in the
production of delicate woven fabric, in the mixing of colours, the
working of metals and precious stones, the preparation of essences
and in all manner of technical art, has from early times enjoyed a
world-wide celebrity. For instance, surgical instruments of great
delicacy and accuracy were manufactured in India and it was from
Indians that the art of tempering steel was learnt by other people.
Factors favouring India to emerge as the number one country in trade,
commerce and manufacturing activities were-
1. The Hindu mercantile community was very enterprising and
known for their entrepreneurship, trustworthiness and resilience.
2. Indians goods were known for its excellence. The skilled artisans
of India manufactured varieties of goods which people in other
parts of the world could not find elsewhere.
 3. In the art of building ocean going huge ships, ancient Hindus were
far ahead of others. With the knowledge of sea routes, monsoon
winds and other navigational aspects they were able to sail to
distant corners of the earth with their goods.
4. Fairs were an important means for commercial activities and were
held in every part of the country. Huge number of people
assembled at these fairs for the purpose of exchanging
merchandise as well as discussing religious and national topics.
5. The peace and prosperity that prevailed in the country gave a great
impetus to inter-provincial and inter-state trade.

INFRASTRUCTURE
To facilitate trade and commerce roads were constructed all over the
country from east to west and from north to south. These roads were
provided with mile stones and planted with trees. The river Ganga and
its tributary were used for carrying goods. During the Mauryan times the
Great Royal Highways more than 16 kilometers in lendth connected the
capital Patliputra with Taxila and the North-West Frontier. Another long
road of great commercial importance ran through Kasi and Ujjain and
linked the capital with the great sea-ports of Western India. Yet another
road linked the capital with the port of Tamralipti. It was through this
principal port in Bengal that India carried extensive trade with China,
Ceylon, Java and Sumatra. Some of the important towns of trade were
Arikamedu, Kaveripattanam, Madurai, Cranganore, Nagapattanam,
Mahabalipuram, Calicut, Cochin, Mangalore, Tamralipti, Patliputra,
Vidisha, Ujjain, Kausambi, Mathura, Taxila, Aihole, Paithan, Surat,
Lothal, Sopara, Broach, Kalyan etc.

Trade during the Vedic Times

The Rig-Veda contains several references to sea routes followed by
ships. Later when urban culture flourished in cities like Harappa and
Mohenjodaro, India had established trade and commercial relations with
Sumer, Egypt and Crete. Lothal in Gujarat was one of the biggest port
towns of that period with a huge dockyard constructed out of brick. In
the old Testaments, we have reference to trade between India and Syrian
coast dating back to 1400 BC. According to the chronicles of the Jews,
during The reign of King Solomon (800 BC), a navy equipped by
Hiram, King of Tyre, undertook a triennial voyage to the eastern
countries and brought back with-it gold, silver, ivory, apes, peacocks,
Almug trees, jewels and precious stones.
From the 1st century AD commodities greatly in demand in Roman
world from India were spices, perfumes, precious stones, muslins and
cotton. All these commodities were paid for in gold and silver.
During the Mauryan reign manufacturing activity was abuzz and
Greek writers refer to the manufacture of chariots, wagons, arms and
agricultural implements and building of ships. Strabo mentions richly
embroidered dresses in gold duly adorned with precious stones and also
flowered robes made of fine muslin. The fact that one committee of the
municipal board of Patliputra was entrusted with the supervision of
manufactured articles in the metropolis indicates the existence of good
manufacturing industries in the Mauryan period.
There were considerable number of foreign residents in Patliputra and
they were in all probability were traders. Sweet fine wines, pigments,
glass-vessels and costly vessels of silver were some of the articles
imported in India while India exported fine silks, muslin, spices,
perfumes, medicinal herbs, indigo, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, iron, steel
etc.

Gupta and later period

While the Mauryans carried on their trade mainly with the east through
the Kalinga ports, the Guptas not only increased their eastern trade
effectively but opened up the western sea-borne trade and this led to
unprecedented economic prosperity. In Bengal, Tamralipti was the
principal port, while in Tamilnadu, Kaveripattanam and Tondai were the
principal ports. In the Malabar, coast Kottayam and Muziris (modern
Crangnore) were the main ports through which brisk trade was carried
with the Eastern Archipelago and China. The Arabs used to visit the
west coast to purchase goods like teak, drugs, perfumes, shoes, black
salt, spices, indigo, textiles, muslin etc. Indian commodities were very
popular in Arabian countries. Many of these Arabs settled in the west
coast and the Hindu rulers allowed them to practice their religion. Ships
from China, Sindh and the Persian Gulf used to anchor at Broach and
merchandise from every country was found there and was sent from
there to other countries.
In the 15th century Calicut became one of the busiest ports in the west
coast and merchants from South Africa, Abyssinia and Arabia brought
their merchandise to this port for distribution in India. Many ships from
Pegu and Malacca on their way to Red sea halted at Calicut and carried
Indian goods for distribution to various directions. Some of the items
exported were cloths, rice, iron, saltpeter, sugar and species while pearls,
copper, coral, mercury, vermilion, elephants and horses were imported.

The Trading Class

The traditional trading class in India was the Vaisyas. Later we find this
profession being followed by Parsis, Banias and Marwaris in Bombay
Presidency, the Lingayaths in Karnataka region, Chettis and Komatis in
the Madras Presidency, Khatris in Punjab and Marwaris in Bengal and
Assam. The Vaisya community was the richest being of the business
class and was represented in district councils. This class contributed
much to the cultural progress of the country. Some of them excavated
caves and build temples while others were well versed in folklore and
astrology.

India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial times

From the beginning of the historical period, India enjoyed a favourable
balance of trade, thereby accumulating stocks of gold. India’s trade
dominance continued in later times. In Mughal times, Abul Fazal’s Aine
Akbari records that 40000 vessels were engaged in trade in the Indus
and its tributaries of Punjab. While studying the Indian economy in the
few centuries preceding British rule, economics historians have pointed
out India’s high trade surplus with most of her trading partners in
Europe, West Asia or Africa. This was the result of efficient low cost
products such as cotton or spices but also of well organized communities
of traders. Indian merchants generally operated as guilds, a structure that
provided them with greater security, shared and reliable information and
effective access to good as well as markets. India and China controlled
nearly 60% of the world’s GDP 2000 years ago. They were the premier
economic and trade powers from early times until the colonial era. The
Colonial rule coincided with the steep decline in India’s overseas trade
dominance and overall production, as the rules of trade and industry
began being dictated by the colonial master.