SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

&
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

PRESENTER: G. DELAPENHA
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson students should be able to:
● apply suitable separation techniques based on differences in
properties of the components of mixtures;
● describe the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane.

● identify suitable techniques to separate the components of

mixtures
● describe the types of mixtures separated by filtration,
evaporation, crystallisation, simple distillation, Fractional
distillation, a separating funnel and chromatography
● describe the processes involved in separating mixtures by
filtration, evaporation, crystallisation, simple distillation,
fractional distillation, a separating funnel and chromatography
● explain the terms filtrate,residue and distillate
● explain the difference between miscible and immiscible liquids.
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
● describe with illustrations, the structure of atoms of atomic
number 1 to 20;
● state properties of electrons, protons and neutrons;
● define atomic number and mass number;
● define relative atomic mass;
● interpret notations of the form

●
● define isotopy;
● list uses of radioactive isotopes.
 Separating Techniques

The technique used to separate the components of a mixture

depends on the physical properties of the components.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES include:

● particle size,
● boiling point,
● crystalline structure,
● solubility and solute mobility in solvent.
 Separating Techniques

The following separation techniques will be studied in this

lesson

● Filtration
● Evaporation
● Simple distillation
● Fractional distillation
● Crystallisation
● Separating funnel
● Paper chromatography
Filtration

Filtration depends
upon the different
size of particles in
a mixture.
The filtrate passes
through the filter
paper, the residue
is left behind.

The technique is used to

separate an insoluble solid
from a liquid, eg. sand and
water.
 Evaporation and Crystallisation
● Either technique is used for a mixture of a solid which is
dissolved in a liquid where the boiling point of the liquid is
lower than that of the solid.
● The methods only allow for collection of the solid.
● The components are separated based on their different
boiling points.
The technique is
used to separate
mixtures such as salt
and water when the
salt is required.
Simple distillation
Simple distillation
depends upon the
different boiling
points in a mixture.
The lowest boiling
point evaporates
first and can be
collected

The technique is used to

separate a soluble solid and
a liquid, eg. pure water
from salty water.
Fractional distillation

● Fractional distillation is
used to separate a
mixture of two (or more)
miscible liquids which
have close boiling points.
● Miscible liquids are ones
that mix completely.

The technique is used to

separate mixtures such as
ethanol and water
 Applications of Fractional Distillation
used in the
● rum industry to separate the
ethanol from the fermentation
mixture
● petroleum industry to separate
crude oil into different fractions
such as gasoline, kerosene
and diesel
● Separation of liquid air to give
oxygen and nitrogen gases
which have various uses
Paper chromatography
Chromatography is used to
separate and identify
mixtures of dissolved
substances which will travel
through a material. The
components are separated
based on their different
solubilities in a solvent
and attraction to the
material.
The technique is used to
separate mixtures such as
the pigments in an ink
sample.
Paper Chromatography: Calculating Retention Factor

Retention factor is defined as the distance

travelled by the individual component divided by
the total distance travelled by the solvent.
Applications of Paper Chromatography
● Using chromatography it can be shown that the
green pigment in plants, known as chlorophyll, is
actually made of three different coloured
pigments, orange, yellow and green.
 Separating funnel
● is used to separate a mixture
of immiscible liquids of
different densities.
● Immiscible liquids are liquids
which do not mix.
● is a container that has a tap
at the bottom, allowing one
liquid to be drained off before
the other.
● It is usually conical in shape
to reduce the amount of
liquids lost at the interface of
the two liquids.
 Separating funnel
● Oil and water are two
liquids that are immiscible
and they have different
densities.
● If a mixture of oil and water
is placed in a separating
funnel, the oil with a lower
density floats on the water
which has a higher density.
Sucrose Extraction From Sugarcane
● To extract the sucrose, the sugar cane sap must first be
extracted and refined.
● This is done in two steps, since refined sugar can be
difficult to ship. Sugar cane is harvested and taken to a
factory where it is crushed to get the juice out.
● The juice is then heated until the water evaporates and
syrup forms.
● The syrup is then boiled until sugar crystals form, leaving
a raw sugar product.
●
Sucrose Extraction From Sugarcane
 Content
1.8 recall that atoms consist of a central
nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons,
surrounded by electrons, orbiting in shells
1.9 recall the relative mass and relative charge
Atomic of a proton, neutron and electron
Structure 1.10 understand the terms atomic number, mass
number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (Ar)
1.11 calculate the relative atomic mass of an
element from the relative abundances of its
isotopes
1.12 understand that the Periodic Table is an
arrangement of elements in order of atomic
number
1.13 deduce the electronic configurations of the
first 20 elements from their positions in the
Periodic Table
1.14 deduce the number of outer electrons in a
main group element from its position in the
Periodic Table.
 The Size Of An Atom

This is the head of a pin. Millions of atoms would fit

onto it.
 A spoonful of sugar

A spoonful of sugar would contain about:

602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms!
So, atoms are
very, very,
small!
An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that can exist and still have all the properties of
the element.
If you could cut a diamond up with a “magic
knife” until you have the smallest piece
possible, then would you have a ….

CARBON ATOM
This is a block of GOLD

Being an ELEMENT, it is a
PURE substance, so it
contains particles of only
ONE kind …

GOLD
ATOMS
THE ATOM
THE NUCLEUS
• middle of the atom
• contains protons and neutrons
• positive charge (protons are
positive)
• almost all atom mass is
concentrated in the nucleus
• tiny compared to the atom as
a whole
THE ATOM

THE ELECTRONS
THE ATOM
THE ELECTRONS
• move around the nucleus
• Negatively charged
• tiny, but cover a lot of
space
• orbit volume determines
size of the atom
• virtually no mass
• occupy orbits or shells
around the nucleus
 FACTS ABOUT THE
ATOM!

1. NEUTRAL ATOMS HAVE NO CHARGE OVERALL

2. CHARGE ON THE ELECTRONS IS THE SAME SIZE AS THE CHARGE ON

THE PROTONS BUT OPPOSITE

3. IN A NEUTRAL ATOM THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS EQUALS THE

NUMBER OF PROTONS

4. ELECTRONS MAY BE LOST OR GAINED. THE ATOM THEN BECOMES

CHARGED, AND IS KNOWN AS AN ION

5. NEUTRON NUMBERS ARE USUALLY JUST A BIT HIGHER THAN PROTON

NUMBERS, BUT CAN CHANGE
 ATOMS
🙢
🙢 Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles,
the most important are ...
subatomic Relative charge Location
Particle Mass
proton 1 +1 nucleus

neutron 1 0 nucleus

electron 1/1836 -1 Outside

nucleus
 MASS NUMBER & ATOMIC
NUMBER
🙢

Or Nucleon number

A=N+Z
Mass no. charge

Atomic no. No. of entitiies

Atomic Number and Mass Number

23
Na
11

Symbol for sodium

 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of protons
and neutrons
23
Na
11
 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of protons
and neutrons
23
Na
ATOMIC NUMBER 11
= number of protons (also
electrons)
 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of protons
and neutrons
23
Na
ATOMIC NUMBER 11
= number of protons (also
electrons)

Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of protons
and neutrons
23
Na
ATOMIC NUMBER 11
= number of protons (also
electrons)

Mass number is always bigger than the atomic number

 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of protons
and neutrons
23
Na
ATOMIC NUMBER 11
= number of protons (also
electrons)

For sodium: protons = 11, electrons = 11, neutrons = 12

 What are isotopes?
ISOTOPES: are atoms of the same element, with
the same number of PROTONS but different
numbers of NEUTRONS
OR atoms with the same ATOMIC NUMBER but
different MASS NUMBERS.

FOR EXAMPLE, there are two common forms of carbon:

12 14
6
C Carbon 12
6
C Carbon 14

Protons = 6 Protons = 6
Neutrons = 6 Neutrons = 8
Electrons = 6 Electrons = 6

Chemical properties are the same because the different number of neutrons
in the nucleus doesn’t affect the chemical behaviour at all.
 ISOTOPE EXAMPLE

The deuterium isotope of hydrogen is heavier than normal hydrogen since

it has an extra neutron. Water made from deuterium in place of normal
hydrogen is known as heavy water. This heavy water is used in nuclear
reactors to slow down the fast-moving neutrons, thus enabling a sustained
chain reaction.
 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

● Relative atomic mass is the average mass of 1

atom of an element compared to one-twelfth the
mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope

● 1 atom of Carbon-12 = 12.000 amu

● amu = atomic mass unit

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

So why do some atoms have

odd-looking relative atomic masses?
35.5
Eg: Cl
17
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

It’s because chlorine has two common isotopes (remember

those?)

35 37
17
Cl AND 17
Cl

They are found naturally in the ratio 3:1

So the average relative atomic mass =

35 + 35 + 35 + 37 = 35.5
4
35.5
So chlorine is written as: Cl
17
 Where do we find the relative
atomic mass and atomic number of
an element, and so calculate the
number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in an atom?

We look in
the Periodic
Table!
Atomic number (4)

Relative Atomic Mass (9)

Let’s just pause and recap a second ………

You should now know how to find out for any

given element:

Mass number
The Atomic Number
The Number of Protons
The Number of Neutrons
The Number of Electrons

Are you ready for some practice?

 Number Number Number
Atomic Mass
Element Symbol of of of
number number
protons neutrons electrons

Hydrogen 1 1

Li 7 4

Potassium 19 20

Beryllium 5 4

Ca 20 20

Iron 56 30

Boron 6 5

Ne 10 10
 Number Number Number
Atomic Mass
Element Symbol of of of
number Number
protons neutrons electrons

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1

Lithium Li 3 7 3 4 3

Potassium K 19 39 19 20 19

Beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4

Calcium Ca 20 40 20 20 20

Iron Fe 26 56 26 30 26

Boron B 5 11 5 6 5

Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 10
Question 1. Complete the table
🙢
Note: the Periodic Table is
arranged in order of
increasing atomic number,
not mass number.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

● Electrons spin around the nucleus of an atom in a series of

levels known as energy levels.
● Each energy shell is a fixed distance from the nucleus of
the atom and the electrons in the same shell have the same
amount of energy.
● The electrons are arranged in the energy shells in a specific
way.
● We can represent the arrangement of electrons in an atom,
known as the electronic configuration
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons:
● shell number 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
● shell number 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
● shell number 3 may be considered to hold a maximum of 8
electrons for the 1st 20 elements but can hold up to 18
beyond.
● shell number 4 can hold a maximum of 32 electrons
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 Example ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF CARBON

The electronic configuration of a carbon atom can be written

by writing the symbol of the element followed by the number
of electrons in each shell separated by commas, i.e. C (2,4).
 Example: ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF POTASSIUM

e.c of K (2, 8, 8, 1)

The electronic configuration of a potassium atom is K (2,8,8, 1).

It is important that you can draw shell diagrams of atoms of
atomic numbers 1 to 20, i.e. hydrogen to calcium in the
periodic table.
 Valence electrons

● The electrons in the outermost energy Shell are

known as valence electrons.
● For example, potassium (2,8,8,1) has one valence
electron.
● The outermost electrons are the ones that are involved
in chemical reactions, i.e. the valence electrons.

Outer shell or
valence shell

Boron has 3 valence electrons

ACTIVITY
Lithium has an atomic number of
3 so has 3 electrons.

The first 2 electrons go into the

first orbit (shell) and the
remaining electron goes into the
second orbit.

The electron configuration

(arrangement) can also be written in
this format.
Silicon has an atomic number of
14 so has 14 electrons.

The first 2 electrons go into the

first orbit (shell), the next 8 go
into the second orbit, and the
remaining 4 electrons go into the
third orbit.

To make sure you

understand this, try drawing
the electron configurations
for the first 20 elements
(hydrogen to calcium)
 The Periodic Table can
also help us when we are
trying to work out the
electron configuration of
a particular element.

The Group Number tells you how many

electrons there are in the outer shell
(orbit) of an element.
For example, oxygen is in Group 6, so has
6 electrons in its outermost shell (2:6)
 The Period Number
tells you how many
shells (orbits) there
are around the
nucleus.
For example, Calcium
is in Period 4, so will
have 4 shells around
the nucleus
 The Period Number
tells you how many
shells (orbits) there
are around the
nucleus.
For example, Calcium
is in Period 4, so will
have 4 shells around
the nucleus
 Radioactivity
🙢
What is Radioactivity? and why does it
happen?
🙢 The nucleus is composed of protons
and neutrons and glued together by a
strong nuclear force. BUT only certain
combinations of neutrons and protons
seem to be stable.
 Radioactivity
🙢
results from the random and
spontaneous breakdown of the
unstable nucleus of an atom.
 Kinds of Radiation
Radioactive elements emit THREE(3) kinds of
radiation:
• Alpha
• Beta
• Gamma
Each differs in charge, mass, and penetrating
power
 Alpha Particles

Consists of 2 protons + 2 neutrons (mass no. 4)

and is identical to a helium-4 nucleus

Can be represented by the symbol

 Properties of Alpha Particles

Weak penetrating power

able to travel only a few cm through air

- easily stopped by paper or clothing

Not normally harmful to humans

 Beta Particles

Are high-speed electrons

A neutron changes into a proton and an

electron
• The proton remains in the nucleus and the
electron is propelled out of the nucleus

symbol
 Properties of Beta Particles

The mass number is zero (0)

100 times more penetrating then alpha

radiation

Can damage the skin

 Gamma Rays

Are electromagnetic waves

of very short wavelength

Symbolized by:
 Properties of Gamma Rays

Does not consist of particles

accompanies alpha and beta radiation

Much more penetrating than either of α or β

able to penetrate deeply into solid material,

including body tissue
 Radioactive Decay

When an atom emits one of these kinds of radiation, it is

said to be decaying.

An atom may undergo an alpha or beta decay.

The radiation is called decay because the nucleus

decomposes to form a new nucleus, called transmutation

The best way to understand a decay is with a nuclear

equation
 Alpha Decay Equations
mass number of the parent
atom decreases by 4

Atomic number decreases by 2.

A new element is formed

 Beta Decay Equations

✇ Atomic number increases by

1

A new element is formed

 Using Radiation
Although radiation can be harmful, it can be used safely & is
important in many procedures

Radioisotopes called tracers are used to study

chemical reactions and molecular structures

Also they can be used to study the inner

workings of the body
 Using Radiation
Tracers are used in agricultural research
○ The tracer is introduced to the
substance being tested
○ Plants are treated with the radioactive
labeled substance
○ Tracer measured to determine the
location of the substance
○ Often the tracer is also monitored in
animals that consume the plants, in
water, and in soil.
 Using Radiation
✇ Radioisotopes can even
be used to diagnose
diseases
● I-131, is used to detect
thyroid problems
● Tc-99 is used to detect
brain tumors & liver
disorders, bone imaging
● P-32 is used to detect skin
cancer
Tl-207 scan of the
heart
 Using Radiation
✇ Radiation has become a routine part
of the treatment of some cancer
- fast-growing cancer cells are more
susceptible to damage by
high-energy radiation killing the
cancer cells

- Unfortunately if it isn’t used localized

to the cancer cells it can kill healthy
cells as well.
Answers for slide 56

🙢
END