Psychology

COGNITIVE APPROACH OVERVIEW

(updated to reflect March 2020 Curriculum changes)

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:

● How do psychologists study cognitive processes?

● How are memories encoded, stored and retrieved?
● How do cognitive processes influence our behaviour?
● What effect does emotion have on cognitive processes?
● What effect is modern use of technology having on our cognitive processes?

(HL only) CORE CONCEPTS from “Foundations of Research” Unit

● Research Methods (Earth Of Course Seems Cool)

o Experiments (lab, field; "true” experiment vs. "quasi" experiment)
o Observations (naturalistic/controlled, field/lab, participant-non-participant,
overt/covert) o Case Studies
o Self-reports (interviews, questionnaires)
o Correlational Research
● Issues in Research (and Evaluating Research)
o MAGEC (see evaluating research handout) - Method, Applications, Gender,
Ethics, Culture
o Internal Validity
o External Validity
▪ Ecological Validity
▪ Population Validity
▪ Historical Validity
o Generalizability
▪ Sample - consider sample size, sample characteristics, sampling
method ▪ Setting/Context (Transferability)
o Reliability (replicability)
o Ethical Considerations
o Possible sources of bias
▪ possible Confirmation bias
▪ possible Ethnocentrism
o Possible sources of error
▪ Demand characteristics
▪ Researcher Effect
o Standardization
o Operationalization
● Evaluating Theories
o Describe assumptions and key concepts
o Evidence – supporting studies, contradicting studies
 o Strengths
o Limitations
o Applications
CORE UNIT: Cognitive approach to understanding
behaviour The cognitive approach to understanding behaviour looks at:
● cognitive processing (SL and HL)
● reliability of cognitive processes (SL and HL)
● emotion and cognition (SL and HL)
● cognitive processing in the digital world (HL only).

Relevant to all the topics are:

● the contribution of research methods used in the cognitive approach to understanding human
behaviour ● ethical considerations in the investigation of the cognitive approach to understanding
human behaviour.

The cognitive approach to behaviour views human beings as processors of information much in the
same way as a computer processes information. The cognitive approach to behaviour focuses on
areas of research such as schema processing, memory processing, and thinking, and how cognition
may influence behaviour. Researchers are also interested in the extent to which cognitive processes
are reliable, for example, in relation to thinking and memory. How cognitive processes may be affected
in the modern digitalized world is an emerging field within the cognitive approach to behaviour.
Cognitive processes are often influenced in complex ways by emotions. The influence of emotions
on cognitive processes is studied not only by cognitive psychologists, but is developing as an area of
interest for cognitive neuroscientists as well as social psychologists.
Research methods in the cognitive approach to understanding of behaviour rely on experiments and
brain imaging technologies as well as qualitative approaches to understanding everyday memory and
thinking, making the cognitive approach an example of the holistic approach to understanding human
behaviour.

OVERVIEW
TOPIC CONTENT

1 Cognitive Processing ● Memory Models

● Schema Theory

● Thinking and Decision-making

2 Reliability of Cognitive ● Reconstructive memory

Processes

● Biases in thinking and decision-making

3 Emotion and Cognition ● The influence of emotion on cognitive processes

4 HL Only: Cognitive ● The influence (positive AND negative) of digital technology on
Processing in the cognitive processes
Digital World

● Methods used to study the interaction between digital

technology and cognitive processes

DETAILED GUIDE
TOPIC CONTENT

(can be (Can be used to formulate questions)

used to
formulate
question)
Cognitive Models of memory: Study two memory models.
processing
The Multi-Store Model of Memory and The Working Memory Model provide a
framework for an understanding of conceptualization of human memory
processes over time. The working memory model is an elaboration of short-
term memory, suggesting a number of components working together to
process information.

● Study all of the following:

○ Multi-Store Model of Memory
○ Working Memory Model

● Possible Research to Explore:

o Multi-store Model
▪ Atkinson & Shiffrin (model)
▪ Sensory Memory: Sperling*
▪ Short-Term: Glanzer & Cunitz (experiment)
▪ Short-Term & Long Term: Scoville & Milner HM, Clive Wearing*
o Working Memory
▪ Baddeley (model) (experiment)
▪ Baddeley, Thompson and Buchanan (1975) - Book and Primary
Source
▪ Landry & Bartling (2004) (experiment)
▪ *Gathercole
● Be ready to:
● Evaluate/Discuss one model
● Evaluate/Discuss two models
● Contrast 2 models

Schema theory: Study one example of Schema Theory.

Cognitive schemas are seen as mental representations that organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations.
Examples relevant to studying schema processing include but are not limited to: top-down/bottom-up processing;
pattern recognition—the matching of a current input to information in memory; effort after meaning—the attempt to
match unfamiliar ideas into a familiar framework; stereotyping—a fixed mental representation of a group of
individuals.

● Study the following:

○ cognitive schema
○ top-down processing
 ○ bottom-up processing

● Possible Research to Explore:

● Bartlett (do not use this for research method)
● Brewer & Treyens (experiment)
● Loftus & Palmer (experiment)
● *Bransford & Johnson (experiment)

● Be ready to:
● Evaluate the Schema Theory (not just the studies)

Thinking and decision-making: Study one model in thinking and decision-making

Thinking involves using information and doing something with it, for example, deciding
something. Thinking and decision-making are thus closely related. Thinking is based on factors
such as concepts, processes, and goals. Modern research into thinking and decision-making
often refers to rational (controlled) and intuitive thinking (automatic). Relevant concepts
related to studying thinking and decision-making could be but are not limited to framing,
heuristics, loss aversion, and appraisal.

● Study all of the following:

○ Dual-Systems Model
○ Rational thinking (controlled)
○ Intuitive thinking (automatic)

● Possible Research to Explore:

○ Tversky & Kahneman (model)
● Kahneman & Tversky - Study Framing Effect (experiment)
● Wason - Confirmation Bias (experiment)
● *Kahneman & Tversky - Anchoring (experiment)

*Be ready to:

● Evaluate/Discuss one model

TOPIC CONTENT
Reliability Reconstructive memory: Study one example of reconstructive memory. Human
of memory is not an exact copy of events, but rather a reconstruction that may be
cognitive altered over time, through discussions with others or input from the media.
processes Research shows that memory may be changed during storage, processing
and retrieval, due to schema processing. Relevant examples related to
studying the nature of reconstructive memory could be but are not limited to:
 • confabulation—a memory based on a fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memory
often believed to be true in spite of contradictory evidence • schema processing—
memory processing based on prior knowledge in the form of schemas that could result
in distortion
• false memories—recalling an event that never happened and believing it to be true.

Possible Research to Explore:

● Loftus & Palmer (experiment)
● Bartlett
● Yuille & Cutshall (it is an EXPERIMENT if discussing the first part where two leading questions
were used. Half the group was asked if they saw "a" broken headlight on the getaway
car. The other half were asked if they saw "the" broken headlight. In fact, there was no
broken headlight. The second question asked half the group if they saw "the" yellow
panel on the car, and the other half was asked if they saw "a" yellow panel on the car
(the panel was actually blue). They were also asked to rate their stress on the day of the
event on a seven-point scale. The participants were randomly allocated to conditions and
given different levels of the IV. BUT this is also a CASE STUDY when you talk about how
the study also carries out interviews with the participants and then compares the
information from their interviews to the original police reports. The research is focusing
on a specific crime (or case) and uses method and data triangulation. Thus, this could be
considered a case study.

Biases in thinking and decision-making: Study one bias in thinking and

decision-making
Humans rely on intuitive thinking and take cognitive shortcuts resulting in a number of well-
researched biases.

● Possible Research to Explore: (same research as “Thinking and Decision-making) o Model: Tversky
& Kahneman
o Biases - focus on Illusory Correlation
○ Study 1: Illusory Correlation - Hamilton & Gifford
(Stereotypes)(experiment)
○ Study 2: Illusory Correlation - Chapman & Chapman (1969)
○ *Anchoring - Tversky & Kahneman (experiment)
 Topic Content

Emotion and cognition

The influence of emotion on cognitive processes: study one example of the effect of emotion on a
cognitive process
Psychological and neuroscientific research has revealed that emotion and cognition are intertwined.
Memories of emotional events sometimes have a persistence and vividness that other memories seem to
lack but there is evidence that even highly emotional memories may fade over time.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY: Case of Ron Cotton
Focus on: Flashbulb Memories
Possible Research to Explore:
● Brown & Kulik (theory)
● Brown & Kulik (study)
● Neisser & Harsch - Challenger (This is an EXPERIMENT-specifically, natural experiment, with the
passage of time being the IV. OR this can also be a CASE STUDY as it was both longitudinal and
prospective and there was method triangulation - both questionnaires and interviews were
used.)
● Talarico & Rubin - 9/11 - Primary Source in Google Drive
● Sharot - 9/11 (experiment, specifically, quasi-experiment)

TOPIC CONTENT
HL only Cognitive processing in the digital world
Cognitive (Primary Sources of some are in the Google Drive)
processing in the
INQUIRY ACTIVITY: Inthinking - pick 2 articles - summarize → credibility
digital world
For all three topics in the cognitive approach, and with reference to
research studies, HL students should study the following.

● The influence (positive and negative) of digital technology on

cognitive processes
o Positive effect:
▪ Bavelier - attention and video games
▪ Sanchez - IB Book

o Negative effects
▪ Mueller & Oppenheimer
▪ Barr (find source)

● Methods used to study the interaction between digital

technology and cognitive processes.
o EXPERIMENTS:
▪ Mueller & Oppenheimer
▪ Sanchez (2012)

o CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
▪ Barr

1. Atkinson & Shiffrin (MSM model)

2. Sperling
3. Glanzer & Cunitz
4. Scoville & Milner HM - from Foundations Unit
5. Baddeley (WM model+ Study)
6. Landry & Bartling
7. Strack & Mussweiler *
8. Bartlett
9. Loftus and Palmer
10.Brewer and Treyens
11. Bransford & Johnson
12.Brown & Kulik (FB theory + Study)
13.Neisser & Harsch
14.Talarico & Rubin - 9/11
15.Sharot - 9/11
 16.Tversky & Kahneman (DS Model + Anchoring Bias
Multiplication Study) 17. Illusory Correlation - Hamilton & Gifford
(Stereotypes) - from Socio Unit 18.Illusory Correlation - Chapman
& Chapman (1969)
19. Anchoring Bias - *Strack & Musweiller
20.*Wason

HL:

1. Bavelier
2. Sanchez
3. Mueller & Oppenheimer
4. Barr