radiation

questions &
answers
Presented by the Florida Department of Health,
and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 1

Preface

The Booklet Review of the Booklet

This booklet was developed by Prior to general distribution, a
the Florida Department of Health draft of the booklet was the subject
(DOH) to answer questions about of public comment. Changes related
radiation. It is intended to provide to technical comments were
basic education for the general incorporated in this version of the
public concerning radiation. An booklet.
electronic version of the booklet
was update in October 2012 for use Additional
on the internet. Information Sources
It is adapted from a booklet About radiation
developed by the Florida DOH and Florida Department of Health,
the Agency for Toxic Substances Bureau of Radiation Control
and Disease Registry (ATSDR) for a Call: (850) 245-4266
community in Tarpon Springs.
However, it has been modified for About radiological emergencies
use in any community. (24 hours a day)
Florida Department of Health,
The Questions Bureau of Radiation Control,
Most of the questions are worded Call: (407) 297-2095
just as they were asked. Some
questions came from letters and e- About radon
mails from local community Florida Department of Health
members and during meetings. Call toll free: (800) 543-8279
Many of the questions are about
radiation in general. A few extra
questions were added to provide
more information about radiation.

The Answers
Answers to the questions were
provided by a panel of government
experts on radiation whose
credentials are provided in a brief
biographical sketch at the end of the
booklet.
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 2

About this booklet

Florida Department of Health,
Health Assessment Team,
Call toll-free (in the state of
Florida): (877) 798-2772
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 3

Your Questions

1. What is radiation? positive charge. Neutrons are

Radiation is energy traveling in electrically neutral; they have no
the form of particles or waves. charge. Each electron carries a
Three common types of particles negative charge. Most atoms in
are alpha, beta, or neutrons. Waves nature are electrically neutral.
are bundles of energy called Therefore, the number of electrons
photons. Some examples include that surround the nucleus is the
microwaves used to cook food, the same as the number of protons in
radio waves for radio and the nucleus.
television, light, and gamma rays Atoms with different numbers
and x-rays, both used in medicine. of protons are called elements. The

number of protons in a nucleus

2. What are atoms made of?
determines the element of the
An atom consists of a central
atom. For example, the number of
nucleus. The nucleus is made up of
protons in neon is 10 and the
neutrons and protons. The
number in uranium is 92.
electrons orbit, or go around the
Neutrons provide a way to
nucleus. Each proton carries a
"glue" the protons in place.
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 4

Without neutrons, the nucleus 4. What is ionizing radiation?

would split apart because the Radioactive elements produce
positive protons would repel each energetic radiation capable of
other. Elements can have different removing electrons from atoms or
numbers of neutrons in them. For molecules or ionizing them. Such
example hydrogen, which normally radiation is called ionizing
has only one proton in the nucleus, radiation. This type of radiation is
can have a neutron added to its of very high energy. When this
nucleus to form deuterium, or have energy interacts with materials, it
two neutrons added to create can remove electrons from the
tritium, which is radioactive. atoms in the material. This effect is
Atoms of the same element, which the reason why ionizing radiation
vary in neutron number, are called is hazardous to health. This effect
isotopes. Some elements have also provides the means by which
many stable isotopes (tin has 10) radiation can be detected. X-rays,
while others have only one or two. gamma rays, and alpha and beta
Radioactive isotopes are called particles are all forms of ionizing
radioisotopes or radionuclides. radiation. Non-ionizing radiation,
such as radio waves, lack the
energy to ionize atoms.
3. What is radioactivity?
Radioactivity is a natural and 5. What are alpha particles?
spontaneous process. Unstable Alpha particles are made up of
atoms of an element release or two neutrons and two protons that
radiate excess energy in the form of have been ejected from the nucleus
particles or waves. These emissions of a decaying radioactive atom.
are collectively called ionizing Alpha decay only occurs in very
radiation. Depending on how the heavy elements such as uranium,
nucleus loses this excess energy, thorium, and radium. These atoms
either a lower energy atom of the have a lot more neutrons in their
same form will result, or a nucleus than protons. Having more
completely different nucleus and neutrons than protons in their
atom will be formed. Radioactivity nucleus makes emission of the
can be natural. An example of this alpha particle possible. After an
would be uranium. It can also be atom ejects an alpha particle, a new
man-made. An example would be daughter atom is formed. The
the radionuclides produced by daughter atom has two less
fission of uranium in nuclear neutrons and two less protons. This
reactors. creates a new element. Thus, when
uranium-238 (which has 92
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 5

must be in a chemical form that

allows the material to be carried to
and concentrated in critical
radiosensitive tissues of the human
body (such as bone marrow). Many
alpha emitting radionuclides have
radioactive decay daughters that
also emit or release alpha particles
during radioactive decay.

6. What are beta particles?

Beta particles are electrons
emitted or released from the
nucleus of a radioactive atom.
Because this electron is from the
nucleus of the atom, it is called a
protons and 146 neutrons) decays, beta particle. This is the only thing
thorium-234 is created. Thorium- that distinguishes it from the
234 has 90 protons and 144 electrons that orbit the atom. Like
neutrons. Alpha particles are the alpha decay, beta decay occurs in
heaviest radiation and very isotopes that have more neutrons
energetic. The two protons mean in their nucleus than they do
the particle carries two positive protons. When a nucleus ejects a
charges that interact strongly with beta particle, one of the neutrons
electrons in the material. Such in the nucleus is transformed into a
interaction causes much ionization proton. Since the number of
in a very short distance. Because of protons in the nucleus has
the many interactions in a short changed, a new daughter element is
distance, typical alpha particles will formed. The new daughter element
travel no more than a few has one less neutron but one more
centimeters in air. A sheet of paper proton than the parent. Beta
can stop alpha particles. The outer particles have a negative charge.
layer of skin can also stop alpha They weigh only a small fraction of
particles. This means that alpha a neutron or proton. As a result,
particles are not harmful unless beta particles interact less readily
they get inside the body by eating with material than alpha particles.
or breathing or through a wound. Depending on the beta particle's
To cause harm inside the body, energy (which depends on the
alpha emitting radioactive material radioactive atom), they will travel
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 6

up to several meters in air. Thin light waves or microwaves.

layers of metal or plastic stop beta However, it is of very high energy.
particles. The more energetic beta Like all forms of electromagnetic
particles can cause burns if beta radiation, a gamma ray has no
emitting materials remain on the mass and no charge. Gamma rays
skin. They can also cause harmful interact with material by colliding
effects if they are taken into the with the electrons in the shells of
body and concentrated in a atoms. Because the collisions are
sensitive organ (such as Iodine 131 rare, they are able to travel great
in the thyroid). distances before stopping.
Depending on their initial energy,
gamma rays can travel from one to
hundreds of meters in air. Gamma
rays can easily go right through
people. It is important to note that
most alpha and beta emitters also
emit or release gamma rays as part
of their decay process. However,
there is no such thing as a "pure"
gamma emitter. Because of their
high energy, gamma rays are easy
to detect. An important gamma
emitter is technetium-99m, which
is widely used in nuclear medicine.

8. What are x-rays?

X-rays are identical to gamma
rays except they have slightly lower
energies and are produced by
7. What are gamma rays? machines. X-ray production occurs
After a decay reaction, the when high-energy electrons strike
nucleus is often in an excited state. a heavy metal target such as
This means that the decay has tungsten or molybdenum. When
produced a nucleus that still has electrons hit this material, some of
excess energy to get rid of. Rather the electrons will approach the
than releasing another beta or nucleus of the metal atoms. At that
alpha particle, this energy is lost by point they are deflected since they
emitting a pulse of electromagnetic have opposite charges. That means
radiation called a gamma ray. The the electrons are negative and the
gamma ray is identical in nature to nucleus is positive. This causes the
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 7

electrons to be attracted to the and microrem. For example, the

nucleus. This deflection causes the average background radiation in
energy of the electron to decrease. Florida ranges from 6 to 12
This decrease in energy then microrem per hour (see question
results in formation of an x-ray. X- 12). Background radiation is in the
ray machines are important air, soil, and water; it is all around
diagnostic tools in the medical us.
field and also have many industrial
applications. 11. What is half -life?
Half-life is the time required for
9. How do we measure the quantity of a material to be
radioactive material? reduced to one-half its original
When given a certain amount of value. All radioisotopes have a
radioactive material, it is common particular half-life. In some cases, a
to refer to the quantity based on its half-life can be very long. Others
activity. The activity is based on are extremely short. For example,
the number of disintegrations or uranium-238 has such a long half-
transformations the quantity of life, 4.5 billion years, that only a
material undergoes in a given small fraction has decayed since
period of time. A common unit of the earth was formed. In contrast,
activity is the curie. The curie is a carbon-11 has a half-life of only 20
very large amount of activity, so we minutes.
often talk in terms of millicuries,
microcuries and picocuries. A 12. What is background radiation?
curie is equal to 37,000,000,000 Background radiation is
disintegrations per second. A produced from naturally occurring
millicurie is equal to 37,000,000 radiation that has been present
disintegrations per second. A since the formation of the earth. It
microcurie is equal to 37,000 also includes any fallout from
disintegrations per second. nuclear weapons testing over the
past 50 years. Fallout is radioactive
10. What units do we use to debris from a nuclear detonation.
measure radiation levels? This type of debris can be either
Different units are used to airborne or deposited on soil. On
measure radiation levels; a average, Americans receive about
common unit is the rem. A rem 360 millirem (mrem) annually
measures the biological damage from all sources of ionizing
from ionizing radiation. Like the radiation. Of that amount, 82
curie, a rem is a large amount, so percent (300 millirem) results from
we often talk in terms of millirem radon and other natural radiation
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 8

Average annual
effective dose
equivalent
Sources (mrem)
Natural Sources:
Inhaled (Radon and Decay Products) 200
Other Internally Deposited Radionuclides 39
Terrestrial Radiation 28
Cosmic Radiation 27
Cosmogenic Radioactivity 1
Rounded total from natural sources 300
Artificial Sources:
Medical X-ray 39
Nuclear medicine 14
Consumer products 10
Total 363
rounded off to 360

sources. A major source (about 40 14. What is contamination?

millirem per year) of naturally Contamination means that
occurring radiation comes from radioactive material in the form of
inside our bodies—in the form of gases, liquids, or solids, is emitted
potassium-40, a radioisotope of or released into the environment.
potassium. A breakdown of the This radioactive material may be
sources of typical radiation unwanted in the particular
exposure for the average individual location. These materials
per year is shown in the chart contaminate people externally,
above. internally, or both. The external
surface of the body can become
13. How are we exposed to contaminated if someone comes
radiation? into contact with radioactive
Exposure to radiation can occur material. If the radioactive material
in three ways: by (1) gets inside the body through the
contamination, (2) irradiation, or lungs (by breathing), stomach (by
(3) a combination of both. ingesting), or through open
wounds, it can become deposited
internally. Internal contamination
will cause absorption of some of
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 9

the radioactive material into the During an exposure, the body can
body's cells, tissues, and organs, absorb this radiation, or the
including bone, liver, thyroid, or radiation can pass completely
kidneys. If radioactive material gets through the body. A similar thing
inside a person, it is distributed occurs during an ordinary chest x-
throughout the body according to ray. Following external exposure,
its chemical properties. For an individual does not become
example, carbon (C) and potassium radioactive. Internal irradiation
(K) atoms are found naturally results from internal
throughout the human body. A contamination. When radioactive
very small number of these atoms material gets inside the body, it
are naturally radioactive. That irradiates the surrounding cells,
means that these naturally tissue, and organs and will
occurring radioactive materials (C- continue to do so as long as the
14 and K-40) are incorporated into material remains in the body.
cells, tissues, and organs
throughout the body. On the other 16. What is the difference
between radiation and chemicals?
hand, radioactive strontium (Sr-90)
has chemical properties similar to A chemical is a substance made
calcium (Ca). If radioactive up of atoms or molecules.
strontium is taken into the body, Radiation is energy. More about
the bones absorb most of it much radiation is discussed in this
in the same manner as calcium booklet in questions 1 through 12.
from milk. Similarly, the thyroid
17. What is the potential for
gland needs iodine (I) to function cumulative effects from multiple
properly. That is why iodine is radiation exposures?
added to salt. The thyroid will also The potential for multiple
absorb radioactive iodine (I-123, I- radiation exposures posing an
125, or I-131). When a person's increased risk for adverse health
thyroid is not working correctly, effects depends on four things:
radioactive forms of iodine might • the exposure level or dose,
be used to identify (I-123) or treat • the type of radiation,
(I-131) the problem. • the exposure pathway
(external or internal), and
15. What is irradiation?
• the time between exposures.
Irradiation can be external,
internal, or both. External When someone is repeatedly
irradiation occurs when all or part exposed to radiation, it can cause
of the body is exposed to ionizing cumulative effects (also known as
radiation from an external source. additive effects) to a person's body.
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 10

These are effects that build up over than other cells.

time. The main adverse effect of Cells can repair damage caused
radiation to the human body is by radiation. However, being
damage to the DNA, the genetic exposed to radiation time and time
recipe for a cell. Minor damage to again before the body can repair
DNA can be repaired. However, the itself may result in more damage.
damage also can be serious enough Effects may build up and can
to cause cell death. Between these increase the chance for illness.
two extremes, a mutation, or
permanent change in the DNA, can 18. What is a total body burden
test? When is a total body burden
occur. The change is the result of a
test for radiation appropriate? Are
DNA repair that has gone wrong. most doctors aware of this type of
This is called incorrect repair. test?
Mutations can be passed on to A total body burden test
offspring. These changes in the measures levels of radioactive
DNA might not kill someone, but material inside the body. The levels
mutations might build up in cells. of radioactivity are measured using
This build-up can increase the external detectors or by analyzing
chance the person may become ill. biological samples, such as urine or
Cell mutations in the human body blood. It is rare that a person will be
have been linked to an increased exposed to radioactive materials at
risk for developing cancer. levels that require a total body
Mutations in reproductive cells burden test.
might also occur; this type of This test can be used when
mutation has been linked to some radioactive material has entered
diseases, which can be passed on someone's body by inhalation,
from parents to offspring. The ingestion, or when it enters the body
chance for this type of mutation through the skin or by other means.
increases with each exposure to It is not a way to measure radiation
radiation. exposure from sources outside the
Because cancer cells divide more body. It is not appropriate following
rapidly and are more sensitive to external exposure to x-ray or
radiation than healthy cells, gamma radiation. After such
radiation is used to treat cancer. exposures, no radiation remains in
Other rapidly growing cells that are the body. However, while radiation
likely to react to radiation are the does not remain in the body
cells that make blood and skin. Cells following an exposure, effects from
in the stomach, intestines, eyes, the radiation exposure may remain.
ovaries, and testes are also more This test might not be one a
likely to be affected by radiation general practice physician would
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 11

know about. However, if someone short period of time, such as

has been exposed to excessive minutes, may be harmful.
amounts of radioactive materials, a
doctor can refer a patient to a
specialist for such a test. 20. What is a dosimeter? Is it more
appropriate to use a dosimeter to
measure personal, actual
19. What is the difference
exposures, rather than estimating
between long-term versus short-
exposures based on mathematical
term radiation exposure?
projections?
Being exposed at a certain level
A dosimeter is an instrument
for a long period of time produces
used to measure radiation dose.
a greater dose than exposure to the
When properly used, dosimeters
same level for a short period of
can provide accurate information
time. Dose refers to the amount of
about most types of radiation
radiation absorbed. However,
exposure for the period of time
usually we think of long-term
that they are used. However,
exposure as occurring at lower
mathematical projections are good
levels. With radiation, an example
tools that can be very useful when
of a typical long-term exposure is
dosimeters cannot be (or were not)
the background radiation to which
used.
a person is exposed. This includes
In most cases, it is best to have
how much radiation someone is
an exact way of measuring the
exposed to during his or her entire
actual exposure a person receives.
life. An example of a short-term
A dosimeter can do this. However,
exposure is the dose received
care is needed to make sure that it
during an airplane flight. This is
is used correctly. It is also
due to greater cosmic radiation at
important to be sure that it can
higher altitudes. Other short-term
accurately measure the person's
exposure examples are dental or
dose. This is even truer if the levels
chest x-rays. It should be noted
of radiation are low. In many
that the total dose of radiation
radiation exposure situations in the
received over a long period of time,
past, dosimeters were not used
such as a year or years, may
because the exposure was not
produce no health effects; however,
expected or was thought to be too
the same total dose received in a
low for concern. Therefore,
mathematical projections were and
still are being used to estimate low-
dose exposures and exposures
where dosimeters were not used.
These are estimates that use a
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 12

formula to figure out a dose. 22. Why are there different ways
Conservatively, they tend to to measure radiation levels? What
do the different ways mean?
overestimate the actual dose to
What is a safe level?
help protect human health.
Each of the three types of
21. How can people limit or avoid radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma,
exposures to radiation? described above) requires a
It is impossible to completely different instrument to measure it.
avoid radiation exposure because One survey instrument cannot
everyone is exposed to background accurately measure all types of
levels. (Please see Questions 10 and radiation. A survey instrument
12 for more information about only measures whether radiation is
background radiation.) Individuals detected and its levels. A portable
can limit their exposure to other ion chamber measures ionization
sources of radiation by using the that can be converted to dose.
three basic principles of radiation ATSDR's Minimum Risk Level
protection. The principles are time, (MRL) for ionizing radiation is 100
distance and shielding. You can millirem per year above
limit the time you are near a background. (Note: background
source, you can increase the includes the dose from building
distance you are from the source, materials.) The MRL is an estimate
and you can place a shield, such as of human exposure—by a specified
a concrete wall, between you and route and length of time—to a dose
the source. These steps will help of chemical or other agent that is
reduce your exposure. likely to be without measurable risk
The easiest way to reduce of adverse, non-cancerous effects.
exposure is to test your home for An MRL should not be used as a
radon and if levels are too high, predictor of adverse health effects.
steps can be taken to reduce them. An MRL is used only as a
The DOH Bureau of guideline.
Community Environmental It was previously stated that the
Health’s Radon section provides average American receives an
information about radon, its health annual radiation exposure of 360
effects, as well as information millirem per year. But what does
about how to test for and reduce an exposure of 360 millirem per
levels of radon. The owner or year mean? Radiation is harmful
resident usually pays for testing of and sometimes fatal. Measurable
homes. Call (800) 543-8279 for harmful effects occur at doses of
information on how to test for about 100,000 millirem or more.
radon, where to get test kits, or The residents of Hiroshima and
details on testing companies. Nagasaki received such levels at the
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 13

close of World War II from atomic safe radiation exposure levels does
bombs. But scientists disagree not exist, most agencies continue
about the risks of lower levels of to regulate ionizing radiation from
radiation. Some scientists assume a conservative position. These
that the exposure risk from agencies, including ATSDR,
radiation is in proportion to the assume that there may be a risk
dose. They assume that the associated with low-level radiation
exposure risk from each millirem is exposures. This is the basis for the
just 1/100,000 of the known ALARA philosophy. This
exposure risk from 100,000 philosophy says that facilities that
millirem. According to this theory, have and use radiation must
called the linear no threshold maintain radiation exposures as
(LNT) hypothesis, no amount of low as reasonably achievable
radiation is safe. This position is (ALARA). The concept balances
the most conservative. It is the the costs of controlling doses
hypothesis that is used by against the many benefits we get
government agencies to set from radiation.
standards, as it provides the
greatest margin of safety. It is also 23. How is the possibility or
probability of risk from radiation
the easiest to use in calculating
exposures assessed?
exposure risks at low levels. No one
The public health risk from
has ever been able to demonstrate
ionizing radiation is assumed to be
harmful effects at levels below
directly proportional to dose. This
10,000 millirem. At such low
is a relation based on a
exposure levels, the exposure risk
conservative assumption (meaning
becomes statistical, based on
it errs on the side of caution to
projections of what happens at
protect health). The International
higher doses. Many reputable
Council on Radiation Protection
scientists and physicians reject the
(ICRP) and the National Council
LNT hypothesis as unscientific for
on Radiation Protection and
calculating harmful effects from
Measurement (NCRP) have both
low doses of radiation. They argue
stated that an individual's risk
that radiation is the only thing we
cannot be calculated. However, an
assume has no safe dose. But after
individual's exposures can be
more than 40 years of research,
measured. But the measurement
science still cannot prove or
cannot be directly taken to mean
disprove the existence of radiation-
specific health effects will occur.
induced heath effects in humans
That is because other factors, such
from low-level exposures. Since a
as heredity and lifestyle, must also
clear consensus on the question of
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 14

be considered. Sometimes these higher but it is unlikely anyone

factors may be unknown. We would be exposed.
assume that any amount of
radiation, no matter how little, 25. How is background radiation
considered in a measurement?
causes some effect. However, the
effect may be something that Any time radiation is measured;
cannot be measured. the background level is
Science has studied groups of automatically included. A portion
people who received a large of the measurement is background
radiation dose to provide the data radiation. How much of the
that is used to figure risk. These measurement is from background
groups include Japanese bombing is normally stated separately, unless
survivors, radium dial painters, the measurement is stated as being
people exposed for medical above background.
purposes, and uranium miners.
26. Why are there diverse
references for how much
24. To protect public health, is it radiation is allowable—OSHA,
necessary to clean up those areas NIOSH, EPA, ATSDR?
identified as having the highest
radiation levels in a community to
The references vary because
reduce overall exposures and limit each agency provides different
multiple exposures? government services for different
Yes, when the areas exceed reasons. Therefore, each agency
health-based cleanup standards, it views radiation protection from
is necessary. The need to clean up different viewpoints. The
an area should be determined Occupational Safety and Health
considering the radiation dose for Administration (OSHA) and the
individuals with the highest National Institute of Safety and
exposures expected. The National Health (NIOSH) are both
Council on Radiation Protection concerned with worker safety. The
and Measurement (NCRP) Environmental Protection Agency
recommends a cleanup if the dose (EPA) is concerned about the
for that individual exceeds 500 environment and all living things,
millirem in a year. A cleanup including one-celled animals and
should occur when it would limit plants. The Agency for Toxic
someone’s being exposed to high Substances and Disease Registry
levels. For example, a cleanup (ATSDR) looks at the effects of
should occur in areas where many environmental exposures on
people are likely to be exposed. human health issues. Discussions
Such areas may be cleaned up of radiation levels often refer to
before other areas where levels are various standards in order to
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 15

provide more information • Public comment and hearings

regarding radiation. are conducted, and
• All necessary approvals are
27. What is the difference obtained.
between regulations and
standards, and academic and 29. What is the difference
governmental standards between radon in drinking water
regarding radiation? and radium in drinking water?
A regulation must be met. Law Why are the acceptable levels
requires regulations. Standards are different?
levels that government regulators Radon and radium are both
aspire to meet. However, no law radioactive. However, they are two
requires that standards be met. different radioisotopes. Both are
Standards are considered to be taken into the body differently.
good practice. Standards and Radon is a gas. As discussed in
guidelines are the same thing. Both question 30, it escapes from water
come from various sources, and primarily enters the body
including government and when it is breathed in. In the lung,
academia. radon emits alpha particles that
could damage lung tissue. Radium
28. How are standards set? Do is a solid at normal air
standards imply safety?
temperatures. It is mostly dissolved
Standards are set by agencies or suspended in tap water. Radium
that regulate public health. That can enter the body through
includes the EPA and the Florida drinking water with radium in it.
Department of Environmental Radium is absorbed like calcium. It
Protection (DEP). A give-and-take can replace calcium in the body. In
process that includes public input the bones, its decay results in
develops standards. Typical
radiation standards relate to public
health and safety. Standards do not
imply that no risk exists.
Standards are established after:
• A health and safety need is
shown,
• Research, including a great
deal of testing, shows that the
proposed level makes sense
and is cost-effective,
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 16

emission of alpha particles that radium in a private drinking water

could damage bone cells. well, it can be easily removed by
commonly available water
30. What about radium in wells? treatment devices, such as water
What is the health risk of radium
softeners or reverse osmosis filters.
in drinking water?
As discussed in question 29, the
risk of drinking radium in water is 31. Why would the contamination
that it can replace calcium in the levels for radon in drinking water
bone, which can slightly increase be handled differently from other
the risk of cancer over 70 years of radiation contamination in
consumption. It is unlikely that drinking water?
there are high enough levels Radon is an inert gas. That
present in most drinking water to means radon in drinking water is
cause this effect. not chemically bound to the water.
The Florida Department of Most of it escapes into the air as
Environmental Protection (DEP) the water is used. Radon escapes as
regulates testing of public drinking it passes through the aerator on the
water. There is a conservative kitchen faucet. It also escapes when
health-based level for radium in it sprays from the showerhead or
water called an MCL, or Maximum into the dishwasher. Radon escapes
Contaminant Level. MCLs are when it agitates in the washing
enforceable. If public water exceeds machine. Unlike some other
the MCLs, the public must be radioisotopes that may be in
notified very soon after it is drinking water, radon is an alpha
detected, and steps must be taken emitter. Alpha emitters damage soft
to correct it within a time frame tissue, such as lung tissue. Because
that the utility company and DEP we breathe much more air than we
or the approved CHD (the drink water, our greatest soft tissue
regulator) agree upon. exposure pathway is through
Local County Health inhaling indoor air. If radon levels
Departments may do some limited in a home are found to be high, a
sampling of selected private vent system that takes the indoor
drinking water wells for air outside helps to lower levels.
radionuclides. However, you may
32. What is the MCL for radon in
also want to consider paying for drinking/tap water?
your private well to be tested by an The EPA has proposed a MCL
independent laboratory if you are (maximum contaminant level) for
concerned about possible radium radon in drinking/tap water of 300
contamination. If testing shows picocuries per liter. MCLs refer to
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 17

the concentration of a chemical that ground into living areas in the

cannot be legally exceeded in a house. This occurs mostly in tightly
public drinking water supply insulated homes heated by gas or oil
system. The MCL is devised and furnaces during the winter. Rain can
enforced by the EPA. also push radon gas from the
Radon is an alpha emitter. As ground into homes.
mentioned in question 5, alpha
emitters can damage lung tissue. 35. How do ventilation rates (i.e.,
in a closed room versus a room
Therefore, the main health concern
with cross-ventilation) affect radon
for radon in tap water is that it may concentrations?
escape and enter indoor air. It can Home ventilation with outdoor
then be breathed into the body. air dilutes the radon concentrations
in indoor air. This assumes that
33. Can radon in drinking water be
emitted during hot showers? outdoor levels are lower. A room
Yes, and during cold showers, with cross-ventilation allows radon
too. Radon is released through any gas to move outside. This reduces
use of water. Aeration of the water the radiation levels.
or adding oxygen to the water
36. Where can people go to get
through a device on the faucet resource information about
allows the radon to escape. Radon is radiation or ask for referrals?
released from its physical General information about
combination with water during its radiation can be found at the local
first splash from a faucet just like public library. One can also request
carbonation is released when a copy of ATSDR's Toxicological
pouring a soft drink into a glass. Profile for Ionizing Radiation by
faxing a request to (404) 639-6234
34. How do seasonal levels of
(Attention: Information Center). In
radon vary?
addition, the Department of
Many of today's homes are
Health's Bureau of Radiation
tightly closed for heating or cooling.
Control is a good source of
This can trap radon gas inside a
information. They have area offices
home. Therefore, radon levels tend
located around the state. The DOH
to be higher in summer and winter.
Environmental Radiation Section
Radon levels in homes also can vary
and Lab is located in Orlando, (407)
depending on the outside
297-2095. The main office is located
barometric pressure. The indoor
in Tallahassee, (850) 245-4266.
pressure of a home can affect radon
You may also refer to the
levels. If the inside of the home is at
radiation websites listed in this
a lower pressure than the outside,
booklet.
radon can be drawn out of the
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 18

There are a number of websites 008.pdf

that provide information on
radiation-related issues. Here is a U.S. Environmental Protection
sampling of sites: Agency
Students and Teachers' Radiation
Agency for Toxic Substances and Protection Pages
Disease Registry www.epa.gov/radiation/students.html
Ionizing Radiation—Frequently Asked
Questions (AKA ToxFAQs)
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfact
Idaho State University
s149.pdf
What You Need to Know about
Radiation (book), Lauriston S. Taylor
American Lung Association www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/lstintro.
Radon Fact Sheet htm
www.lung.org/healthy-air/home/
resources/radon.html
Idaho State University
General Radiation Page
Baylor College of Medicine www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/
Radiation Health Effects Research
Resource
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
http://radefx.bcm.edu/chernobyl/defau
lt.htm Biological Effects of Radiation
www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-
collections/fact-sheets/bio-effects-
U.S. Environmental Protection radiation.html
Agency
Health Effects from Ionizing Radiation
www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/he
alth_effects.html

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency
Ionizing Radiation Fact Sheet
www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency
Radiation: Risks and Realities
(Booklet)
www.epa.gov/radiation/docs/402-k-10-
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 19

Radiation Websites

University of Michigan Student

Chapter of the Health Physics
Society
Radiation Information Page
http://www.umich.edu/~radinfo/intro
duction/index.htm

World Health Organization

Ionizing Radiation Web Page
http://www.who.int/ionizing_
radiation/about/en/
Radiation Questions & Answers • 20
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 21

Radiation Questions & Answers

Panel, Biographic Sketches

Michael D. Brooks, CHP, MSHP, Health Physicist, has been certified by

the American Academy of Health Physics, and has been a Health Assessor
with the Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR) since
July 1991. Previously he performed research and designed microwave
components for aerospace applications. He also served 3.5 years as Reactor
Controls Officer aboard a nuclear powered Fleet Ballistic Missile
Submarine. He received his undergraduate degree in Physics, a MS in
Physics, and a MS in Health Physics from the Georgia Institute of
Technology, in Atlanta. He currently serves at ATSDR’s Region 1 office in
Boston.

Michael Gilley is an Environmental Administrator for the Florida

Department of Health, Bureau of Community Environmental Health, in
the Radon and Indoor Air Toxics section. His academic training is in
industrial hygiene and health physics. He has been involved in research,
evaluation, and mitigation strategy on environmental radiation and indoor
air environmental issues for more than 25 years. Currently, he is a member
of the Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors Incorporated,
Committee on Radon and the American Water Works Association
Research Project Foundation Advisory Committee. He retired from the
Florida DOH in October 2010.

Wesley Nall has worked for the Polk County Health Department chiefly
with the Radiological Health Section, where he supervises related activities.
He has a BS degree in mathematics from Stetson University. His health
physics training has been primarily through continuing education courses
offered by the University of Florida, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
and the Oak Ridge Associated Universities. The Polk County Health
Department is one of two county health departments in the state with a
Radiological Health Section. He retired from the Florida DOH in February
2010.

Bill Passetti is the Chief of the Bureau of Radiation Control in Florida's

Department of Health. The bureau is responsible for several statewide
radiation programs that include radioactive materials, x-ray machines,
Radiological Technologists, emergency response, and environmental
 Radiation Questions & Answers • 22

radiation monitoring. He received his BS degree in Radiologic Science from

the Medical College of Georgia and has more than 20 years of experience in
medical and regulatory radiation safety issues. He retired from the Florida
DOH in May 2012.

Edward A. Tupin, MS, CHP Health Physicist, has over 30 years

experience in the field of health physics. He was originally certified by the
American Academy of Health Physics in 1982, and has been a health
physicist with the Radiation Protection Division of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency since 2002. He also spent four years as a Health Assessor
with the Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR) since
July 1998. Previously he spent 13 years as a health physicist and radiation
safety officer for the Center for Devices and Radiological Health, part of the
Food and Drug Administration, working in the Office of Health Physics
and the Division of Mammography Quality and Radiation Programs. Prior
to that he was a nuclear medical science officer in the U.S. Army. His
assignments included serving as radiation safety officer for the Enewetak
Atoll Cleanup Project and army hospitals and health physics survey officer
with the U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency. He received his
undergraduate degree in Biology from Wake Forest University, Winston-
Salem, NC, and a MS in Pathology from Duke University.

NOTE: This booklet was supported by funds from the Comprehensive

Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act trust fund
through a cooperative agreement with the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services.
Radiation Questions & Answers • 23
Radiation Questions & Answers • 24
Name of Site:

Location:

Please complete the following that best describes your feelings for each statement:
Based on the information provided in this booklet:

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If no, what parts did you read? (Please specify)

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Is there information in the booklet you found confusing? If so, what area was confusing?

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Which of these categories would best describe you?

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❑ Other (please specify)__________________________________________________________

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and telephone number:

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Please remove this survey from the booklet, fill out, stamp, and mail.
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Name
Place
stamp
Address
here
City State Zip

Florida Department of Health

Health Assessment Team
4052 Bald Cypress Way, Bin# A-08
Tallahassee, FL 32399-1712

fold here with address out and tape on open edge

The Department of Health’s Hazardous Waste Site Health Assessment Team, would
like to thank you for completing the attached questionnaire. In our efforts to prevent
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To find out more about us, please call us toll free in the state of Florida at
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