UNIT II ROBOT DRIVE SYSTEMS AND END EFFECTORS

2.1 Hydraulic Drives –

2.2 Pneumatic Drives
2.3 Electrical Drives –
2.3.1 D.C.Servo Motors
2.3.2 A.C. Servo Motors
2.3.3 Stepper Motor
2.4 Mechanical Drives –
2.5 Comparison of Drives
2.6 End Effectors – Grippers –
2.6.1 Mechanical Grippers
2.6.2 Two Fingered and Three Fingered Grippers
2.6.3 Internal Grippers and External Grippers
2.6.4 Types of Gripper Mechanisms
2.6.5 Vacuum Grippers;
2.6.6 Magnetic Grippers,
2.6.7 Adhesive grippers
2.6.8 Hooks, scoops and other miscellaneous devices:
2.6.9 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Grippers,
2.7 Tools as end effectors:
2.8 Factors considered in the selection and design of grippers:

Drive system: Introduction

The system which provides energy for the actuation of the robot is called Drive system. There
are basically three types of drive systems.
1. Hydraulic Drive system
2. Pneumatic drive system
3. Electrical drive sytem
The electrical drive system is further subdivided into two categories such as electrical servo
motor system and Stepper motor systems. The Servo or continuous rotation motors has two
types: AC servomotors and DC servomotors.

2.1 HYDRAULIC DRIVE SYSTEM

Hydraulic systems are used in applications requiring a large amount of force and slow speeds.
When used for continuous actuation they are mainly used with position feedback.
 More suitable for High power requirement
 Suitable for high load at moderate speed
 Linear piston is generally used
 high stiffness
 Easily controllable due to of hydraulic system
 Require pumps and accumulators
 Suitable for harsh environment caused by dust, dirt and moisture.

Salient Features:
 Get power from pressurized oil.
 Operate at about 1000 to 3000 lb/in2
 Large robots with higher Degrees Of Freedom (>4 joint motions)
  Translational movement for sliding joints-Linear actuators
 Rotary movement for rotational joints – Rotary actuators

Advantages:
 Liquids(higher bulk modulus) –incompressible –can be operated at very high
pressure
 Additives used in oil reduces wear and tear
 Actuators available in different types and sizes
 Precise control of velocity and positioning(as there is no sag of arm)
 Higher power applications-Crane,Machining,Presses
 Smooth operation and stability of the system
Disadvantages:
 Expensive – low pressure applications – more components,fluids,additives
 Leakage of oil
 Increase of foam resistance – addition of additives – wear
 Cavitation effect – entrapped air affects incompressibility

Components of hydraulic drive system

The hydraulic drive system consists of the following components.
1. Pumps 2.Hydraulic actuators 3.Valves 4.Conditioners
The interconnection between them is shown in the block diagram.

2.1.1. Pumps
Pumps are broadly classified into two categories, Positive Displacement pumps and
Rotodynamic or Non-positive displacement pumps.They are given below.
Rotodynamic pumps Positive displacement pumps
i) Centrifugal (impeller) pump i) Gear pumps
ii) Axial (propeller) pump ii) Vane pumps
iii) Piston pumps
 Fig.1.Hydraulic system components
In Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps, the flow rate depends on
- speed of propeller/impeller and
- the restriction of the outlet
The flow rate is controlled in order to control the speed of actuation of various joints and links
of the robot.

• In Hydrostatic or Positive displacement pumps, the volume flow rate depends on Speed
of the shaft
• The flow rate increases with increase in speed, otherwise constant

2.1.2. Hydraulic actuators

Hydraulic actuators are classified into two groups such as Linear actuators and Rotary
actuators. Different types of cylinders comes under linear actuators and motors are
classified under rotary actuators.
Cylinders Motors
i) Single acting Cylinder i) Gear Motors
ii) Double acting Cylinder ii) Vane Motors
iii) Piston Motors
 In Hydraulic Cylinders, the speed of motion is controlled by controlling the flow rate of
the fluid through the pumps and actuators. The flow and speed is adjusted by
- cushioning plunger
- spear and needle valves
Gear Motors:
Volumetric displacement is fixed
Side thrust due to difference in pressure between inlet (high) and outlet (low)
Vane motors:
Balanced type-fixed displacement
Unbalanced type – rotor mounted off-centre in casing causes side thrust
Piston Motors:
Variable displacement
Swash plate tilted to the left or right to reverse direction
Rack and Pinion Actuator:
Uniform torque in both directions
Rotational motion at low speed gives high torque

2.1.3. valves/controlling elements

Valves are basically used to control the flow rate and direction to get the desired motion for
the end effectors of the robot.

Valves

Direction Control Valve(DCV) Flow Control Valve(FCV) Pressure Control Valve(PCV) Check Valves &servo valves

Direction Control Valves:

Inlets to the Direction Control Valve are called Centre. Outlets of the
Direction Control Valves are called Ports.
DCV’s are classified as
- Two or Three position valves (based on number of position or
configurations)
- Two, Three or four way valves (based on number of ports)
- Open Centre or Closed Centre (based on whether inlets to DCV are
open to all inlets or in closed condition)
- Open Port or Closed Port (based on whether the outlets of DCV are
connected or not)
The different configurations for a 3-position, 4-way DCV based on the centre flow paths (how
Ports and Centre are connected (or) inlets and outlets are connected in the centre position of the
DCV) are given below.
i) Open Centre, Open Port valve
ii) Open Centre, Closed Port valve
iii) Closed Centre, Closed Port valve
iv) Closed Centre, Open Port valve
Flow Control Valves:
Needle Valve

Pressure Control Valves:

Relief valve
Deceleration valve
Check Valves:
No flow Check valve
Free flow Check valve
Servo Valves:
Spool type
Flapper type
Jet pipe type
- Flow depends on valve pressure drop
- Servo control valves used to move a valve by a small amount
proportional to the voltage applied to the torque motor.
2.1.4 conditioners:

• Tanks are used as reservoir for oil

• Filters and strainers are used to remove impurities in the oil
• Accumulators are used to safeguard the system against the uncertainties such as power
failure, shock etc.

2.2 PNEUMATIC DRIVE SYSTEM:

Salient Features:
- Get power from compressed air
- Operate at about 100 lb/in2
- For small robots with fewer Degrees Of Freeedom (2 to 4 joint
motions
- Pneumatic power can be readily adopted to the actuation of piston
devices
- Translational movements for sliding joints
- Operate rotary actuators for rotational joints
Pneumatic Actuator
 Used in low load handling
 low stiffness
 It requires servo-control to position the objects accurately
 Single or double acting cylinder are commonly used
 light weight at moderate operating pressure
 Low efficiency
 low stiffness

- Simple pick and place operations with fast cycles

Advantages:
- Economy – less expensive – no need of extra reservoir or tank
 - Air less viscous – less amount of force required to control the flow
of fluid
- Compressibility oh the air,helps in absorbing shock or load
Disadvantages:
-
Precise control of velocity and positioin-difficult
-
Pneumatic pressure low compared to hydraulic
-
Leakage of air molecules between spool and valve body
-
Air from atmosphere contains moisture that is harmful
-
Air is not a good lubricant- causes wear inside actuators
-
Air creates noise,undergoes change of state due to heating and
cooling effects.
Components of pneumatic drive system:

1. Compressors
2. Pneumatic conditioners
3. Pneumatic Valves
4. Pneumatic Actuators

2.2.1 compressors
Compressors are classified into two types .
a. Vane type
b. Screw type
c. Reciprocating

Reciprocating Compressors:
- fitted with silencer ,oil guage,filter ,lubrication
systems,flywheel,intercoolers etc.
- multistage compressing and cooling
- output is pulsating in nature
Vane Compressors:
- constant delivery of air
- design similar to vane pump
Screw Compressors:
- Unsymmetrical profile rotors that mesh
- Controlled clearance between teeth and housing
- Oil injected absorbs heat leads to higher efficiency
- Provided with receiver which acts as reservoir
- Supply at constant pressure
- Compressor rating is in terms of free air at standard atmospheric
condition
Determination of Receiver Size:
The receiver size or capacity is determined using the relation,
Vreceiver = C.T.( Qreceiver – Qdelivery ) / ( Pmax – Pmin)

Where,
 Vreceiver = Size of the receiver (m3)
C= a coefficient, 14.7 or (1.01 x 105 Pascal)
T = Time (min) for which receiver can supply air (seconds)
Qreceiver = rate of demand or consumption (m3/s)
Qdelivery = rate of output to the receiver (m3/s)
Pmax = Maximum pressure level (Pa)
Pmin = Minimum pressure level (Pa)

2.2.2 pneumatic conditioners:

Pneumatic Conditioners

Air Filters Pressure Regulator Lubricators Switching elements

Air Filters:
- use cellulose felt-like reusuable elements
- Baffling system –separate dirt particles
Pressure Regulators:
- e.g.Safety Relief Valve
- When pressure switch fails,pressure regulators are used
- Due to back pressure created by load on the actuator,diaphragm is
pushed against the spring force and the poppet is raised
- Spring tension adjusted to set the pressure
Lubricators:
- for internal moving parts
- oil reaches the drip tube by siphonic action
- air mixed with oil delivered by drift tube
Switching Elements:
2.3 Pressure switch
- to prevent rise in pressure in the tank
- cutoff the electrical circuit and switch off when pressure exceeds a
certain level
- when pressure is high,air is bled off to the atmosphere through
release valve
2.4 Limit switch
- to ensure whether the target point is reached

2.2.3 pneumatic valves:

 Valves

Direction Control Valve(DCV) Flow Control Valve(FCV) Pressure Control Valve(PCV) Check Valves &servo valves

Direction Control Valves:

Inlets to the Direction Control Valve are called Centre. Outlets of the
Direction Control Valves are called Ports.
- Small change in design features of O-rings as compared to that
for hydraulic system.
DCV’s are classified as
- Two or Three position valves (based on number of position or
configurations)
- Two, Three or four way valves (based on number of ports)
- Open Centre or Closed Centre (based on whether inlets to DCV are
open to all inlets or in closed condition)
- Open Port or Closed Port (based on whether the outlets of DCV are
connected or not)
The different configurations for a 3-position, 4-way DCV based on the centre flow paths (how
Ports and Centre are connected (or) inlets and outlets are connected in the centre position of the
DCV) are given below.
v) Open Centre, Open Port valve
vi) Open Centre, Closed Port valve
vii) Closed Centre, Closed Port valve
viii) Closed Centre, Open Port valve

Flow Control Valves:

e.g.Needle Valve
- Free flow in one direction
- metered or controlled flow in opposite direction

Pressure Control Valves:

Relief valve
Pressure regulator
- to control pressure, flow rate and direction of air in the circuit
- Pressure regulator to get two or three levels of different pressures
for actuators from same pipe.
Check Valves:
No flow Check valve
Free flow Check valve

2.2.4 pneumatic actuators:

• Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low load
carrying capacity.
 • Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-to-stop
motions.
• It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are moderate.

There are in general two categories of pneumatic motors.

i)Piston motor
ii)Vane motor
Piston Motors:
- For low speed applications
Vane Motors:
- For variable speed applications
- Speed depends upon volume of air inducted in
- Bidirectional motion
- Torque depends on pressure of air
- Unlike in the electrical motor torque is not a function of speed

2.3. ELECTRICAL DRIVE SYSTEM:

 An electric motor is composed of a rotating center, called the rotor, and a stationary outside, called the
stator.
 These motors use the attraction and repulsion of magnetic fields to induce forces, and hence motion.
 Typical electric motors use at least one electromagnetic coil, and sometimes permanent magnets to set
up opposing fields.
 Fig.2.A Typical Feedback motor controller
• Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
 Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and pneumatic pressure.
 it also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and peripheral
devices.
 In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are electrically
powered.
 Because electric robot does not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve floor
space and decrease factory noise.
 No energy conversion is required.
 Easy to control the movement
 Accurate in positioning and locating objects
 Normally require speed reducer
 Variety of electric drives such as stepper motor , servo motor
 More suitable for linear motion systems

Salient Features:
1. Electrical drives provide excellent controllability
2. Maintenance required is minimum
3. Readily Available indifferent sizes to suit our requirements
Advantages:
 1. High torque to volume ratios
2. High precision with the help of closed loop servo control
3. Clean drives in comparison to hydraulic and pneumatic systems
4. Robots exhibits good repeatability
Disadvantages:
1. Limiting factor on power input based on heat dissipation
2. high heat dissipation requires more current which leads to reduced performance

2.3.1DC servo motors:

 In a DC motor there is normally a set of coils on the rotor that turn inside a stator populated with
permanent magnets

Fig.3 A simplied Rotor

- High torque to volume ratio
- Similar to DC generator or Tachometer in construction
- Rotor consists of Armature and Commutator assembly rotates inside the stator
- Stator consists of Permanent magnet and brush assembly

Torque developed in the motor is given by, Tm(t) = Km . Ia(t)

Where, Tm(t) is the Torque developed in the motor
Km is motor’s Torque constant
Ia is the current flowing through the armature and is calculated using the relation,
Ia(t) = [Vin(t) – eb(t)]/Ra
 Where, Vin is the voltage across the motor terminals
Ra is the resistance of the armature and
eb is the back emf in volts.
Spinning the armature in the presence of a magnetic field produces the voltage across the armature
terminals called Back emf.This is calculated using the relation,
eb(t) = Kb . ω(t)
Where, Kb is the voltage constant of the motor and
ω(t) is the angular velocity of the armature
The effect of back emf is to act as viscous damping for the motors. As the velocity increases, damping
increases.
Torque depends on electromagnetic field in the stator and current in the rotor.
NOTE:
1. At a point ,eb = Vin the motor maintains a steady state velocity (assuming there are no external
disturbances on the motor).

Brushless DC motor:
- constructed like an “ inside – out “ DC motor.
- Permanent magnet rotor,electromagnetic stator
- Commutation is performed electronically using an encoder to
inform the electronics of the relative positions of the stator and
rotor( instead of brushes)
Linear electric motors:
Construction similar to the DC servomotors that has been cut open and flattened out.
Classification: Based on windings of the coil

1. Shunt wound motor

2. Series wound motor
3. Compound motors

Although more expensive and difficult to maintain than AC motors, DC motors have been
extensively used on shipboard because they had a great advantage where precise speed control
and varying loads are concerned. Direct current is better suited to handle the various cargo-
handling winches and capstans. Speed and torque requirements are precise and dependable.

In all important aspects, DC motors are identical to DC generators. Many manufacturers make
DC machines for use either as a DC motor or DC generator. The main differentiating factor
between the motor and the generator is what the marine engineer must electrically control. The
engineer must control what comes out of the generator and what goes into the motor. As with
generators, the major classes of DC motors are --

 Shunt wound.
 Series wound.
 Compound wound.
 Separately excited.
These types of motors differ only in the connection of the field circuits (Figure 19-1). The
armatures, commutators, and so forth are nearly identical with each other and with those of the
generators. All four major classes of motors are widely used. This is in contrast to the
generators, in which the compound wound type is used for nearly all general power
applications.
Shunt Motors

The shunt wound motor is used where uniform speed, regardless of load, is wanted. It has
reasonably good starting torque but is not suited for starting very heavy loads. It is therefore
used where the starting load is not too heavy, as in blowers, or where the mechanical load is
not applied until the motor has come up to speed. It is essentially a constant speed machine.

The speed of a shunt motor remains nearly constant for a given field current. The constant
speed characteristic makes the use of shunt motors desirable for driving machine tools or any
other device that requires a constant speed driving source.
SERIES WOUND MOTOR

Where there is a wide variation in load or where the motor must start under a heavy load,
series motors have desirable features not found in shunt motors. The series wound motor is
 used where high starting torque and varying speed is desired. The armature and the series
field are connected in series. With high armature and field currents, it has a very high starting
torque and is well suited for starting heavy loads such as the diesel engines.

The series motor will continue to increase in speed as long as there is more torque developed
than is necessary to turn the load. This additional torque is called acceleration torque.

When a series motor is heavily loaded, it slows and produces more torque. As the load is
removed, the motor increases in speed. If the load is suddenly removed from the series
motor, the accelerating torque is just enough to continue to increase the motor's speed. The
continuously increasing speed can destroy the motor.

COMPOUND MOTORS

Compound motors, like compound generators, have both a shunt and a series field. In most
cases, the series winding is connected so that its magnetic field aids that of the shunt winding
magnetic field. The current entering both the series field and the shunt field is moving in the
same direction. Both fields produce the same magnetic field and aid each other. Motors of
this type are called cumulative compound motors. In the cumulative motor, the speed
decreases (when a load is applied more rapidly than it does in a shunt motor, but less rapidly
than in a series motor. The cumulative compound motor is used where reasonably uniform
speed combined with good starting torque is needed.

The differential compound motor is used only for low power work Notice that the series
winding's magnetic field is connected to oppose the shunt winding's magnetic field. The
differential compound motor maintains even better constant speed, within its load limit, than
the shunt motor. But it has very poor starting torque and is unable to handle serious overloads.

SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR

The circuit diagram shows an individual armature circuit and an individual field circuit. A DC
power source that is not armature-connected supplies power to the field poles. Notice the
variable resistors for speed control. The armature rheostat controls speeds below the normal
base speed, and the rheostat in the separately excited field controls speeds above the rated base
speed. Separately excited motors are not commonly found in the Army marine field.
 2.3.2 AC Servo Motors:
- Cheaper to manufacture – no brushes
- Possess a high power output
- With proper electronic package,performance can be made to look
very much like DC motors.
 There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used.
The first type is the induction motor, which only runs slightly slower or faster
than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is
created by an induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which
does not rely on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply
frequency or a sub-multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the
rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a
permanent magnet. Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also
AC/DC mechanically-commutated machines in which speed is dependent on
voltage and winding connection.

Two phase a.c. servomotor is one of the very important electromechanical actuators having
applications in the area of control systems. The study of its operating principle and features
form a part of the first course on automatic control systems in electrical engineering
curriculum. It’s small size, low inertia and almost noise and frictionless operation makes the
a.c. servomotor particularly attractive in aircraft and spacecraft applications.
The characteristics of an a.c. motor is usually non-linear. To simplify the analysis a linearized
model is developed. The experimental work revolves around determination of the parameters
of the motor and thus its transfer function.Important subsystems of the unit includes,
(a) an integrated speed sensor with 4-digit display in r.p.m.
(b) an electrical loading system to compute torque
(c) a time-constant measurement circuit with 3-digit display in milli seconds
(d) a three step a.c. source with built-in r.m.s. voltmeter, and
(e) a digital voltmeter on the panel for load measurement
The unit has been designed such that expensive equipment like storage CRO is not needed.
Also the hassle of direct torque measurement using spring balance etc. is avoided by
linearization of the motor characteristics analytically.

2.3.3Stepper Motors:
  Stepper motors are designed for positioning. They move one step at a time with a
typical step size of 1.8 degrees giving 200 steps per revolution. Other motors are
designed for step sizes of 2, 2.5, 5, 15 and 30 degrees.

Fig.4.Stepper motor

- Unique type of actuator used in Computer peripherals

- Provides output in the form of discrete angular motion increments
- Actuated by a series of discreate electrical pulses
- For every electrical impulse,there is a single step rotation of the
motor shaft.(7.50 or 150)
- The increment is known as step angle(A)
- Number of steps per revolution is called Resolution.(n)
- Resolution is determined by number of poles in the stator and rotor.
- The relationship between Stepper motor resolution(n) and its step
angle(A) is given by n = A/360
- Used in open loop systems
- Light duty applications in Robotics
Construction:
- Number of steps per revolution is determined by the number of
poles in the stator and the rotor.
- Stator is made of Electromagnetic poles;
- Rotor has two pole permanent magnet
 - Notched stator and rotor effectively increases the number of poles
and hence the resolution of the device
- By applying current to more than one set of field windings it is
possible to make the rotor seek out an “average position”. This is
called Half stepping.
- Half stepping or micro stepping increases resolution
- When using this technique the holding torque is reduced.
Advantages:
- Relationship between speed and torque is not a straight line as in
DC servo motors
- Torque is a function of angle between stator and rotor poles.
- Torque is greatest when the poles are aligned. This maximum
torque is called Holding torque of motor.
Limitations:
- control of the stepper motor dependent on ability of the switching
electronics to switch the windings at right moment
- Switching too quickly will n’t be able to “keep up” with the
command signals, hence perform erratically, in some cases
oscillating.
- Speed torque relation degrades badly at certain frequencies, so
operation is avoided at that frequency.
Advantages and disadvantages of stepper motor
 Easy control
 Low output torque
 Do not required feed back sensors
 Low resolution
 Good for position control

2.4 MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS:

- used when it is not possible to find actuator with exact speed-force
or speed –torque characteristics for a desired task.
- Necessity for locating the actuator away from intended joint of
manipulator.
Functions:
- transmit power at a distance
- act as a power transformer
Types:
- Belts&pulleys, chains&sprockets, gears, transmission shafts, and
screws.
- For Robots – Gears, power screws, pulley system, chain drives and
harmonic drives.
Gears:
- to transmit rotary motion from one shaft to another such as parallel
shafts, intersecting shafts or skewed shafts. For a simplest type of
parallel shafts spur gears are used.
 - If pinion is one fourth of the size of the gear, for every revolution
made by the pinion the driven gear turns only one-fourth (quartered)
of a revolution. This gear train is called as Speed Reducer.
- In this case the torque applied by the pinion is multiplied by four
times(quadrupled) at the gear shaft.
Calculations:
- Number of teeth is proportional to diameter
- Gear ratio ‘n’ = T1 /T2 ;
- Speed of the output shaft with respect to the input is ω0 = n ωin
- Output torque, T0 = Tin / n
Where , T1 = number of teeth in pinion
T2 = number of teeth in a gear
ωin = angular velocity of the input shaft or pinion shaft in rad/s
ω0 = angular velocity of the output shaft or gear shaft in rad/s
Power Screws:
-to convert rotary motion to linear motion
-Screw pitch(p) is analogous to Gear ratio(n)
-The Pitch is defined as a distance that the screw travels in a single
rotation.
- Screws angular motion is converted into linear motion and is given
by the equation, v(t) = p. ω(t)
- Conversion from torque ‘T’ applied to the screw to force ‘F’ is
given by the relation, F= (2Tπdm – μ p secβ) / (dm p+ μ.πdm.secβ)
Where,
v(t) is linear velocity;
ω(t) is the angular velocity of the screw
dm is the mean diameter of the screw
p is the screw pitch
μ is the coefficient of friction between the screw and the handle
β = 0 for square threads and hence, secβ = 1
Rope and Pulley system:
- to transmit power from actuators located in the robot’s base
- Rotational joints connected to pulley is actuated by rope connected
to it.e.g.Electric motor is a rotary actuator
- Linear joints are connected to the rope which is made of steel fibre
or Nylon.
- Stretching of rope degrades the accuracy
Chain Drives:
- Transmission of rotational speed and power similar to gears
- operate with constant velocity ratio
- no slipping (positive interaction between chain and sprocket)
- Pitch is defined as a distance between adjacent roller centres
- Lubrication and good maintenance gives 100 times longer life
Harmonic Drives:
- Used as speed reducers or increasers
- Proprietary products of USM Inc.
 - Input and output shafts lie in the same axis ,hence could be
mounted to the face of the motor
- Can provide any reduction ratio from 1:1 to infinity:1 and typically
in the range 100:1
- No noticeable wear over life time and so little maintenance is
needed
- Less efficient than well defined gear trains
Disadvantages of Mechanical Power transmission systems:
 Power transmission system introduces Compliance and Backlash errors.
 Backlash represents the hysteresis in the transmission.
 In gears normally it is due to spaces between the gear teeth mesh
2.5 COMPARISON OF DRIVES
The selection of drive system for the given application is made by comparing the advantages,
limitations, cost of operation, availability of components and resources, adaptability,
cleanliness of operation etc.
Selection of Drive System:
The Drive system for the robot is selected based on the basis of the following factors.
i) Power consumption
ii) Positional accuracy
iii) Repeatability
iv) Speed of operation
v) Stability
vi) Reliability
vii) Cost and many other factors
viii) Open loop or closed loop control

2.6 ROBOT END EFFECTORS:

An end effector is a device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the general purpose
robot to perform a specific task.
There are two categories of end effectors.
1. Grippers :end effectors used to grasp and hold objects such as cartons, bottles and raw
materials
2. Tools: end effectors designed to work on the part.
Types of Grippers:
1. Mechanical grippers
2. Vacuum grippers
3. Magnetic grippers
4. Adhesive grippers
5. Hooks,Scoops and other miscellaneous devices

2.6.1 Mechanical grippers:

Grippers which use human finger like elements to grasp objects are called Mechanical grippers. Based on
the number of fingers they are classified into the following categories.

1. Two Fingered grippers

 2. Three Fingered grippers
3. Multifingered grippers

2.6.2Two Fingered Mechanical Grippers:

- Use of replaceable fingers allows for wear and interchangeability
- There are two ways of constraining a part
a. physical constriction
b. friction between the fingers and work piece

Fig.5.Two fingered mechanical gripper

Gripping Force:
- If weight alone is the force tending to cause the part to slip out of gripper and
- When the force of gravity is directed parallel to the contacting surfaces
If µ = coefficient of friction, nf = number of contacting fingers(here ‘2’) , Fg =
applied gripping force and ‘w’ is the weight of the part or object being gripped,
then applying conditions for equilibrium in the vertical direction, we get
Fig.6.Two fingered gripper enclosing the part

Fig.7.Gripping mechanism (a)Free body diagram (b) Friction in mechanical

gripping (c) Friction in plug type gripper (d) Friction in vaccum gripper
µ.nf.Fg = w
Fg = w/µ.nf
In fast part handling cycles, Force of acceleration is a significant factor since it
exerts a force twice the weight of the part .
Hence to take account of combined effect of gravity and acceleration, ‘g factor’ is
included in the equilibrium equation.

µ.nf.Fg = wg
NOTE:
i) If acceleration is applied in the same direction as the gravity force,then, g=3.0
ii) If acceleration force is applied in the opposite direction then,
g = 1.0(2 x weight of the part due to acceleration – 1 x weight of the part due to
gravity)
iii) If the acceleration is applied in the horizontal direction then, g=2.0

Three Fingered Mechanical Grippers:

The fingered mechanical gripper consists of three hands for grasping the object. The main advantage is
that the complicated parts can be grasped effectively without slippage.

Fig.6 Gripper using three point chuck mechanism

2.6.3 Internal and External Grippers

Internal Grippers are grippers in which the tool is curved to make contact with inner surface of the object
which is hollow.
External grippers are the one in which the fingers grasp the object from the external object surfaces.
Fig.7.Internal and External Grippers (a) Internal gripper (b) External gripper

2.6.4 Types of Gripper Mechanisms:

i) According to the type of finger movement

a. pivoting movement(linkage mechanism)
b. linear or translational movement(using gaid rails)
ii) According to the type of kinematic device used to actuate the finger movement
1. Linkage actuation
There are different linkage mechanisms available to actuate the grippers.They are given below.
Fig.8.Schematic diagram of the gripper using swing block mechanism

Fig9.Schemaic diagram of a gripper using slider – crank mechanism

Fig.10.Gripper with a rotary actuator

2. Gear and rack actuation

Rotary actuators can also be used for translational gripper mechanisms as shown in Figure.
Fig.11.Translational gripper using rotary actuator
3. Cam actuation
The cylinder-piston arrangement is used to drive the cam. The cam is cut to suit the amount of
travel/displacement needed for the fingers. The follower is connected with the linkages which contain the
gripping elements. These links are kept in the form of ‘X’ and is pivoted at the centre. When the piston is
moved in the forward direction, the followers move over the cam profile and they go away from each
other. So the fingers with gripping pad comes closer to grasp the object. When the piston moves in the
reverse or backward direction the fingers move away from one another to release the grasped object.

Fig.12.Cam actuated gripper

4. Screw actuation
The rotation of the motor in clockwise direction causes the screw to advance in the
forward direction. This causes the upper jaw to travel downwards as it is hinged and
cannot move in the forward direction. Thus the two jaws moves closer to each other
to grasp the object. The speed of the screw is very low and is achieved using
reduction gear box. When the motor rotates in the other direction, the grippers moves
away from each other releasing the work part.
 Fig.13.Screw type gripper
5. Rope and pulley actuation
This mechanism uses rope drives and belt drives. Rope is wound over a drum in order
to actuate the shafts. The movement of the load suspended on the rope causes the rope
to unwind or wind over the drum. This in turn increases or decreases the torque on the
shaft based on the speed and Tension on the rope.
6. Miscellaneous
Translational grippers using cylinder- piston arrangement and parallel bar linkages are other types of
gripper mechanisms used in practice.

Fig.14.Translational gripper using cylinder piston

Fig.15.Translational gripper using parallel bar linkages

1. Linkage actuation:
- Slider crank mechanism
- Swing block mechanism
- Gripper with rotary actuator

2.6.5 Vacuum grippers:

The air between the object and the grippers is reduced so that
F=KPAC=KAC(Pa – Pres)
Where,
F = force or lift capacity in N
K = a coefficient depending on atmospheric pressure and conditions of seal
P = Negative pressure
AC = Total effective area of the suction cup(s) used to create vacuum
Pa= atmospheric pressure
Pres = residual pressure in vacuum cup

Fig.16.Vacuum gripper (a) ventury device for flat surface gripping (b) Gripper for contoured surface
The negative air pressure is the pressure difference between inside and outside of the vacuum cup.
2.6.6 Magnetic Grippers
 The principle of creating magnetic field using Electric current or permanent magnet may be used to
make grippers. It is designed using different components.

Fig.17.Magnetic grippers (a) Permanent magnet type (b) Electromagnet type

Attractive force=P=[IN]2/25Ac[Ra+Rm]
P= [a+g]m*FS
A=gripper acceleration
G=gravitational constant
M=mass and FS= Factor of safety
IN=Number of ampturns of coil
Ac=Area of contact of an object with magnet
Ra,Rm=Reluctances of magnetic paths through air and metal receptively.
When electric current is passed, magnetic field is generated since the soft iron core gets magnetized.This
attracts the object and thus grasp it. When current is cut off then there is no magnetic field and thus the
picked object is released.
2.6.7 Adhesive grippers

Reliability of the Gripping device decreases as the adhesive losses is tackiness on the repeated uses

Adhesive loaded in the form of continuous ribbon using Feeding mechanism in the wrist .

Used to handle fabrics and other light weight materials. Part must be gripped on one side only
2.6.8 Hookes, scoops and other miscellaneous devices:
Scoops and ladles; can be used to handle certain materials in liquid or powder form
eg.Chemicals, food materials, molten metals granular substances.

Fig.18. Expanding bladder for gripping internal surface (a) bladder fully expanded
(b) Bladder inside the container
Limitations:
1. Amount of material scooped-difficult to control.
2. Spillage during handing cycle
 Other types:
1. Inflammable devices – inflatable bladder or diaphragm is expanded to grasp the object
- fabricated using rubber to grasp fragile objects
- applies uniform pressure
2.7 TOOLS AS END EFFECTORS:
The end effectors can be used as a tool in the following applications.
- Spot welding Tools
- Arc welding Torch
- Spray painting Nozzle
- Liquid cement applications for assembly
- Heating Torches
- Rotating Spindles for
 Drilling
 Routing
 Wire brushing
 Grinding
- Water jet Cutting tool
2.8 FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION AND DESIGN OF GRIPPERS:
1. Surface to be grasped must be reachable
2. 2.Size variation of the part must be accounted for
3. Design must accommodate the change in size that occurs between loading and unloading
4. Considerations for scratching and distortion during gripping if the part is fragile or delicate surfaces
5. Larger dimension should be selected for grasping ,since it gives better control and stability
6. Gripper finger
- conform to part shape
- using resilient pads or self aligning fingers
- replaceable fingers , allow for wear and interchangeability
- factors that determine grasping force
The robot end effectors interface:
The end effector interface plays an important role under the following conditions.
- physical support during work cycle
- power to actuate the end effector is supplied through interface
- control signal to actuate the end effector
- In the design of mechanical connections three characteristics are considered
i) strength
ii) compliance
iii) overload protection
Strength:
Ability to withstand forces e.g. thrust forces during drilling operation
Forces depends on
- weight of end effectors
- weight of the object being held by the end effectors if it is a gripper
- acceleration and deceleration forces
- any applied forces during work cycle
Compliance:
 Wrist socket’s ability to yield elastically when subjected to a force. In effect it is the opposite of
rigidity.
RCC (Remote Centered Compliance)
Overload protection:
Protection provided by breakaway feature in the wrist socket or by using sensors.
e.g. Shear pin, spring loaded detents
- Applications areas
Part becoming struck in a Die, Tool getting caught in a moving conveyor

Principle of operation of End effectors:

The principle of operation of an end effector is explained below with a help of flow diagram .This shows the
different operations sequence for various types of gripper and applications.

Fig.19.Principle of operation of End effectors

Power sources
Selection of power source is an important aspect in the design of robot.The four power sources
used in current robots are:
 Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
 electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraullic and pneumatic pressure.
 it also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and peripheral
devices.
  in all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are electrically
powered.
 because electric robot do not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve floor space
and decrease factory noise.
 no energy conversion is required.
 Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low load
carrying capacity.
 pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-to-stop
motions.
 it is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are moderate.

 Hydraulic: are either linear position actuators or a rotary vane configuration.

 hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator.
 the high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive choice for
moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate noise level.
 hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of energy to achieve a better
performance, but they are expensive and generally less accurate.
Actuator (Drive)
Actuators play an important role in a robot for performing the given task.
Types of Actuator
• Pneumatic Actuator
• Hydraulic Actuator
• Electric motor

Pneumatic Actuator
 Used in low load handling
 low stiffness
 It requires servo-control to position the objects accurately
 Single or double acting cylinder are commonly used
 light weight at moderate operating pressure
 Low efficiency
 low stiffness
Hydraulic Actuator
 More suitable for High power requirement
 Suitable for high load at moderate speed
 Linear piston is generally used
 high stiffness
 Easily controllable due to of hydraulic system
 Require pumps and accumulators
 Suitable for harsh environment caused by dust, dirt and moisture.
Electric Drive
 Easy to control the movement
 Accurate in positioning and locating objects
 Normally require speed reducer
 Variety of electric drives such as stepper motor , servo motor
 More suitable for linear motion systems
 PART-A
1. Mention the different types of drive system.
Hydraulic, Pneumatic, Electrical (DC and AC motors), Electrical stepper motors.
2. What are the factors considered in the selection of drive system?
Power consumption, positional accuracy, repeatability, speed of operation, stability,
reliability, cost and open loop or closed loop controls.
3. What are actuators? Give their types.
Actuators are devices that convert energy extracted out of a fluid to mechanical work. They are
of two types.(i) Linear actuator or Hydraulic cylinder and (ii) Rotary actuator or hydraulic
motor.
4. What is the working principle of vacuum gripper?
A compressed air supply and venture are used to create a gentle vacuum that lifts the part.
5. Differentiate Internal and External grippers.
Internal gripper-grips the internal surface of the object with open fingers
External gripper-grips exterior surface of the object with a closed finger.
6. What are the uses of Ladles and scoops?
Ladles and scoops can be used to handle certain materials in liquid or powder form. One of the
limitations is that the amount of material being scooped by the robot is sometimes difficult to
control.
7. Distinguish between active and passive grippers?
Most of the Industrial robot end-effectors are passive in the sense that they do not have any
feeling. They work on open loop system.
In variety of cases, a robot needs feedback sensors. The sensors may be on the wrist or
on fingers. Then the robot end -effector becomes active.
8. What is the working principle of Adhesive gripper?
Adhesive substance can be used for grasping action in gripper design. The adhesive
material can be loaded in the form of a continuous ribbon into a feeding mechanism
attached to the robot wrist.
9. What are the advantages of pneumatic drive system?
Pneumatic systems are less expensive as air is exhausted to the atmosphere and there is no
need of extra reservoir (or) tank. The compressibility of air helps in absorbing shock or load.
10. What are the different servo control modes?
There are four servo control modes by which closed loop servo control system reacts to
errors with sufficient accuracy and stability.
i) proportional control ii) proportional and integral control iii) proportional and derivative
control iv) A combination of all three, namely PID control.
11. Define a) Accuracy b) Stability
Accuracy: ability of the system to reach the target point. In servo system it refers to the zero
error (difference between output and input signals) in steady operation. Stability: ability of the
robot to remain stable in the programmed point.
12. What are the advantages of stepper motor in robotic system?
i) Being bidirectional, it is ideally suited for wide variety of control and positioning
applications.
ii) A position sensor or feedback system is not required to make the output member
follow the input instructions.
iii) Shaft rotation is incremental, used in digital control unit.
13. How will you classify end effectors based on grasping modality? i)
Mechanical fingers ii) Special tools iii) Universal fingers
14. How will you calculate gripping force? Gripping
force, Fg= (mg sinu)/un; where,
m=mass in Kg; g=acceleration due to gravity in m/s ; ^coefficient of friction; u=angle
subtended with the horizontal; n=number of pairs of contact surfaces.

15. What are the two different methods of constraining a part in the gripper?
i) Gripper finger may enclose the part ii) friction between the fingers and the object.
16.A 5 kg rectangular block is gripped in the middle and lifted vertically at a
velocity 1 m/s.If it accelerates to this velocity at 27.5 m/s and the coefficient of
friction between the gripping pads and the block is 0.48, calculate the minimum
force that would prevent slippage.
2uFg - mg =ma ;( considering two fingers);
Fg=m(a+g)/2|j,
=5(27.5+9.8)/(2x0.48)
=194.1 N Note: To be absolutely sure of lifting the block without slippage,a safety factor
should be introduced.
17. What are the factors to be considered in the design of a robot?
Coordinate system and envelope, types of sensors, Actuators or drive systems., kinematic
structure, payload capacity etc.
18. What are the advantages of PID drives with tachometric compensation?
i) Servo motors at a given controlled speed and is regulated in position.
ii) Integral control eliminates steady state error caused by proportional control only and the
system oscillations or stability is monitored by derivative control. Thus combined PID drives
and tachometric compensation ensures positional control at controlled speed.
19. What are proportional and derivative controls?
Depending on the positional feedback, the robot arm on which the motor is mounted is found
to oscillate about the set point and a steady state error is found. The rate of change of error is
influenced by introducing derivative control. The derivative amplifier infact slows down the
response of the system and introduces damping. The degree of damping controls motor
oscillations caused by the proportional control.