The simple harmonic potential is important in reality for the following reason: Suppose a potential V(z) has a minimum somewhere, say at z = 2. We can then write the potential V(x) as a power series around zp we) V(z) = V(z0) + > |z=20 (2 - 20) + - . (56) Now V(zo) is a constant and a constant does not matter in a potential and can be put equal to zero. But (2) sy = 0 because V(z) has a min at z= Zo, therefore } V (a) = K+ C(2— 20)? + 6"(2—29)°--- her terms wili be smal erested in the neighbourhood of zo, i ‘Ve we are in and hence V(z) & O(2 — 29)’. Thus in this case it is a good approximation to approximate V(z) C(z — 20)? which is a harmonic oscillator potential. 5.2 Quantum Theory of the Harmonic Oscillator Since motion of a harmonic oscillator is bound in classical theory, th energy spectrum in quantum mechanics for such a system should con: discrete values. By the correspondence principle, the Hamiltonian for the harmonic oscillator is a2 FP A 342 9) = 9) H= 57+ 5me7s (59) hear yf -—=—— + = -10) Imoar tm™ = (5.10) in the Schrodinger representatiop. Thus we have to solve the eigenvalue equation76 Quantum Mechanics For this series nth _ 1 ae 1 an 2ht(n +1)! 2n +1) a (5.23) nt+1 Comparison with this shows that in the asymptotic region our series behaves like y"et”/?, Thus 2 aye oe gis Gee (ae tt? uly) = Ale oe n Be co y yoo: must not happen because the wave function is to remain finite every- where. ‘Therefore the power series is alright but we cannot take it to be an infinite series. It must therefore terminate at some stage. We cut it off by saying that for some v (say v = 40) : Gyy+2 = 0. ‘Then from Eq. (5.20) for v = vo we have e = (2v9 + 2s + 1). (5.24) ‘Therefore the only possible values of ¢ are those which can be expressed as above. is We can now write down our solution as uly) = e-¥/2(y*(ag + ary + aay? +++ ary"). (5-25) _ For either case (s = 0 or s = 1) e=(2n+1), vots=n, where n is an integer. Therefore uh. 1 1 B= 7 6= (2n+1)5hw = (n+ 5 hw. (5.26)rT ‘These are the possible energy eigenvalues for the harmonic oscillator ang form a discrete set. The interesting thing to note is that the lowest ener, state (n = 0), or ground state has a certain amount of energy, namely hao, i.e. it does not vanish. It is called the zero point energy. After this, energy levels are equally spaced by an amount fw. The above expression Bq. (5.26) for energy levels justifies Planck’, hypothesis for explaining the interaction for radiation with matter, provides that matter can be regarded as a collection of oscillators, each one emitting or absorbing radiation of its own frequency. The energy exchange is then restricted by the oscillator eigenvalues to take place in units of fw, which is just the Planck’s hypothesis. 5.38 Hermite Polynomials The solution H(y) are called Hermite Polynomials. We now discuss their properties. Now H(y) is given by Hy) =y'(aotaiy+---a.y"),. sthk=n (5.21) =u. ‘They have the following properties: (i) They are defined by the differential equation (5.17) Hy — 2yHy, + 2nHy =0, (¢—1=2n). (5.28) (ii) Hn41 — 2yHn + 2nHp-1 =0. (5.29 This is known. as a recursion relation. (iii) Hermite polynomial has a generating function S(y,) = e?—(-u)? = os? 42ey © A, => Fal) on. (6.30) . n! n=1 One can prove that the relation (5.29) follows from Eq. (5.30). (iv) One can write Fn(y) = (-ayre Fo (e-v"), (5.31)—_—— 78 Quantum Mechanics This can be derived using the generating function and its Taylor expansion so that, ={—S Hale) = (Festus) eo ay foe). abd 2 fe (ets ev (-1) a i] () $25 Holy) Emly)" dy = Samy 2"nt (5.32) ie, o7¥7/2H, and e~¥?/?H,, are orthogonal. This i is not surprising because e-V"/2H,, are energy eigenfunctions and we know that the eige are orthogonal to each other. The normalisation factor for e~Y"/?H,(y) is (Vm2"nl)-4. To find normalised eigenfunctions un(zx) for the harmonic oscillator, we note that y= \/" 72, so that Eq. (5.32) becomes Bieta, ( [#e) otal a ( 2) [Rae = SamVn2 nt. (5.33) Hence ; miel= (Se) (Ce) rien (Ys) 80 that fl OCHO eas Im particular, Hermite polynomials are given by (using Ea. (5.29)) Holy) = 1 Aily) = 2y Hy{y) = -2(1- 2y")80 Quantum Mechanics 5.4 The Average Values The energy eigenfunctions u,(z) of a simple harmonic oscillator form a complete set so that any arbitrary function ¥(z,¢) can be expanded in terms of them ¥(z,0) = ¥(2) = D> Cnun(z) (5.35a) ¥(2,t) = > Cnun(2)e Hat , (5.35b) where u,(z) is given in Eq. (5.34) and Ey, in Ea. (5.26). Now f $*(2)p(z)ds = 1 if ¥(2) is normalised. Thus _ LUT cio teualeles nik DEE G5,,=1 nk or (5.36) Deal? Also we note that the average value of energy in the state o(z, t) is given by E= [oe eonvene = DDO op eyet(En—En e/a / uh (2) Hu,(z)dz o£ = DY ch cyel(Fn- F/B, 5,, nk = Dlenl*Bn. (5.37) ‘Thus we see that if the system is in state y(z, t), the probability of obtaining the result £, is equal to |C,|*.82 Quantum Mechanics Therefore ‘ - = eo) fe a? +2ay ot Pty ye W dy = Va (a + test 2 2 an pk ont ty, LG f vale mv V dy n=0k=0 9 = Valet tert = Va(s+ y>> se l=0 e or = Vey a (ottte + otettty 3 1 r Comparing the coefficient of s"t*, we see that [using the relation below Eq. (5.38)| h 1 Bey (ins a wn ‘Therefore ‘ hy +1 Eee DE CnC,e Put (Veet /F ns + JF nes)) nik é Te W PEE (coef + icone) = : S Ve (= Va(OnCn—re8* + Ci-6ne"™) : (5.40a) Md n= We write Cy = |Cpleii a = i oi ~i(wt+5n—1-5n) BON ons (Evatcaten-toero a) 4 1 )) V — Tv ey (5.40b) By ru? z= ARG |Cnl|Cn—1|cos(wt + bn—1 - Sn) We see that 2 but 2 is a sum of functions nk can be expressed as a matrix, i ic oscillator. represent a classical motion for simple harmonic each of whichth Mad PANE sO} i NONI Od 5: BBS fy Chapter 6 inated ANGULAR MOMENTUM ,, _ p= -iAV;) (64 where we know that p; and 2; satisfy the commutation relation ¢!"°"""" Wo.a) (64) 85nics .2) and (6.3), it follows that the components of angular mo- be written as ee 8 Ly =-th GC 7 a) (6.5a) ie. 18 Ly = -th(22 zz) (6.5b) aie L,= aia Bae (6.5¢) rties of Angular Momentum ww proceed to show that [Zz, Ly] =iAL,. Y= (Lely a ; a 8 = (vp -28 02-22) 2 - xe - es ’ aan (y2Y ye OY 2 OY ae ate ef 3 +3202 7 ayn! 022 + "Gyan a7 aye 4 2h _ av a) 20a "Ya22 ** Gray "ay **dz0y ‘ a a = —(in)? (2 -ux) y SthL.y. ce W is arbitrary) [Es; Byi= thr. ; (6.6a) [ye] = ibe. (G08) [Le, De] = thLy. ee)Angular Momentum 87 The relations (6,6) can be written symbolically Lx L=iaL. (6.72) Relations (6.6) can also be written as (Zi, Lj] =thejgpLp, 6,5,k =1,2,3. _ (6.7) Since Lz, Ly, Lz do not commute with each other, we cannot determine them simultaneously. In other word8 it is not possible to assign 2 fixed direction to angular momentum. Proof, Suppose there exists a simultaneous eigenfunction of Lz, Ly, Lz with eigenvalues Xz, Ay, Az. Then Ley = dod f Typ = yd Eb = dd are satisfied simultaneously. We have ‘ Le (Ly) = ry(Lep) = dyAzb. Likewise Ly (Lz) = Az2(Ly¥) ena ‘Therefore (Lely ~ LyLe)v But (Goby Le) = ihD,. ‘Therefore : (Lely ~ LyLe)b = ihLep = thay. Hence Similarly -88 Quantum Mechanies Hence we cannot determine simultaneously the eigenvalues) Az, Ay and Az, the exception being the ean zero for each component of angular mo- mentum, (2) We now show that the magnitude of the angular momentum LB commutes with Lz, Ly, Le. Heal Le Proof. {L, by] + 2 (LE, Le] + (Lj, De] 2[Le, Lz) +[Le, Tilbe a Lyllg} el + [Ly LelLy =(Cih Ly) + (ih Ly)Le by (Cha) + (ALz) Ly Vey netionuineng, ot eco: re PENG : : Similarly (Ethel =o, = (27, Ly) — 0, (6.8) This means we can determine L? and one of the components of L, say Lz simultaneously, that is to say we.can simultaneously determine the eigen- values of L? and Ly. (3) We shall find it convenient to xpress angular momentum operators in terms of spherical polar coordinates, y=rsin@sing ( Me rc038,...),“Angular Morcentin » melo Then we have | =e satanibtoe = ih(sing + cot cos d= a) 3: Lz be a I a “in (cose, Seat ‘ake See fg 2) aa 1 (saga ting) + 5 ) =-in, cs where is the angular part of the Laplacian v2 if sphétical polar coordinates, Proof, Write e a eset ge satis rsin@ cos gi +r3i so that@ = cos cos gi + cos 4 sin dj — sin dk = ~sin gi + cos 4j. r coordinates eg i @ V=Ro+0-2 oO ar a beSreinviogh ER ois (15-6252) i (sin gi + con 9) — (cos cos di 4 cos0sin dj —sindk) 2%) Rg cing) +g). 8 eee Dee, 20 re (5 sie) (6.108) ' Po. ie. Bis Teil, = hea (-Z +icmeg). (6.10b) 1 ee ” (65-¢saa9) 5 9Finb 06 pO, 08 ak eres e 28 oe 20 00 * a0? mth ee sind 3g pee 1 08 ak a. + gind | sind 86 36 + ate ag?Angular Momentum 91 Since ¢ and @ are unit vectors, we have og 8 $55 = 0 is th $5, =0 6. P= (cos) con'pievees std siieaal ag Sj — sin 0k) - (— cos gi — sin 4j) 0+ == cos. Hence a? a tg L? =} (4 Beant 02 dace Uae azo og? ad) a Wes = =n? | —— (sin @—) +- —— —> (sarge ?a)* aaa): So Eq. (6.94) is proved. 6.3 Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues of Angular Momentum We now determine the simultaneous eigenfunctions of L? and Z, and their eigenvalues. Since L? and L, commute, it is possible to find simultaneous eigen- functions ym satisfying the eigenvalue equations Libym = MhYrm (6.114) Dam = A ams (6.118) where mh and AA? are eigenvalues of Ly and L? respectively correspond- ing to eigenfunctions ym. We have extracted out factors A and A? for convenience. Using Eq. (6.9a), we have from Eq. (6.11a) sna tha Pam =AmY)m- (6.12) The solution of this equation is of the form dam = {ates (6.13) function of r and 8, Since the is independent of ¢ but is in general function of 7 n being an integer, We must where f d by ¢+2nm same physical position is denote92° Quantum Mechanics impose the boundary condition that ani is: periodic in with aiperiod 27 that is fei = feimlotann) a Busy (lake peal dimne- (e bo al Rim This is possible only if 4 m=0,41,42,... Thus eigenvalues of Lz are mh, m=0,41,£2,..4 The factor depending qn. 4 which characteri denoted by a This function is normaliged 80 ‘that | ; ri (8) Br (8)E6 = bay ee rac) We write : the brm = R(r)Yam(6, 9), (6.16) where we have separated the dependence on'r, since neither Lz nor L? depend on 7. We can then write the eigenvalue equations (6.11) as * LaYam(8,8) = mahYsna(8, 8) 8 ""(6.17) BY ym(0,$) = MP ¥am(, 8), gx) (6.17B)) Since L, depends only on us ead its sigenfuncians are characterised by in (¢) we can write Yam(9,4) = Orm(I)OPm(d). (6.18) Substituting Eq. (6.18) in Eq. (6.17b) with L? given in Eq. (6.94), we have eae Aging 30" taal aaraam) Ontos,94 Quantum Mechanics Theorem: If (Lz+tLy)¥ym = Li Yy-q are not zero then they are simulta- neous eigenfunctions of L? and L, belonging to eigenvalues Ah?, (m + ih respectively. Proof. L?(Li¥am) = Li(L?¥\m) Mn? (L Yam) [Ze Li] + Li ls} ¥ hq EALLY m+ MALLY, = (m+ 1)A(Li¥%,,,). (6.23) L(L+Yam) + is called the raising operator and L_ is called the lowering operator. We can write Lt Yum = CfnVama, ( where Cj, are constants and can be fixed from the normalisation con which gives f Yymer¥ams1d = 1 or IOfinl? = f Vig (lit Zama oe if ¥¥,,(L? -— 12 FALz)¥igdO = (A- m? = m)a?. (6.25a) Hence / (A-m? =m) > 0. (6.258) First taking the positive sign, we have A-m?+m2>0, - Atte (m—1/2) oe) Hence we have the inequality 1 ) 1 a 6.260) ~VAFTAt 5 Sm< VAFIAt 5. ee98 Quantum Mechanics Repeated application gives Lem im (9) = (1) Chie (1— m+ 2) ---21(1 + m)(1 +m — 1) qitm (cos a) (sin! 9 ©,_;(0)). x sin™ 6 Therefore Cm(0) = (2) ((L + my PE mt = or) 1472 (= 2 Bet ) xsin™ of —_# i \a(cos 8) =(-1)!*™4 Gan oye Putting the value of “2” from (6.39), we get 1/2 ginm (2 yt eos) x (sin 0)?! (6.42) Hence normalised simultaneous eigenfunction of L? and L, are given by Yim(9, ¢) = Orm(#)Pm(4) 1 (21+ 1)(0— m)! 1/2 1m (44m = nn (Ce Yaa Tee) x (sin a)eim# = (ery (PEA 12 pi cos 0) (6.48) 4n(l+ m)! Yim, 4) are called normalised spherical harmonica. In (6.48) Fj" are given y PI"(cos 6) = E it sin" O(sTeo58) sy) tmieinl or — wayne git 3 6.44) Pru) = a se yh (Angular Momentum 99 where w = cos 0, P™(w) are ki i i nown as Associated Legend: i It may be noted that for m=0, we get ee Pw) = JS t- = Flv), (6.45) which are called Legendre Polynomials. Thus ©1m(0) = constant P”(cos 4). Since \ = I(I +1), therefore from Eq, (6.19), we see that 7" or Fj” satisfy the differential equation 1 ak ape eas rue 7 )+ (G4 - =a)t =o d dP (w 44 O sagey-aro=2 (48) ‘This is known as the ie differential equation. 6.4 Properties of Associated Legendre Polynomials The following properties of Associated Legendre Polynomials are given without proof (i) ae) are orthogonal, that is [Crrer Polo = wor a (647) Q) Pe™) = oe (us) (6.48) (6.49) (3) Py*(-w) = (- —1t™ Pim(w) —imé (4) Yi-m(88) = (- syne 0g ee = (-1)"¥in(4 9) (6.50) (6.51) (5) Yiol#.d) = (Agen) /*Aileost- m Eq, (6.44) and Ea: (6 48) follows from the Equation (6.49) follows fro! Leibnitz Theorem: Chea DE (i+ za (y — wy aeel? Pir(w) = in (I=)! ‘100 Quantum Mechanics For |= 0, m = 0, Yoo = constant. In other words the Wave function-of the state of a particle with zero angular momentum depends ‘only on 7, that is it has complete spherical symmetry. The first four spherical harmonics corresponding to ! = 0 and / = 1 are given by be 6.5 Parity of a State” : - Previously: we introduced the concept of parity in Sec. 4/3. that in one dimensional problems if the potential is 1 Enel be oth ‘a {We saw Ll} V2), > about the origin, then (—z) is also a solution of the Schrédinger equation 2 92 CEA + Veve= and the parity of (2) is defined by with n =+1. The transformation'z — —z corresponds in three dimensions to ce Ad ror =-—r. Such a transformation is called the reflection of coordinates. Now in un fh wer si tPL spherical polar coordinates : x=rsindcosé y= rein sing ‘ z=rcosé.Ansuular Momentum \yy If the axes are reflected to x! = (2',y' i) pac 11,0! and ¢! are define in ue usual way, but with respect td’a!, y!,!, then it is easy to see thas r— x! =—r corresponds't,.4) - 4i}) = *f 3a} 5 (6.83) Consider now a Bare in an angular momentum state Yim(, $) = constant x Pj”(cos é)e'* which specifies the dependence ‘ofthe particle's state on angles @ and g. When g — tig, cb™? —+ ef™™ gim — (_1)meimg When § > r~0, Pi™(cos@) + Pi" (~!cos 0) = (+1)! (cos). This under reflection of coordinates, Yimn(8, 4) + Yirn(8's ane x nite 1)™ Pi™ (cos 8)e! =(- 1) Fir, ie i (654) nl ee WS Since, as is clear from.Eq. (6.53) the Pe ceadelice of the wave ancilal on r is unchanged by reflection, the parity of any state specified by angular momentum I, m is equal to (1)! and is determinéd by the / value only. (—1)} is often called the orbital parity, cia state with an angular momentum specified by ! and 7 values. ’ Problems ile 8.1 Consider an operator V which satisfies the commutation relations (et Va) = ‘[L2, V4] = ie Using these relations, show that LV Yu) = (4 1)MV4%a), 53 1? (Vii) = (1-4 1)(U-+ 2)A?(V4, Yu). 6.2 Show that when the system is described by a state function #(r), h AeA ly > FKLz)h102 Quantum Mechanics where ‘ (Ale)? = (Lz — (Lz))?) (Aly)? = ((Ly ~ (Ly))?) and (Lz) and (Ly) denote the average values of Lz and Ly in the state (c). If ¥(z) is normalised eigenfunction of Lz, with eigenvalue mh, what is AL; ALy? : 6.3 Find the commutator [27,2], += 1,2,3 by using the result [25,6;) = th6,;. * 6.4 Show that for a atate ,,, such that Lbin = TDi m, Dim = 1+ Aims I the average values of 2, L? are given by UL 1)h? — mh? ua) =() =e 6.5 Show that for an eigenstate Pim of Lz, the average value of Lz is zero. 6.6 Show that Es [Z?, [L?, 3]] = 2n?(RL? + 172). Hint: Use the commutation relation (25, 8,] = th65; and the definition yy exjh2jPrs to show that [i,j] = +ireszeRe (1? 24] = (ih) esgtl batty + 2544] - i Using these relations, derive the final result.