Constellation

What are stars

A star is a massive, luminous sphere of plasma held

together by gravity, producing light and energy through
nuclear fusion, where lighter elements combine to form
heavier ones, releasing tremendous energy. Stars vary in
size and color; our Sun is an average-sized, yellowish star
and the nearest to Earth, providing most of its energy. At
night, other stars appear as fixed luminous points due to
their distance. Historically, prominent stars were grouped
into constellations, and the brightest gained names.
Extensive star catalogs provide standardized
designations.
Stars shine primarily through the fusion of hydrogen into helium, releasing energy. As hydrogen depletes,
heavier elements are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis, and in some stars, through supernova
nucleosynthesis. Near the end of its life, a star may contain degenerate matter. Astronomers determine a
star’s mass, age, chemical composition, and other properties by observing its motion, luminosity, and
spectrum. The total mass of a star determines its evolution and fate, while its diameter and temperature
change over its life. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, plotting star temperatures against luminosities,
helps determine a star’s age and evolutionary state.
 Life Cycle of a Star
The life of a star begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula primarily composed of
hydrogen, with some helium and trace elements. Once the core is dense enough, hydrogen
converts into helium through nuclear fusion, releasing energy. Energy is carried away from the
core by radiative and convective processes, and internal pressure prevents further collapse.
When the core's hydrogen is exhausted, stars with at least 0.4 times the mass of the Sun expand
into red giants, sometimes fusing heavier elements. The star eventually evolves into a
degenerate form, recycling some of its matter into the interstellar environment, contributing to
the formation of new stars with more heavy elements. The core becomes a white dwarf, neutron
star, or, if massive enough, a black hole.

Binary and multistar systems consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars in stable orbits,
significantly affecting each other's evolution. Stars can also be part of larger structures like star
clusters or galaxies.
Characteristics of
Stars
 Characteristics of Stars
Brightness Age
A star’s brightness depends on its Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years
size and temperature. From Earth, old, with some possibly nearing the age of the
brightness also depends on distance. universe, around 13.8 billion years. The oldest known
Apparent brightness is how bright a star, HD 140283 or the Methuselah star, is estimated
star looks from Earth, while absolute to be about 14.46 billion years old. A star’s lifespan is
brightness is its true brightness at a shorter if it’s more massive, as higher pressure causes
standard distance. Distances faster hydrogen burning. Massive stars last a few
between stars are measured in light- million years on average, while red dwarfs can burn
years, about 9.5 million kilometers for much longer.
each.
 Characteristics of Stars
Chemical Composition Diameter
New stars in the Milky Way galaxy Stars vary widely in size, appearing as shining points
are primarily composed of 71% in the night sky due to their great distance from
hydrogen and 27% helium, by mass, Earth. The Sun, also a star, appears as a disk and
with trace amounts of heavier provides daylight due to its proximity. Most stars'
elements. The heavy element disks are too small to be observed with ground-based
content is often measured by the optical telescopes, requiring interferometer
iron content in the star's telescopes for imaging. Another method to measure
atmosphere. Molecular clouds where star size is through occultation, where the drop or
stars form are enriched with heavier rise in brightness as a star is occulted by the Moon
elements over time, so a star's can be used to compute its angular diameter.
chemical composition can indicate its
age and the likelihood of having a
planetary system.
 Characteristics of Stars
Size Mass
The stars in the sky all appear to be Eta Carinae is one of the most massive stars known,
points of light of the same size. Many with 100-150 times the mass of the Sun and a
stars are actually the same size of lifespan of several million years. Studies suggest that
the Sun, which is a medium-sized 150 solar masses is the upper limit for stars in the
star. However, some stars are much current era of the universe. The combination of a
larger and are called giant and star's radius and mass determines its surface gravity.
supergiant stars. Most stars are Giant stars have lower surface gravity than main
much smaller than the Sun. Black sequence stars, while degenerate, compact stars like
and white dwarf stars are about the white dwarfs have higher surface gravity. Surface
size of Earth. Neutron stars are even gravity can affect a star's spectrum, with higher
smaller, only about 20 km in gravity broadening absorption lines.
diameter.
 Characteristics of Stars
Temperature Color
A main sequence star's surface If you look up in the night sky, you can see slight
temperature is determined by its differences in the colors of stars. Stars appear to be
core's energy production rate and its exclusively white at first glance. But if we look
radius, often estimated from its color carefully, we can notice a range of colors: blue, white,
index. This is represented as the red, and even gold. Like hot objects on Earth, a star's
effective temperature, similar to a color reveals its surface temperature. The color
black body. Massive main sequence variation of stars is a direct consequence of their
stars can have surface temperatures surface temperatures.Cool stars radiate most of their
of 50,000 K, while smaller stars like energy in the red and infrared region of the
the Sun are around a few thousand electromagnetic spectrum and thus appear red, while
K. Red giants have low surface hot stars emit mostly at blue and ultraviolet
temperatures of about 3,600 K but wavelengths, making them appear blue or white..
high luminosity due to their large
surface area.km i
 What are
constellations?
A constellation is a pattern of stars with official borders and names, often
linked to mythological figures. There are 88 recognized constellations used by
modern astronomers to organize the night sky. These patterns, or asterisms,
are not based on physical relationships between stars but are useful for
identifying stars and navigating the sky. The concept of constellations has been
developed over the past 6000 years to help people recognize and remember
star positions. On a dark night, constellations break the sky into manageable
parts, serving as memory aids to identify stars and their positions relative to
each other.
 By the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy created 48
official constellations in the Almagest, based on
visible stars. Islamic astronomers later
improved these charts with detailed
observations. Johann Bayer and John
Flamsteed standardized star names using
Greek letters and numbers. As astronomers
explored the southern hemisphere, they added
more constellations.
Changing Positions of
Constellations
Stars appear to move across the sky at night due to Earth's rotation, rising in the east
and setting in the west. Stars near the North Pole don't set. The Moon's position
changes nightly because it orbits Earth, while stars shift slightly over a month due to
Earth's orbit around the Sun. Stars rise and set about four minutes earlier each night.
 Beliefs and Practices About
Constellations
Constellations have been used for various purposes throughout
history. Initially, they were associated with religious beliefs, with
many cultures believing that the positions of stars represented
stories of their gods. Different cultures developed their
nterpretations, such as Orion being a hunter in Greek mythology
and representing Osiris in Egyptian beliefs. Constellations also
served practical purposes. They were used in agriculture to
determine seasons for sowing and harvesting. For navigation,
stars like Polaris (the North Star) and constellations like Ursa
Minor were crucial for determining direction and latitude, aiding
n exploration and global travel. Today, constellations are still
relevant, especially in astronomy. They are used to name stars,
with each star in a constellation designated a name based on its
brightness and position in the constellation. This naming system
helps astronomers communicate and identify celestial objects
easily.
Thank you po Sir