Chapter 2

Electromagnetic Waves
 WAVES
• Disturbances that transfer energy
• Carry energy from one place to another
• Can be classified based on
✓ Medium (need or not)
✓ Direction (parallel or perpendicular)
✓ Wavelength (short or long)
 MECHANICAL WAVES
Classified by how medium vibrates and direction

1. Longitudinal Waves:
Vibration is in the same direction as (parallel
to) wave pulse

2. Transverse Waves:
Vibration is at 900 (perpendicular) to wave pulse

3. Surface Waves:
Vibration is circular
 Longitudinal waves

• Require a medium (the material through which the disturbance

is moving) to transmit energy

• Travel through & gradually lose energy to that medium

• Examples:
Water, sound, rope, & spring waves
 LONGITUDINAL WAVES

• Vibration is parallel to the

direction of the motion of the wave

• Back and forth

• Examples:
✓Sound waves
 TRANSVERSE WAVES
• Vibration is perpendicular to the direction of
the motion of the wave
• Do not need a medium to transmit energy
• Move with no loss of energy, so they can
effectively travel forever
• Examples:
Electromagnetic (EM) waves
 What Are Electromagnetic Waves and
Electromagnetic Fields?
• Electric fields and magnetic fields give
rise to each other while traveling through
space.
• Magnetic fields and electric fields are
linked and form electromagnetic field.
• Bothe transverse perpendicular to each
other and with the wave.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
➢ Electromagnetic waves are ➢ This vibration creates a wave
created by the vibration of an which has both an electric and a
electric charge. magnetic component.

➢ An EM wave transports
its energy through a
vacuum at a speed of 3.00
x 108 m/s (commonly
represented by the
symbol c).
 Cont’d…
• How do moving charges create magnetic fields?
✓Any moving electric charge is surrounded by an electric
field and a magnetic field.
• Production of Electromagnetic Waves
✓When an electric charge vibrates, the electric field around it
changes creating a changing magnetic field
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
“Band of frequencies is called the spectrum.”
• As wavelength decreases, frequency increases…
• The speed is remains constant for the same medium.
• The ones humans can see are called visible light, a small part of the whole
spectrum.
Cont’d…
 Properties of EM Wave
1. All electromagnetic waves are transverse wave
2. They do not require any medium to travel through
3. They travel at the speed of 3x108 ms-1 in vacuum
4. They can all be reflected or refracted
5. They can all be emitted or absorbed by matter
6. They all obey the wave equation v =f x λ
 Properties of EM Wave

• 7. Their frequencies do not change as they pass from one

medium to another.
✓ However, both their speed and wavelength will change. v =f x λ
• 8. They carry energy from one place to another
• 9. Oscillate with electric and magnetic field perpendicular to
each other.
Wave Parameters
1. Amplitude
2. Wavelength
3. Frequency
4. Period
5. Velocity
 1. AMPLITUDE
• Gives indication of “power” or
“strength” of wave
• Does not affect velocity of wave
• The energy of a wave is proportional to the square of its
amplitude
• Determines loudness (sound) or brightness (EM wave)
 2. WAVELENGTH 
• Distance between any two
repeating points on a wave
• Also referred to as a cycle or
oscillation
• Determines what colors
we see; what notes we hear
(pitch)
 3. FREQUENCY ƒ
• Measured in Hertz (Hz), or number of
wavelengths in 1 second
• Frequency is inversely proportional
to wavelength
f = 1/ 
• Frequency is directly proportional to
energy
 4. PERIOD T
• Amount of time for one wavelength to pass a point
• Related inversely to frequency
T = 1/ƒ
 5. VELOCITY v
• The rate at which the energy travels;
has speed & direction
• Depends on medium
✓Mechanical waves travel faster through dense media
✓EM Waves are faster through less dense media
• Velocity = wavelength x frequency
v = ƒ
 Relationship between
wavelength and frequency
• All EM spectrum travel at the same speed of 3 x 10 8 m/s in a vacuum.
• Therefore, wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.
• Short wavelengths have a high frequency.
– E.g. X-rays
• Long wavelengths have a low frequency.
– E.g. Radio waves
 Relationship between Energy,
Wavelength and Frequency
• ENERGY: E = hν = hc/λ.
• Frequency and energy are directly proportional.
• High frequency waves have high energy.
✓ E.g. Gamma rays, X-rays
• Low frequency waves have low energy.
✓ E.g. Radio waves
 Wave equations
𝜕2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝑑𝑓 𝑑2𝑓
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 • 𝜕𝑥2
= ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑2𝑢
• 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 𝜕2𝑓 𝑑2𝑓

•
𝜕𝑓
=
𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑢
= -v
𝑑𝑓 • 𝜕𝑥2
𝜕2𝑓 = 𝑑2𝑢
𝑑2𝑓
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑢
𝜕𝑡2
.
𝑣2 𝑑2𝑢
𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑓
• 𝜕𝑥
=
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑥
=
𝑑𝑢 𝜕2𝑓
1
𝜕2𝑓 𝜕 𝑑𝑓 𝜕 𝑑2𝑓 • 𝜕𝑥2
𝜕2𝑓 =
• 𝜕𝑡2
= ( )
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
=
𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑓
(-v 𝑑𝑢) = 𝑣2.
𝑑2𝑢 𝜕𝑡2
𝑣2

𝑓𝑥𝑥 1
• 𝑓𝑡𝑡
=
𝑣2

• v can be positive or negative

Maxwell’s Equations…wave equation

re
Ñ·E =
e0 Gauss’s law
Ñ· B = 0
¶B Faraday’s law
Ñ´E =-
¶t
¶E
Ñ ´ B = m0e0 + m0 J Ampere's law
¶t

James Clerk Maxwell, 1831-1879

 Physical Interpretation of Maxwell
Equations
• Gauss’s law for E: electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to
the charge enclosed.
• Gauss’s law for B: the total magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero.
• Faraday’s law: changing magnetic flux produces an electric field.
• Ampere’s law: electric current and changing electric flux produces a
magnetic field.
Wave equations
 Wave equations
𝜕2𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
• = ε0μ0
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑡2
𝜕2𝐵 𝜕2𝐵
• 𝜕𝑥2
= ε0μ0
𝜕𝑡2

• Where, ε0 = 8.85x10−12
μ0 = 4πx10−7
1
V= = 2.998x 108 m/s
ε0μ0
 How Fast Are Electromagnetic Waves?
• Maxwell calculated electromagnetic wave.
• Speed is square root of the electric permittivity magnetic permeability in
vacuum.
• This exactly matched the previously discovered speed of light.
• Maxwell conclude that light is a type of electromagnetic wave.
  
PLANE WAVES... E = E y ( x ,t ) j B = Bz ( x ,t )k

Wave equation  2 1  2 E(x, t) = E sin (kx-t)

= 2 ĵ
x 2  t 2
B(x, t) = B sin (kx-t) ẑ
Where k is the
wave number
Sinusoidal wave  = A sin( t +  )
Temporal sinusoidal wave
• Wave number is the number of wavelengths per unit distance.
• Can be spatial or angular wave number.
• Represented by letter ‘K’
• K=f/v=1/λ for spatial wave number
• K=2π/λ for angular wave number
• The angular wave number is used in physics and spatial in chemistry.
Sinusoidal waves

The ratio of the electric

field to the magnetic field in
an electromagnetic wave
equals the speed of light.
F(x) 
Static wave
F(x) = FP sin (kx + )
k = 2   or k = 1  
k = wavenumber
 = wavelength
x Temporal wave
F(x) = FP sin (wt + )
k = 2  
k = wavenumber
 = wavelength
F(x) 
Moving wave
F(x, t) = FP sin (kx - t )
v  = 2  f
 = angular frequency
f = frequency
x v=/k
 Examples
1. Calculate the wavenumber using the appropriate equation. For a light wave with a wavelength of 700
nanometers or 700 × 10−9 m, representing red light, the calculation of angular wavenumber is:
K= 2π / 𝜆
= 2π / (700 × 10−9 m)
= 8.975979 × 106 m−1
≅ 8.98 × 106 m−1
2. For a sound wave, with a frequency of 200 Hz and a speed of 400 meters per second (m s−1), the calculation
of spatial wavenumber gives:
K= f / v
= 200 Hz / 400m s−1
= 0.5 m−1
 Electromagnetic Waves Interaction

• Reflection
• Refraction How waves interact with a medium
• Diffraction
• Interference How waves interact with other waves
 1. Reflection
• Wave strikes a surface and is
bounced back.
• Law of Reflection:
✓ angle of incidence = angle of reflection
✓ Assumes smooth surface.
✓ Measured from normal.
✓ Incident, reflected wave and the
normal line are on the same medium.
We only see objects because
light is reflected to our eyes
 Specular vs. Diffuse Reflection

• Specular Reflection
• Mirror-like
• Retains image
• Diffuse Reflection
✓ Energy reflects but not image.
 2. Refraction
• Change in wave’s direction as it passes from one
medium to another due to differences in speed of
wave.
• The greater the change in speed, the more the wave
bends
• Rainbows are produced by dispersion
– the refraction of each separate frequency of visible
light
• Fiber optics are made possible by refraction of light
within glass “wire”
 2. Refraction

• Index of refraction (n) – the speed of light in medium relative

to vacuum
• n = C/V
• If the light does not change speed in the medium, the n value
would be 1.0
Example nair = 1.0003 nglass = 1.52 nwater = 1.33
 Snell’s Law

• As a wave passes from low n to high n, it bends toward the normal.

• As a wave passes from high n to low n, it bends away from the normal.
• If n is the same for both media, the wave does not bend.
 Snell’s law
• Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and
refraction is equivalent to the ratio of velocities in the two media, or
equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction.
 Total Internal Reflection
• When light is incident upon a medium of lesser index of
refraction,
• The ray is bent away from the normal,
• So the refracted angle is greater than the incident angle.
• Such reflection is commonly called "internal reflection".
 Total Internal Reflection
• The exit angle will then approach 90° for some critical incident angle θc,
• and for incident angles greater than the critical angle there will be total
internal reflection.
• So the critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence that provides
an angle of refraction of 90-degrees.
• Fiber optics use this principle
 3. Diffraction

• The bending of waves around an obstacle.

• The amount of bending depends on the size of the obstacle and the size of
the waves
✓ Large obstacle, small wavelength = less diffraction
✓ Small obstacle, large wavelength = more diffraction
 4. Interference
• The combination of two or more waves that exist in the same place at the
same time.
• When two or more waves come together, they “superimpose” or add
together (superposition)
• The total amplitude is simply the sum (positive & negative!) of all the
individual amplitudes

• Constructive Interference (additive effect—in phase)

• Destructive Interference (subtractive effect—out of phase)
 Constructive and Destructive Interference

S S

Constructive Partially Constructive

(in phase) (somewhat out of phase)

S S

Destructive Non-coherent signals

(180° out of phase) (noise)
Electromagnetic spectrum and medical application
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared waves
• Visible light
• Ultraviolet
• X rays
• Gamma rays
 1. Radio waves

• Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of all the electromagnetic

waves.
• Lowest frequency
• Longest wavelength
• Radio waves are often used to transmit data.
• Used for radio, satellites, radar, and computer networks.
 Radio waves in medicine
• Is used to produce images of soft tissues, fluid, fat and bone.
• Diagnosis MRI
• Helps treat tumors.
✓Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
uses heat to destroy cancer cells.
 2. Microwaves
• Microwaves are radio waves higher frequency & shorter
wavelength
• Cell phones and satellites use microwaves between 1 cm & 20
cm for communication
• Microwaves are useful in communication because they can
penetrate clouds, smoke, and light rain.
• Microwave also used in radar that helps to predict the weather.
 Microwave waves in medicine

• Hyperthermia therapy is a type of medical treatment.

a. Microwave ablation: used in treatment of liver tumor
b. Microwave diathermy: used in pain management
c. Transurethral microwave : thermotherapy used in treatment of lower
urinary tract syndrome
 3. Infrared waves:

• Infrared waves are sometimes classified as "near" infrared or

"far" infrared
• Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves.
• Can be detected by heat and used in heat lamp.
• Used daily in remote controls, to read CD-ROMs
 Infrared
• Precautions
• Strong infrared radiation in certain industry high-heat settings may be hazard
to the eyes, resulting in damage or blindness to the user.
• Since the radiation is invisible, special IR-proof goggles must be worn in
such places
 Infrared Imaging in Medicine

• Oncology
• Vascular disorders
• Skeletal
• Surgery
 4. Visible light
• This is the range of wavelengths from 390 to 700 nm which
corresponds to the frequencies 430-790 THz.
• The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that human eyes
can detect.
 You see different wavelengths
as colors.
• Blue has shortest
• Red is the longest
• Light looks white if all colors are present or reflected
• And light looks black if all colors are absorbed
 Visible light in medicines
• Scanning laser ophthalmoscope.
• In Endoscopy/ Keyhole Surgery
• Photo dynamic therapy…a treatment that use photo sensitizing
agents or drugs to kill cancers.
 5. Ultraviolet Waves
• Have enough energy to enter skin cells
• Used in tanning beds and sterilizing equipment.
• A tanning bed (sun-bed) is a machine used to produce UV radiation with
the help of Bulbs for faster melanin production in golden color of the skin
 Ultraviolet Waves use in medicines

• Abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels

• Organs in the pelvis and abdomen
• Symptoms of pain, swelling and infection
• Used to sterilize medical supplies and equipment
 6. X Rays
• High wave energy
• Used in :
✓ Medicines
✓ Industry
✓ Transportation
• To much exposure can damage the living tissue or even cause cancer
 X-rays
• X-rays play an important role in dentistry and orthopedic
investigation.
• They can penetrate soft tissue like skin and muscle.
• Are used to take X-ray pictures of bones in medicine.
 7. Gamma rays
• Gamma rays the highest energy electromagnetic waves
• The actually come from radioactive elements or stars
• Inspection tools in industry
 Gamma rays in medicine

• Used to diagnose brain disease

✓ Alzheimer’s and Multiple Sclerosis
✓ Gamma Knife uses beams of highly focused gamma rays to treat
tumors or other abnormalities in the brain.
✓ Gamma rays can check how far a cancer has spread and how well
treatment is working.