CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Student Work Experience Program (SWEP) Overview

The Student Work Experience Program (SWEP) is a comprehensive initiative designed to bridge

the gap between academic learning and practical workplace experience for students. This

program serves as a crucial platform for students to gain valuable insights into their chosen

fields, develop relevant skills, and establish connections with industry professionals. SWEP aims

to enhance the overall educational experience by providing students with real-world exposure,

helping them make informed career choices, and preparing them for the demands of the

professional world.

KEY OBJECTIVES OF SWEP:

Skill Development: SWEP focuses on the acquisition and refinement of practical skills that

complement academic knowledge. Through hands-on experience, students develop competencies

that are directly applicable to their future careers.

Industry Exposure: The program facilitates meaningful interaction between students and

industry leaders. This exposure allows students to understand the dynamics of their chosen field,

gain insights into industry trends, and build a network of contacts that can be instrumental in

their professional journeys.

Career Exploration: SWEP provides students with the opportunity to explore various career

paths within their chosen field. By working in a real-world setting, students can identify their

strengths, interests, and areas for further development, helping them make informed decisions

about their future careers.

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Professional Development: The program places a strong emphasis on cultivating professional

attitudes and behaviors. Students learn to navigate workplace environments, communicate

effectively, and collaborate with diverse teams, contributing to their overall professional

development.

Resume Building: SWEP offers students a chance to add practical work experience to their

resumes, making them more competitive in the job market. This tangible experience often proves

to be a valuable asset when seeking employment after graduation.

PROGRAM STRUCTURE:

Placement: Students are placed in organizations relevant to their field of study. These

placements can range from corporations and non-profit organizations to research institutions,

providing students with a diverse range of experiences.

Duration: SWEP typically spans a specified period, allowing students to immerse themselves in

the workplace environment. The duration may vary depending on the academic institution's

curriculum and the requirements of the partnering organizations.

Mentorship: Students often benefit from mentorship programs where experienced professionals

guide them through their work experience. This mentorship enhances the learning experience

and provides students with valuable insights and advice.

Evaluation and Feedback: Regular evaluations and feedback sessions are conducted to assess

the progress of students during their work experience. This ensures that learning objectives are

met and provides opportunities for students to address any challenges they may encounter.

BENEFITS OF SWEP:

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 Enhanced Employability: SWEP equips students with practical skills and experiences that

make them more attractive to prospective employers.

Networking Opportunities: Through SWEP, students build a network of industry contacts,

potentially opening doors for future career opportunities.

Confidence Building: Real-world work experience helps students gain confidence in their

abilities and apply theoretical knowledge to practical situations.

Informed Career Choices: SWEP assists students in making informed decisions about their

career paths by providing exposure to different aspects of their chosen field.

In conclusion, the Student Work Experience Program is a vital component of a well-rounded

education, offering students the chance to bridge the gap between academia and the professional

world. By providing hands-on experience, industry exposure, and opportunities for skill

development, SWEP contributes significantly to the holistic development of students, preparing

them for successful and fulfilling careers.

Workshop/Laboratories Visited

 Electrical and Electronic Laboratory

 Metal Workshop

 Civil Engineering Workshop

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 CHAPTER TWO

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Installation of Solar Energy and Maintenance

INTRODUCTION

Solar energy in recent years has attracted more attention to people due to inefficiency and

unavailability of power for different use in homes and industries. It is a well-known fact that the

world is facing a major threat of fast exhaustion of the fossil fuel reserves like in Nigeria where

our source of energy is from natural gas and water. There has been general outcry against lack of

constant power supply to help our industries and home appliances. This has brought about the

urgent need to explore other means of power generation such as solar energy. Research has been

into the development of reliable and strong systems to harness energy from nonconventional

energy resources. Solar power source has experienced a tremendous rapid growth in the past ten

years and is Pollution free source of abundant power. This paper lists the basic components

needed for installation of solar energy at homes; this includes the solar panels (Mono

Crystalline), Charge controller, Battery, Inverter, connecting wires, Lighting Rod, Stabilizes.

SCOPY OF STUDY

This solar power source makes it possible to provide a clean reliable supply of alternative free of

sags or surges which could be found in the line voltage frequency.

The solar power system (SPS) system achieved this by direct current from solar panel and by

rectifying the standard main supply, using the direct current to charge the batteries and to

provide clean alternative power by passing the energy a filter system

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 It has zero change over time and LEDs which indicates mains fail and battery discharge

level and it provides 100% protection against line noise, spikes surges and audio frequency

interference

COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR POWER

Solar design and installation is absolute easy thing one can do but with proper knowledge,

training and skill with some money to purchase the equipment. Some of the components you

need for installation of solar energy are listed below:

 Solar system.

 Solar panels (Monocrystalline Solar Panel)

 Charge controller

 Battery

 Inverter

 Connecting wires

 Appliances (like Bulb, TV, Fan etc)

 Change Over Switch

 Battery Rack

 Lightning Arrester

 Stablizers

The Solar System

Solar System can be defined as the Sun and everything that orbits the Sun which also include the

planets and their satellites. It can also be called a group of celestial bodies orbiting another star.

In this paper, solar system refers to the system that includes Earth and the Sun. Solar energy is

the energy from the sun. It comes to us in form of light and heat. Nigeria receives about 4.851 X

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10P 12P KWh of energy from sun daily, 1.804 X 10P 15 PKWh annually and the country has

average solar Insolation of about 5.535KWh/mP 2 P/day which will effectively be used for solar

power installation, and will bring about total change in power system failure in the country.

Solar Panel (Photovoltaic Pv Modules)

Solar panels are those devices which are used to absorb the sun’s rays and convert them into

electricity or heat. Solar panel is actually a collection of solar cells, which can be used to

generate electricity through photovoltaic affect. This cell is arranged in a grid-like pattern on the

surface of the solar panel. As shown in figure 1 below. Types of solar panel

There are three basic types of solar panel which are:

I. Monocrystalline solar panel: Monocrystalline solar panels (or mono panels) are made

from monocrystalline solar cells. Each cell is a slice of a single crystal of silicon that is

grown expressly for the purpose of creating solar panels. In the lab, the crystal is grown

into a cylindrical log shape called an ingot and is then sliced into thin discs.

II. Polycrystalline solar panel: Polycrystalline solar panels have blue cells made of

multiple silicon crystals, and they are less efficient but more affordable. Monocrystalline

panels have black cells made of single crystals, and they offer a higher efficiency at a

higher price.

III. Thin film (amorphous) solar panel: instead of the layered crystalline silicon wafers

that appear in a solar panel cell, amorphous solar panels are made from a layer of

monocrystalline silicon that is overlaid upon a thin substrate like glass, plastic or metal.

Mono and polycrystalline Advantages and Disadvantages

Monocrystalline Advantages

• Highly efficient at producing energy

• Panels require less space

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 • Black panels blend with darker shingles or foliage

• Better heat tolerance

Disadvantages

• Expensive

• Less sustainable product methods

Polycrystalline Advantages

• Less expensive than monocrystalline

• Lifespan comparable to that of momocrystalline panels yet at a lower cost

Disadvantages

• Panels require more space

• Less efficient at producing energy

• Less sustainable production

• The bluish color stands out more than the black of the polycrystalline panel  Less heat

tolerance

The two ways of connecting solar PV are as follows:

 Series connections.

 Parallel connections.

Series connection: Series connection simply is connecting solar panel positive terminals to

negative terminals of another. It gives output voltage equals the sum total of the voltage of the

entire module in the string and the output current equals the equivalent of the current for a single

solar. In series connection all the currents are equal while the voltages are the sum of individual

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voltages. By Series connecting, the voltage equals the sum of those panels, being in series, the

amperage is equal.

Parallel connection: Parallel connection simply is connecting the solar panel positive terminals

to positive terminals of next and negative terminals to negative terminals of next. When using

this type of connection, your voltage remains the same but your amperage is the total sum of the

panels being used. That is to say, it gives output voltage equals the equivalent voltage of a single

solar panel in the string and the output current equals the sum total of all the current of the solar

panel in the string. Fig 1b: Parallel connection of solar module By parallel connected solar panel

gives more current (amperage) the sum of individual currents, the voltage is equals.

Fig 1.1 (Series and Parallel connection)

Charge Controller

Charge controller ensures is used to charge your batteries, it ensures that the battery is not over-

charged or over-discharged; it stops receiving from the solar panel when the battery is fully

charged and switches off every DC load connected to it when the battery is discharged to the

minimum level. These charge controllers regulate the charging of your batteries because they are

programmed. The quality of these programs determines the lifespan of your batteries. This is the

reason only quality charge controllers should be used, because batteries are the most expensive

part of any solar system installation. DC loads are taken directly from the charge controller. The

procedure for selecting Charge controller is by determining the operating voltage of the PV array

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and the current, i.e. the charge controller must be sized to handle maximum current and voltage

produced by the solar PV array.

Battery

Battery stores the electrical charge produced by the solar panel during the day. It helps the output

of the solar panel when it cannot supply enough electricity to the system. Batteries are a major

cost of any solar system and are the most friable component in the solar system. Battery should

have sufficient Amp hour storage to supply the needed power during the cloudy weather.

Batteries can be either shallow cycle discharge (for automobiles) or deep cycle discharge (for PV

system). A shallow-cycle battery discharge only between 10% and 20% of their Ah capacity/day

discharging beyond this point without recharging shortens the battery life. Deep-cycle batteries

are designed to allow a discharge of 60% to 80% of its Ah capacity. A battery discharged at a

rate of 1 amp will have a higher Ah capacity than a battery discharged at a rate of 4 amps. A

battery which can deliver 1 amp for 100 hours has a capacity of 100Ah @ C100. The same

battery may only deliver 4 amps for 20 hours. Then its capacity is 80Ah @ C20. C100 means

discharged over 100 hours, C20 means discharged over 20 hours. Batteries are connected in

series and parallel.

Inverter

This is what will turn the 12-volt DC current into 110-120 volts AC current for use in powering

your household electrical devices. An inverter is device that changes direct current (DC) from

the battery to alternating current (AC) to be used for AC appliances. The battery provides DC

voltage to the inverter, and the inverter converts the DC voltage to normal AC voltage. The

output of a solar PV system can be either DC or AC depending on the type of electrical load it is

meant to power. If it is used to power a DC load, then there is no need for an inverter. However

inverter is required when the electrical load is AC. One can choose to go for solar inverter; solar

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inverters have some special functions with the photovoltaic arrays like maximum power point

tracking and anti-islanding protection. There are two types of inverters which include modified

sine wave and pure sine wave inverters. Note: the size of the inverter should be around three

times what you plan to use it for, this is because the consumer products do not always use the

best components and this is a way to ensure your unit will last longer than when you purchase an

undervalued unit and push it to burn out. Before you buy an inverter you need to take cognizes of

the following:

 The maximum load; the rating is larger than wattage of all the ac loads to be run at any

one time

 The maximum surge; Inverter is designed to surge if motors will be connected.

 The output voltage.

 The input battery voltage requirements

Types of Inverters
There are three major types of inverters which are Sine wave, Modified Wave and Square Wave

 Sine Wave: It is usually referred to as a “true” or “pure” wave which you get from your

local utility company and (usually) from a generator. This is because it is generated by

rotating AC machinery and sine waves are a natural product of rotating AC machinery.

The major advantage of a sine wave inverter is that all of the equipment which is sold on

the market is designed for a sine wave. This guarantees that the equipment will work to

its full specifications. Some appliances, such as motors and microwave ovens will only

produce full output with sine wave power.A few appliances, such as bread makers, light

dimmers, and some battery chargers require a sine wave to work at all. Sine wave

inverters are always more expensive - from 2 to 3 times as much.

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  Modified Sine Wave: It is usually referred to as Modified Square Wave actually has a

waveform more like a square wave, but with an extra step or so. A modified sine wave

inverter will work fine with most equipment, although the efficiency or power will be

reduced with some. Motors, such as refrigerator motor, pumps, fans etc. will use more

power from the inverter due to lower efficiency. Most motors will use about 20% more

power. This is because a fair percentage of a modified sine wave is higher frequencies -

that is, not 60 Hz - so the motors cannot use it.

 Square Wave: There is very few, but the cheapest inverters are square wave. A square

wave inverter will run simple things like tools with universal motors without a problem,

but not much else. Square wave inverters are seldom seen anymore.

Sine Wave Modified Wave Square Wave

Connecting Wires
They are used to connect one component to the other. The generated electricity (electric current)

flows through them to the load. The recommended size of cables is 2.5mm.

Circuit Breaker

It is an electrical switch that automatically opens (and sometimes resets) a circuit in the event of

an overload or short circuit. Like fuses for solar, these circuit breakers are designed for use in

photovoltaic (PV) systems.

Lightning arrester

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It is a device installed to shield power lines, homes, and structures from dangerous surges. As

the name suggest, it’s primarily designed to safeguard against damage caused by lightning

strikes. However it can protect the structure form various other sources.

Battery rack

It is a structure used to support a group of batteries or battery cells.

Change over switch

It is an electrical switch that allows a load to be changed from one electrical source to another

and vice versa, either manually or automatically.

Stabilizer

It is an electrical device that protects electrical appliances from voltage fluctuation. In case of

refrigerators, voltage fluctuations can damage the compressor and other electrical components,

leading to costly repairs or replacement. It’s used in solar installation where NEPA electric

source being used and it’s supplied in low voltage.

APPARATUS DIAGRAM

(Solar panel) (Solar controller) (Inverter)

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 (Battery) (Connecting wire) (Circuit breaker)

(battery rack) (Change over switch) (Stabilizer)

THE BASICS OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

A typical solar power supply device is comprised of solar panel (a.k.a. photovoltaic or PV

panels), a charge controller, a power inverter having a meter or monitoring system which is

capable of monitoring voltages and system condition and the electrical distribution system. As

shown in figure A below.

PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PANEL.

A solar panel is a device that is able to absorb sun rays and convert it into electrical energy

precisely DC. The photovoltaic panel comprised of silicon crystals, which reacts with sun ray

and under this process, converts the sun rays into electricity. They supply the electricity for

charging the batteries and for use by the appliances either directly or through an inverter.

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Multiple modules where used to produce more electricity and then any excess energy that was

produced was stored in the batteries for use during the cloudy/ rainy weather. The panels are

available in different sizes, voltages and amperage. They can be wired in series or in parallel

depending on how the system is designed.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLAR PANEL

 Shading

 Climate

 Temperature

 Sun intensity

 Roof orientation

 Maintenance

 Inverter efficiency

 Soiling

 Temperature

 Dust

Figure A: (Schematic Diagram of a Solar Installation)

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SYSTEM DESIGN
Load Evaluation And Power Consumption

Based on the table below

 The electrical appliances to power were listed.

 The AC and Dc systems were separated and entered in their appropriate table.

 The operating watt of each load was recorded

 The number of hours per day for each item was specified.

 The operating wattage and the number of hour per day were multiplied out to determine the watt hour
per day.
 The total watt hour per week was determined by entering the number pf days per week the load

should be operated.

Calculating Power Consumption

There was needs to determine the size of the load that is powered. The unit of measurement

used was watt-Hour because it was applicable to both AC and DC circuits. The table below

shows the average daily watt hours, the highest AC load in watts, the total AC connected

wattage at a time, the total 17 watt-hour per day, load correction multiplying factor from page

15 and the corrected watt hour per day.

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16
PROCEDURE OF INSTALLATION

 All materials needed for the project (Installation) were firstly collected.
 Each material property was checked, to ensure the materials gathered were well matched.
 There were six (6) solar panels provided for the project, and each panel was rated for
12V, 250W and 8.3A.
 All the solar panels were mounted on the roof top at an angle of 45o (in order to give the
maximum possible power/energy to be generated).
 Two solar panels were connected in series with one another (to increase the voltage of the
panel to 24V).
 The same process above was done two more time (making it three-two solar panels
connected in series).
 Then the three connected series panels were connected in parallel with each other (in
order to make it a single panel and to increase the capacity of the current generated by the
solar panels).
 A cable (wire) was then used to connect the solar panel terminals from the roof top to the
solar charge controller that was placed inside the building.
 The solar charge controller was placed near the battery, in between the solar panel and
the battery (so as to monitor the voltage and current regulation of the battery).
 The solar charge controller provided was PWM (Pulse width modulation) with 60A,
 100V Max. and it’s of six ports, whereby the first two ports to the left are for the battery
terminals, the first two ports to the right are for the DC (Direct Current) loads terminals,
why the middle ports are for the solar panel terminal.
NOTE: Solar charge controller is of two types which are: 1. PWM – Pulse Width
modulation, and 2. MPPT – Maximum Power Point Tracker. The major difference is the
networking principle which makes MPPT performs better than PWM.
 Two batteries were provided for the project (Installation) and each battery is of 12V,
220Ah. Sandpaper was used to file the metal terminals of the batteries (to provide sharp
contact).
 The batteries were connected together in series (to increase the battery voltage to 24V) in
order to meet up the operating voltage of the panel.

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 NOTE: When the power consumption of the installation building is much it’s preferable
to use a least 24V not 12V.
 2.5KVa inverter was provided for the project, and the input terminals of the inverter were
connected to the battery terminals.
 When connecting the input terminal of the inverter to the terminals of the battery, the
wire being used was doubled (in order to increase the capacity of the cable) .
 Then the positive and negative terminals of the battery were connected to the first two
ports (to the left), on the solar charge controller.
NOTE: It’s required to connect the terminals of the solar panel after the battery terminals
were being connected (if not the solar charge controller might get burnt). In case there
DC loads are present, then the terminals were to be connected to the first two ports (to the
right) on the solar charge controller.
 The output of the inverter was connected to the source terminals on the distribution
board.
 Since another source of power (NEPA or Generator) was to be used for charging the
batteries, a changeover switch was placed near the distribution board (for switching
between one power sources to the other).

PRECAUTION
 The manufactured earth fault was avoided

 We ensure all the connections are strong and durable

 The conduct was fully housed to avoid accidental contact with power circuit

MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

Solar panels have no moving parts, and therefore no potential points of mechanical failure.

Therefore, properly installed PV system requires very little maintenance. After the installation of

solar system for household use, best maintenance practice is to inspect the equipment especially

batteries and modules, to make sure all electrical contacts are tight. We can keep the solar PV

operational through two maintenance techniques which include the preventive and corrective

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maintenance. Let us look at maintenance of the different components of the solar system which

include:

 Solar PV Maintenance: You should wash the PV array, during the cool of the day, when

there is a noticeable buildup of dust and dirt. Periodically inspect the system to make sure

all wirings and supports are intact. Furthermore, check for tree growth that has shaded

your modules and also check for birds’ nests in your modules and junction boxes. Review

the output of the system annually (assuming the array is clean) to see if the performance

of the system is close to the previous year's reading. Do not scratch the glass casing of the

module.

 Battery Maintenance: Battery is very important component in the solar system;

therefore proper care should be taken. For long life, battery should be cleaned monthly;

the electrolyte level should be checked and kept in a high state of charge. When cleaning

batteries, beware of the battery acid and do not short the terminals. Carry the battery

outside when cleaning to avoid spilling acid, keep plenty of water nearby to rinse spills.

 Charge controller malfunction: Charge controller will be will go bad if the battery

voltage exceeds the appropriate set voltage for the type of battery used, and also the

batteries are bubbling severely causing a lot of moisture accumulation on the battery tops.

Charge controller can go badly if the battery bank capacity is not up to the rate.

SOME OF THE GENERAL PRECAUTION/MAINTENANCE TO BE CARRIED ON

THE SYSTEM INCLUDE
 Observe the tightness of screws on all connector strips, controls; switches, etc. make sure

that they are well chewed. This is mostly important for old or exposed wire.

 Look at the junction boxes to make sure that insects have not build house there, and also

make sure they are watertight when exposed to the environment.

 Inspect switches to make sure they are in good operating manner.

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 Inspect the fuses to ensure no one is blown. If blown, find the cause and replace or repair

with a new one of the same size.

 Inspect the indicator lamps on the charge controller. The solar charge controller indicator

should be ON when the sun is up. If is not ON. Check to see if batteries are being

charged. Check whether the other LED indicator lamps are working (that is battery full

and low voltage).

 Check grounding wires to make sure they are still intact.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METAL WORKSHOP
Production of Metal Rakes through welding

GENERAL OVERVIEW

On the 16th of January 2024, the project (production of metal rake) and the material to be used

were introduced to the students and the explanation of the diagram of the project was made by

the technical staff in charge, Mr. Ariyo Isaac and Mr. Faborede. They elaborated on the

procedures, which were to be followed in producing those rakes. Also, Mr. Afolayan stated the

components, their materials, and their dimension. My group was directed to the workshop under

the control of Mr. Tijani Balogun. In the workshop, we carried out our project practically in an

organized manner from the bending of metals to the marking out of the required size of metals.

Mr. Tiwo also explained and showed us some other apparatus or tools used in the lab. Then we

did the practical was completed on the 23rd of January 2024.

ABSTRACT

The production of metal rakes has been a staple in agricultural and gardening industry for

decades, serving as essential tools for soil cultivation and debris removal. This delves into an

innovative approach to the manufacturing of metal rakes, focusing on sustainability, efficiency,

and quality. The objective is to develop a metal rake that not only meets the functional

requirements of end-users but also aligns with environmental and economic considerations. The

manufacturing process begins with the selection of eco-friendly raw materials, emphasizing the

use of recycled metals and alloys. This not only reduces the environmental impact of mining but

also promotes a circular economy by reusing materials that would otherwise end up as waste.

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The extraction and processing of raw materials are optimized for energy efficiency, with a

commitment to minimizing the carbon footprint associated with the production of metal rakes.

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The production of metal rakes has been a traditional and essential aspect of agriculture and
gardening, dating back to ancient times. Over the years, the demand for these tools has continued
to grow with the expansion of agricultural practices and the increasing popularity of gardening.
However, the conventional methods of metal rake production have often been associated with
environmental concerns, resource depletion, and inefficiencies in both manufacturing processes
and the final product

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

AIMS:
The primary aim of this study is to revolutionize the production of metal rakes by introducing a

sustainable and innovative approach that prioritizes environmental responsibility, production

efficiency, and user satisfaction. By addressing the inherent challenges in traditional

manufacturing processes, the goal is to contribute to the evolution of the agricultural and

gardening tool industry towards a more sustainable and user-friendly future.

OBJECTIVES:

 Explore Sustainable Material Alternatives

 Optimize Manufacturing processes

 Prioritize Ergonomic Design.

 Evaluate Economic Viability

 Implement Quality Control Measure

 Minimize Environmental Impart

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT USED

 Scriber

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  Galvanized pipe (40mm)
 Iron rod (8mm)
 Steel tap (Tape rule)
 Angle iron (30mm by 20mm)
 Hammer
 vice
 Electrode
 Pliers
 Hacksaw
 Thinner
 Cutting disk
 Grinder.

Scriber Galvanized pipe Iron rod

Tape Angle Iron Grinder

Vice Electrode plier

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Hacksaw Thinner Cutting disk

PROCEDURE

 Firstly gathered all the materials needed for the project

 Galvanized pipe was clamped to the vice, it’s was measured 4feets each and it was

marked with scriber and cutout with a hacksaw into six pieces.

 The angle iron was measured, clamped, marked with a scriber and cutout with a hacksaw

using a length of 1feet each into six pieces.

 One inch was measured from the top of the galvanized pipe.

 It was clamped with to a vice and was cut along through the middle from the top with a

hacksaw by one (1) inch.

 Iron rod was clamped to the vice and three (3) inches was measured with a tape rule,

marked with a scriber and cutout at an angle of 45o with a hacksaw, into 60pieces.

 The angle irons being cut were inserted into the middle of each galvanized pipes at the

top where it was cut. It was then welded together with a welding machine.

 Ten (10) pieces of cut irons were then attached and welded to each angle iron being

welded, with equal space part.

 After the completion of the project, the rake was painted with a black paint.

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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF EACH PART OF THE RAKE

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 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE RAKE

CHAPTER FOUR
CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
Specific Gravity of Cement and Slump Test

INTRODUCTION
Specific Gravity of Cement:
Specific gravity is a fundamental property of materials that describes their density in comparison

to the density of water. In the context of cement, specific gravity is a crucial parameter that

provides insights into the composition and quality of the material. The specific gravity of cement

is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of cement to the mass of an equal volume of

water at a specified temperature.

The specific gravity of cement is typically measured using a Le Chatelier flask or a pycnometer.

These methods involve determining the weight of a certain volume of cement and comparing it

to the weight of an equivalent volume of water. The specific gravity of cement is essential in

various construction applications, as it influences the mix design of concrete. It helps in

calculating the proportions of different materials required to achieve the desired concrete

properties.

A high specific gravity of cement indicates the presence of heavy compounds, which can affect

the workability and strength of the concrete. On the other hand, a low specific gravity may

suggest the presence of lighter compounds or excessive aeration, potentially compromising the

quality of the cement. Therefore, monitoring and controlling the specific gravity of cement are

critical steps in ensuring the reliability and performance of concrete structures.

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In practical terms, the specific gravity of cement is used in mix design calculations to achieve the

desired concrete properties, such as strength, durability, and workability. The specific gravity

values of cement can vary depending on factors like the type of cement, the manufacturing

process, and the presence of additives. Cement with a consistent and appropriate specific gravity

contributes to the production of high-quality and durable concrete.

Slump Test:

The slump test is a widely used and standardized method to assess the consistency and

workability of fresh concrete. It provides valuable information about the flow and deformation

characteristics of concrete, which are crucial for construction processes such as pouring,

pumping, and finishing. The slump test involves measuring the "slump" or the subsidence of a

sample of freshly mixed concrete when placed in a cylindrical mold.

To conduct the slump test, a conical metal mold is filled with freshly mixed concrete in three

layers, each compacted with a standard tamping rod. After removing the mold, the concrete

slumps, and the reduction in height is measured. The slump value is an indicator of the

workability of the concrete mix, and it helps in assessing whether the mix meets the desired

specifications for a particular construction application.

The slump test is applicable to a wide range of concrete mixes, including those with different

aggregates, cement types, and admixtures. The results of the slump test guide concrete producers

and construction professionals in adjusting the mix proportions to achieve the desired

workability and performance. A higher slump indicates a more fluid mix, while a lower slump

suggests a stiffer mix.

In summary, the slump test is a simple yet effective method for evaluating the consistency of

concrete mixes, ensuring that they meet the requirements for construction applications. It plays a

crucial role in quality control during concrete production, helping to optimize the mix design and
27
achieve the desired performance characteristics in the finished structures. The slump test is a

valuable tool that aids in the proper placement and finishing of concrete, contributing to the

overall success and durability of construction projects.

APPARATUS

Apparatus/Materials Used in Specific Gravity Test of Cement:

Le Chatelier Flask: The Le Chatelier flask is a specific gravity apparatus used to determine the

specific gravity of cement. It consists of a cylindrical-shaped flask with a bulbous bottom and a

long, graduated neck.

Balance: A precision balance is required to measure the mass of the cement sample accurately. It

should have a sufficient capacity to accommodate the weight of the cement sample.

Kerosene or Naphtha: These are commonly used immersion liquids in the specific gravity test.

They are used to saturate the cement sample, ensuring that all the air voids are filled with the

liquid.

Funnel and Mixing Bowl: A funnel is used for easy and controlled pouring of the kerosene or

naphtha into the Le Chatelier flask. A mixing bowl is used to prepare a homogeneous cement

sample.

Stopwatch: A stopwatch may be needed to accurately measure the time of immersion when

conducting the specific gravity test using the Le Chatelier flask.

Apparatus/Materials Used in Slump Test:

Slump Cone: The slump cone is a conical-shaped mold made of steel, with a base diameter, top

diameter, and height conforming to specific standards. It is used to measure the consistency and

workability of fresh concrete.

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Tamping Rod: A tamping rod is a straight steel rod with a rounded tip used to compact the

concrete within the slump cone during the filling process. The rod is typically 5/8 inches in

diameter and 24 inches in length.

Measuring Scale or Tape: A measuring scale or tape is used to measure the slump of the

concrete. It helps in determining the difference in height between the original height of the

concrete in the cone and the subsided height after the cone is lifted.

Mallet or Trowel: A rubber mallet or trowel is used to strike off excess concrete from the top of

the slump cone, ensuring a smooth and even surface.

Base Plate: A flat, non-absorbent base plate is placed under the slump cone to provide stability

during the test.

Container for Mixing Concrete: A container to mix the concrete before testing. This can be a

wheelbarrow or a mixing pan.

Watering Can or Scoop: A watering can or scoop is used to add water to the concrete mix if

necessary during the testing process.

Gloves and Safety Equipment: Personal protective equipment, such as gloves and safety

glasses, should be worn to ensure the safety of the individuals conducting the test.

29
PROCEDURES
Procedure for Specific gravity test of cement:

 The Le Chatelier flask, balance, kerosene, funnel, mixing bowl, and stopwatch were

assembled. The Le Chatelier flask was carefully cleaned and dried to ensure accurate

measurements.

 A representative sample of cement was obtained and weighed using the precision

balance. The mass of the sample was recorded.

 The Le Chatelier flask was filled with kerosene, and the cement sample was immersed in

the liquid. Care was taken to eliminate any trapped air bubbles, and the stopwatch was

used to measure the time of immersion.

 The increase in the volume of the kerosene due to the displacement by the cement sample

was recorded. The specific gravity of the cement was then calculated using the formula.

 The specific gravity value obtained was noted, taking into account the mass of the cement

sample and the volume of displaced liquid.

 The apparatus was thoroughly cleaned, and the equipment was reset for subsequent tests.

This ensured the reliability and consistency of the specific gravity measurements.

Procedure for Slump Test:

 The slump cone, tamping rod, measuring scale, mallet, base plate, container for mixing

concrete, watering can, and safety equipment were arranged. The slump cone was

checked for cleanliness and proper dimensions.

 A batch of concrete was prepared in a mixing container, adhering to the specified

proportions. The concrete mix was homogenized to ensure uniformity.

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 The slump cone was placed on a stable base plate, and the concrete was filled in three

layers, each layer compacted using the tamping rod. Excess concrete on the top of the

cone was struck off with a mallet.

 The slump cone was carefully lifted vertically, and the reduction in height of the concrete

cone was measured using the scale or tape. The slump value was recorded.

 The consistency of the concrete was observed, and if necessary, adjustments to the mix

were made. The results of the slump test provided valuable insights into the workability

of the concrete.

 The equipment was cleaned, and safety gear was properly stored. Any spillage or waste

was disposed of appropriately.

31
 CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion on Solar Energy Installation
The project was intended to supply 200 watts of energy to the office of the HOD electrical

electronic department. To serve as another source of alternative energy besides the diesel engine

this serves the electrical utilities of the faculty.

The installation was a successful one and worked efficiently as intended. However during the

design of the system requirement, it was considered to adjust the wattage of the inverter from

200 watts to 1500 watts inverter system due to an expected future expansion of the load

capacity.

Another change that had occurred during the design was the change from 12 volts solar panel to

24 volts solar panel and from 12 volts battery to an additional one more battery, which then

became a 24 volts system to fit the solar panel that was already purchased.

The solar system worked effectively and cost no further operational cost. When compared to a

1.5 KVA petrol generator, it was costly but for the initial expenses. However it was later seen to

be cheap since the system needed no petrol to operate but sunlight which was nature’s free gift.

Therefore there was no need to time or limit the hour of power supply of the up and down

experiences from the mains supply.

Recommendation

Solar panel with inverter would be recommended since it was a noiseless, it does not use fuel

and it is environmental friendly. The solar power system was a convenient way of producing an
32
 alternative means of power supply to supplement the mains failure. It was advantageous to user

who could afford its initial cost of installation. This project was recommended for expansion if

the need arose. There would be need to add up more batteries to meet up with the running time

and the system load capacity since the system had an adjusted wattage, more load could be

added only with addition of more batteries to meet up with the capacity.

Conclusion on the Production of Metal Rakes

In conclusion, the innovative approach to the production of metal rakes presented in this study

represents a significant stride towards sustainability, efficiency, and user satisfaction in the

agricultural and gardening tool industry. The incorporation of eco-friendly materials, advanced

manufacturing technologies, and a commitment to quality control not only addresses

environmental concerns but also enhances the overall user experience. The synergistic blend of

these elements contributes to a product that not only meets industry standards but sets a new

benchmark for responsible and user-friendly metal rake production.

Recommendation

1. Continuous Research and Development: Sustain efforts in research and development to

explore emerging materials and technologies that can further enhance the sustainability and

efficiency of metal rake production.

2. Market Education: Conduct comprehensive marketing and education campaigns to inform

consumers about the benefits of sustainable metal rake production. Highlight the eco-friendly

aspects and user advantages to create awareness.

3. Industry Collaboration: Collaborate with industry peers, suppliers, and distributors to

collectively promote sustainable practices in the production and distribution of metal rakes.

Shared knowledge and best practices can accelerate positive change.

Conclusion on Slump Test and Specific Gravity of Cement

33
In conclusion, the specific gravity test of cement and the slump test have played pivotal roles in

the quality control and assurance of concrete in construction projects. The specific gravity test,

conducted using a Le Chatelier flask and precision balance, provided insights into the density of

cement, guiding the formulation of concrete mixes for optimal performance. Through meticulous

measurements and comparisons with water, the specific gravity values helped in assessing the

composition of cement, influencing the workability and strength of the resulting concrete.

Similarly, the slump test, employing a slump cone, tamping rod, and other apparatus, served as a

reliable method for evaluating the consistency and workability of fresh concrete. The measured

slumps aided in determining the flow and deformation characteristics of concrete, crucial for

various construction processes. The results guided concrete producers and construction

professionals in adjusting mix proportions to meet specific project requirements, ensuring that

the fresh concrete exhibited the desired properties for successful placement and finishing.

In the past tense, both tests have been integral components of concrete quality assessment,

contributing to the overall durability and performance of constructed structures. The specific

gravity test and slump test, conducted with precision and adherence to standardized procedures,

have been instrumental in achieving concrete mixes that meet the stringent demands of diverse

construction applications. These tests, conducted during the earlier stages of construction, have

been crucial in preventing potential issues and ensuring the longevity and reliability of concrete

structures in the built environment.

RECOMMENDATION

In the assessment of the specific gravity of cement, it was recommended to employ a Le

Chatelier flask as the primary apparatus. The Le Chatelier flask, known for its accuracy,

facilitated the determination of specific gravity by comparing the mass of a given volume of

cement with the mass of an equivalent volume of water at a defined temperature. This method

34
provided valuable insights into the composition and quality of the cement, aiding in the

formulation of concrete mix designs.

The specific gravity test necessitated the use of a precision balance to measure the mass of the

cement sample accurately. Additionally, immersion liquids such as kerosene or naphtha were

recommended for saturating the cement sample, ensuring that air voids were adequately filled

during the testing process. The use of a funnel and mixing bowl, coupled with a stopwatch for

timing immersion, enhanced the precision of the specific gravity test.

In the context of the slump test, the recommendation was to utilize a slump cone as the principal

apparatus. This conical-shaped mold, constructed from steel, provided a standardized method for

evaluating the consistency and workability of fresh concrete. The test required a tamping rod to

compact the concrete within the cone, ensuring uniformity, while a measuring scale or tape was

essential for determining the difference in height before and after subsidence.

To facilitate the slump test, a mallet or trowel was recommended for striking off excess concrete from
the top of the slump cone, promoting a smooth and even surface. The use of a base plate underneath
the slump cone ensured stability during the test. Additionally, a container for mixing concrete, a
watering can or scoop for water addition, and personal protective equipment such as gloves and safety
glasses were essential components for conducting the test with precision and safety.
These recommendations, rooted in standardized procedures and the appropriate use of calibrated
equipment, were integral in ensuring the accurate assessment of specific gravity in cement and the
workability of fresh concrete using the slump test. They contributed to the reliability and consistency of
results, enabling engineers and construction professionals to make informed decisions in concrete mix
design and quality control.

35
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12. Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2013). "Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and

Materials." McGraw-Hill Education. - This textbook is widely used for concrete materials and

properties. Look for sections discussing cement properties and specific gravity.

13. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C188-17. "Standard Test Method for

Density of Hydraulic Cement." - ASTM standards provide detailed procedures for testing

specific gravity and other properties of cement.

14. Neville, A. M. (2011). "Properties of Concrete." Pearson. - As mentioned earlier, this book

covers various aspects of concrete, and you can find information on the slump test.

15. ACI Committee 211. (2013). "Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal,

Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete." ACI 211.1-91 (Reapproved 2009). - American Concrete

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slump test.

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concrete technology may provide insights into the slump test. Check relevant chapters or

sections.

17. American Concrete Institute (ACI) 211.3R-02. "Guide for Selecting Proportions for High-

Strength Concrete with Portland Cement and Fly Ash." - ACI guides offer valuable information

on concrete testing practices, including the slump test.

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