PHYSICS Parr —I TEXTBOOK FOR CLass XII aaa) F ted Bente feo yaaa Ura nears Ere yes fest rato ng feng at PUNJAB SCHOOL EDUCATION BOARD Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar© Punjab Government Revised Edition 2020 Revised Edition 2023-24... . 22,000 copies (This book has been adopted with the kind permission of the National Council of Educational Research and Training. New Delhi) Allrights, including those of translation, reproduction and annotation etc., are reserved by the Punjab Government. Co-ordinaior : Upneet Kaur Grewal Subject Expert, P.S. Edu.B. Artist : Manjit Sing Dhillon WARNI 1, The Agency-holders shall not add any extra binding with view to charge extra money for the binding (Ref.C1.No.7 of agreement with Agency-holders) 2. Printing, Publishing, Stocking, Holding or Selling etc., of spurious Text-books qua Text-books prinied and published by the punjab School Education Board is a cognizable offence under Indian Penal Code, (The textbooks of the Punjab Schoo! Education Board are printed on paper canying watermark of the Board.) fer unsa feadt wet aot 31 Published by : Secretary, Punjab School Education Board, Vidya Bhavan Phase-8 Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar-160062 & Printed by Mikado Offiet Printers, Jalandhar.Foreworp Punjab School Education Board has continuously been engaged in preparation and review of syllabi and textbooks. In today's scenario, imparting right education to students is the joint responsibility of teachers as well as parents. With a view to carry out entrusted responsibility, some important changes pertaining to present day educational requirements have been made in the textbooks and syllabus in accordance withNCF 2005. Science has an important place in school curriculum and a good textbook is the first requisite to achieve desired learning outcomes. Therefore, the content matter of Physics for the class XII has been so arranged so as to develop reasoning power of the students and to enhance their understanding of the subject. Graded questions and exercises have been given to suit the mental level of the students. This book is prepared by NCERT, New Delhi for class XII and is being published by Punjab Schoo! Education Board with the permission of NCERT, New Delhi. This step was taken to maintain the uniformity in the Physics Subject so that Science Student will have no problem while facing the common entrance test at a senior secondary stage. Every effort has been made to make the book useful for students as well as for the teachers, However, constructive suggestions for its further improvement would be gratefully acknowledged. Chairman Punjab School Education Board iiiTextsook Devetopment COMMITTEE OF NCERT (Cuainrsrson, Apvisory GRovp ror TEXTBOOKS I SciENcE AND MaTHEMArics SN, Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics ((UCAA), Ganeshihind, Pune University Campus, Pune (Cuter Apvisor AW. Joshi, Honorary Visiting Scientist, National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA), Pune University Campus, Pune (Formerly Frofessor at Department of Physics, University of Pune} Mempers A. Ghatak, Emeritus Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi Alika Khare, Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati Anjali Kshirsagar, Reader, Department of Physics. University of Pune, Pune Anuradha Mathur, PGT, Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi Atul Mody, Lecturer (S.G.), VES College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai BK. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, New Delhi Gagan Gupta, Keader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi 11. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education (TIFR), Mumbai N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Reta), Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Dethi R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi SK. Dash, Reader. DESM, NCERT, New Delhi S. Rai Choudhary, Professor Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi S.K. Upadhyay, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Muzaffar Nagar SIN. Prabhakara, PGT; DM School, Regional institute of Education (NCERT), Mysore V.H. Raybagkar, Readler, Nowrosjee Wadia College, Pune Vishwaject Kulkarni, Teacher (Grade I), Higher Secondary Section, Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule College, Margao, Goa ‘MeMpr-CooDINaTor VP. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New DelhiCONTENTS CHAPTER ONE ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Electric Charge 1.3 Charging by Induction 1.4 Basic Properties of Electrie Charge 1.5 Coulomb's Law 1.6 Forces between Multiple Charges 1.7 Electric Field 1.8 Electric Field Lines 1.9 Electric Flux 1.10 Electric Dipole 1.11 Dipole ina Uniform External Field 1.12 Continuous Charge Distribution 1.18 Ganss's Law 1.14 Applications of Gauss’s Law CHAPTER TWO ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE 2.1 ~~ ‘Introduction 2.2 Blectrostatic Potential 2.3 Potential due to a Point Charge 2.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole 2.5 Potential due to a System of Charges 2.6 Equipotential Surfaces 2.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges 2.8 Potential Energy in an External Field 2.9 Electrostatics of Conductors 2.10 Diclectrics and Polarisation: 2.11 Capacitors and Capacitance 2.12 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 2.13 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance 2.14 Combination of Capacitors 2.15 Energy Stored in a CapacitorCHAPTER THREE (CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Introduction Electric Current Electric Currents in Conductors Ohm's law Drifi of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity Limitations of Ohm’s Law Resistivity of Various Materials Temperature Dependence of Resistivity Electrical Energy, Power Cells, emf, Internal Resistance Cells in Series and in Parallel Kirchhoffs Rules Wheatstone Bridge CHAPTER FOUR ‘MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM 4.1 _ Introduction 4.2 Magnetic Force 4.3 Motion in a Magnetic Field 4.4 Magnetic Field due to a Current Element, Biot-Savart Law 4.5 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Cireular Current Loop 4.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law 4.7 The Solenoid 4.8 Force between Two Parallel Currents, the Ampere 4.9 Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole 4.10. The Moving Coil Galvanometer CHAPTER FIVE MAGNETISM AND MATTER 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Bar Magnet 5.3 Magnetism and Gauss's Law 5.4 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity 5.5 Magnetic Properties of Materials vi 81 81 82 83 85 87 89 92 93 95 97 100 107 108 112 113 115 117 121 122 124 129 136 137 142 145 147CHAPTER SIX ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry 6.3 Magnetic Flux 6.4 Faraday’s Law of Induction 6.5 Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy 6.6 Motional Electromotive Force 6.7 Inductance 6.8 AC Generator CHAPTER SEVEN ALTERNATING CURRENT 7.1 Introduction 7.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor 7.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by Rotating Vectors — Phasors 7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor 7.8 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor 7.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit 7.7 Power in AC Cireuit: The Power Factor 7.8 Transformers CHAPTER EIGHT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Displacement Current 8.3 Electromagnetic Waves 8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum ANSWERS vii 154 155 156 157 160 162 165 170 177 178 181 181 184 186 190 194 201 202 208 210 217viiiChapter One ELECTRIC CHARG AND FIELDS Mm S 1.1 Inrropuction Allof us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearinga crackle when we take olf our synthetic clothes or sweater, particularly in dry weather, Have you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon? Another: common example of electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the sky during thunderstorms. We also experience a sensation of an electric shock either while opening the door ofa car or holding the tron bar of a bus after sliding from our seat. The reason for these experiences is discharge of electric charges through our body, which were accumulated due to rubbing of insulating surfaces. You might have also heard that this is duc to generation of static electricity, This is precisely the topic we are going to discuss in this and thenext chapter. Static means anything that does not move or change with time. Electrostatics deals with the study of forces, fields and potentials artsing Jrom ‘static charges. 1.2 Evecrric Cuarce Historically the credit of discovery of the fact that amber rubbed with woo! or sill: cloth attracts light objects goes to Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC. The name electricity is coined from the Greek word lektron meaning amber. Many such pairs of materials were known which"s Physics Sill thread ’ on rubbing could attract light objects ‘ilk thread Silcthread ike straw, pith balls and bits of papers. ss It was observed that if two glass rods Sts ot BQ araticrod BQ, css : ‘ rubbed with wool or silt eloth are Re a abbed with Kk cloth owes @ brought close to each other, they repel 07 wt wt we each other [Fig, 1.1{a)]. The two strands ee elon tect oe tot ts » c) which the rods were rubbed, also repel each other. However, the glass rod and wool attracted cach other. Similarly, two atiracted the fur. On the other hand, the plastic rods rubbed with cat's fur io v repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b}] but. ‘a) fe o FIGURE 1.1 Rods and pith balls: like charges repel and ‘unlike charges plastic rod aitracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] and repel the sill or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. ‘The glass rod repels the fur. There are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like charges repel and (ti) unlike charges attract each other. The experiments also demonstrated that the chargesare transferred from the rods to the pith balls on contact. It is said that the pith balls are electrified or are charged by contact. The property which diflerentiates the two kinds of charges is called the polarity of charge. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one kind of charge and the silk acquires the second kind of charge. This is true for any pair of objects that are rubbed to be electrified. Now if the electrified glass rod is brought in contact with silk, with which it was rubbed, they no longer attract each other. They also do not attract or repel other light objects as they did on being electrified ‘Thus, the charges acquired after rubbing are lost when the charged bodies are brought in contact. What can you conelnde from these observations? It just tells us that unlike charges acquired by the objects neutralise or nullify each other's effect. Therefore, the charges were named as positive and negative by the American scientist Benjamin Franklin, By convention, the charge on glass rod or cat's fur is called positive and that on plastic rod or silk is termed negative. If an object possesses an lectrie charge, itis said to be electrified or charged. When it has no charge it is said to be electrically neutral A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is the gold-teaf electroscope [Fig 1.2(a)]. It consists of vertical metal rod housed in a box. with two thin gold leaves attached to its bottom end. When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergance is an indicator of the amount of charge. ‘Try to understand why material bodies acquire charge. You know that all maiter is made up of atoms and/or molecules. Although normally the materials are electrically neutral, they do contain charges: but their charges are exactly balanced. Forces that hold the molecules together, forces that hold atoms together in a solid, the adhesive force of glue, forces associated rract eachElectric Charges and Fields U OOS Ane eee RUN AUS In olden days, electricity and magnetism were treated as separate subjects. Electricity dealt with charges on glass rods, cat's fur, batteries, lightning, ete., while magnetism described interactions of magnets, iron filings, compass needles, etc. In 1820 Danish scientist Oersted found that a compass needle is ddlected by passing an electric current through a wire placed near the needle. Ampere and Faraday supported this observation by saying that electric charges in motion produce magnetic fields and moving magnets generate electricity. The unification was achieved when the Scottish physicist Maxwell and the Dutch physicist Lorentz put forward a theory where they showed the interdependence of these two subjects. This field is called electromagnetism. Most of the phenomena occurring around us can be described under electromagnetism. Virtually every force that we can think of like friction, chemical force between atoms holding the matter together, and even the forces describing processes occurring in cells of living organisms, have its origin in electromagnetic force. Electromagnetic force is one of the fundamental forces of nature. Maxwell put forth four equations that play the same role in classical electromagnetism as Newton's equations of motion and gravitation law play in mechanics. He also argued that light is electromagnetic in nature and its speed can be found by making purely electric and magnetic measurements. He claimed thatthe science of optics is intimately related to that of electricity and magnetism. The science of electricity and magnetism is the foundation for the modem technological civilisation. Electric power, telecommunication, radio and television, and a wide variety of the practical appliances used in daily life are based on the principles of this science. Although charged particles in motion exert both electric and magnetic forces, in the frame of reference where all the charges are at rest, the forces are purely electrical. You know that gravitational force is a long-range force. Its effect is felt even when the distance between the interacting particles is very large because the force decreases inversely as the square of the distance between the interacting bodies, We will learn in this chapter that electric force is also as pervasive and is in fact stronger than the gravitational force by several orders of magnitude (refer to Chapter 1 of Class XI Physics Textbook) with surface tension, all are basically electrical in nature, arising from the forces between charged particles. Thus the electric force is all pervasive and it encompasses almost each and every field associated with our life. It is therefore essential that weleam more about such a force. ‘To electrify a neutral body, we need to add or remove one kind of charge. When we say that a body is charged, we always refer to this excess charge or deficit of charge. In solids, some of the electrons, being less tightly bound in the atom, are the charges which are transferred from one body to the other. A body can thus be charged positively by losing some of its electrons. Similarly, a body can be charged negatively by gaining clectrons. When we rub a glass rod with sill, some of the electrons from the rod are transferred to the silkcloth. Thus the rod gets positively charged and the silk gets negatively charged. No new charge is created in the process of rubbing, Also the number of electrons, that are transferred, is a very small fraction of the total number of electrons in the material body. 8"h Physics _ Metal knot IL eto FIGURE 1.2 ‘Geld leaves w w electroscope. 3 1.3 Conpuctors anp InsuLarors i Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through them, others donot. ‘Those which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively AX free to move inside the material, Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are conductors, Most of the non- metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them. They, are called insulators. Most substances fall into one of the two classes stated above". When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over the entire surface of the conductor. In contrast, if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. You will learn why this happens in the next chapter. ‘This property of the materials tells you why a nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing, but a metal article like spoon does not. The i, Lordy dlp haacag charges on metal leak through our body to the ground ie gold leaf electroscope Schematics of « simple as both are conductors of electricity. However, if'a metal rod with a wooden or plastic handle is rubbed without touching its metal part, it shows signs of charging. 1.4 Basic Properties or Evectric CHARGE We have seen that there are two types of charges, namely positive and negative and their effects tend to cancel each other. Here, we shall now describe some other properties of the electric charge. If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the distances between them, we treat them as point charges. All the charge content of the body is assumed to be concentrated at one point in space. 1.4.1 Additivity of charges ‘We have not as yet given a quantitative definition of a charge; we shall follow it up in the next section, We shall tentatively assume that this can be done and proceed, Ifa system contains two point charges q, and dy, the total charge of the system is obtained simply by adding algebraically q, and q, ,1.e., charges add up like real numbers or they are scalars like the mass of a body. Ifa system contains n charges 4. dys dg --a4q then the total charge of the system is q, + q, + q+... +q,. Charge has magnitude but no direction, similar to mass. However, there is one difference between mass and charge. Mass of a body is always positive whereas a charge can be either positive or negative. Proper signs have to be used while adding the charges in a system. For example, the total charge of a system containing five charges +1, +2,-3, +4 and-5, in some arbitrary unit, is (+1) + (+2) + (3) + (+4) + (5) =-1 in the same unit. © There 1s a third category called semiconductors, which offer resistance the movement of charges which Is Intermediate between the conductors and Insulators,Electric Charges and Fields 1.4.2 Charge is conserved We have already hinted to the fact that when bodies are charged by rubbing, there is transfer of electrons from one body to the other; no new charges are either created or destroyed. A picture of particles of electric charge enables us to understand the idea of conservation of charge. When we rub two bodies, what one bocy gains in charge the other body loses. Within an isolated system consisting of many charged bodies, due to interactions among the bodies, charges may get redistributed but it ts found that the total charge of the isolated system ts altways conserved. Conservation of charge has been established experimentally. Itisnot possible to create or destroy net charge carried by any isolated system although the charge carrying particles may be ereated or destroyed in aprocess, Sometimes nature creates charged particles: aneutron turns intoa proton and an electron, The proton and electron thus created have equal and opposite charges and the total charge ts zero before and after the creation. 1.4.3 Quantisation of charge Experimentally itis established that all fice charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge denoted by e. Thus charge g on a body is always given by q=ne where nis any integer, positive or negative. This basic unit of charge is the charge that an electron or proton carries. By convention, the charge on an electronis taken to be negative; therefore charge on an electron is written as -e and that ona proton as +e. ‘The fact that electric charge is always an integral multiple of eis termed as quantisation of charge. There are a large number of situations in physics where certain physical quantities are quantised. The quantisation of charge was first suggested by the experimental laws of electrolysis discovered by English experimentalist Faraday. It was experimentally demonstrated by Millikan in 1912. In the International System (SI) of Units, a untt of charge ts called a coulomb and is denoted by the symbol C, A coulomb is defined in terms the unit of the electric current which you are going to leam in a subsequent chapter, In terms of this definition, one coulomb fs the charge flowing through a wire in 1 s if the current is 1 A(ampere), [see Chapter 2 of Class XI, Physies Textbook , Part I). In this system, the value of the basic unit of charge is 602192 x 10°C Thus, there are about 6 x 10" electrons in a charge of -1C. In electrostatics, charges of this large magnitude are seldom encountered and hence we use smaller units 1 uC (micro coulomb) = 10°°C or 1 mC (milli coulomb) = 10°C. Ifthe protons and electrons are the only basic charges in the universe, all the observable charges have to be integral multiples of e. Thus, if'a body contains n, electrons and n, protons, the total amount of charge on em"s Physics Paotarea et tone the body is n, x e+ n, x -e) = (n,—n.J e. Since n, and n, are integers, their difference Is also an integer. Thus the charge on any body is always an integral multiple of eand can be increased or decreased also in steps of e. The step size ¢ is, however, very small because at the macroscopi level, we deal with charges ofa few uC. At this scale the fact that charge of a body can increase or decrease in units of ¢{s not visible. In this respect, ‘the grainy nature of the charge is lost and it appears to be continuous. ‘This situation can be compared with the geometrical concepts of points and lines, A dotted line viewed from a distance appears continuous to us but is not continuous in reality. As many points very close to each other normally give an impression of a continuous line, many small charges taken together appear asa continuous charge distribution. At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that are enormous compared to the magnitude of charge e. Since e= 1.6% 107°C, a charge of magnituOde, say 1 uC, contains something like 10" times the electronic charge. At this scale, the fact that charge can increase or decrease only in units of eis not very different from saying that charge can take continuous values. Thus, at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has no practical consequence and ean be ignored. However, at the microscopic level, where the charges involved are of the order ofa few tens or hundreds of e, ie., they can be counted, they appear in discrete lumps and quantisation of charge cannot be ignored, It is the magnitude of seale involved that is very important. Example 1.2 If 10? electrons move out of a body to another body every second, how much time is required to get a total charge of 1 C on the other body? Solution In one second 10? electrons move out of the body. Therefore the charge given out in one second is 1.6 x 10 x 10°C = 1.6 x 101°C, ‘The time required to accumulate a charge of 1 C can then be estimated fo be 1 € + [1.6 10"? C/a) = 6.25 x 10? 3 = 6.25% 107+ (05 * 24 x 3600) years = 198 years. Thus to collect a charge of one coulomb, from a body from which 10? electrons moxe out every second, we will need approximately 200 years. One coulomb fs, therefore, a very large unit for many practical purposes. It is, however, also important to know what is roughly the number of electrons contained in a piece of one cubic centimetre of a material. A cubic piece of copper of side 1 cm contains about 2.5 x 10% electrons, Example 1.2 How much positive and negative charge ts there in a cup of water? Solution Let us assume that the mass of one cup of water is 250 g. The molecular mass of water is 18g. Thus, one mole (= 6.02 x 10% molecules) of water is 18 g. Therefore the number of. ‘molecules in one cup of water is (250/18) x 6.02 10%, Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, Le., 10 electrons and 10 protons. Hence the total positive and total negative charge has the same magnitude. It is equal to (250/18) x 6.02 x 10x 10x 1.6 x 10 C= 1.34% 107 C.— ooo Electric Charges and Fields 1.5 Coutoms’s Law Coulomb's law is a quantitative statement about the force between two point charges. When the linear size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, the size may be ignored and the charged bodies are treated as point charges. Coulomb measured the force between two point charges and found that it varied inversely as the square of the distance beiween the charges and was directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and acted along the line joining the two charges. Thus, if two point charges q,, 4, are separated by a distance rin vacuum, the magnitude of the force (F) between them is given by nox Bcd F ae a.) How did Coulomb arrive at this law from his experiments? Coulomb used a torsion balance* for measuring the force between two charged metallic spheres, When the separation between two spheres is much larger than the radius of each sphere, the charged spheres may be regarded as point charges. However, the charges on the spheres were unknown, to begin with. How then could he discover a relation like Eq. (1.1)? Coulomb thought of the following simple way: Suppose the charge on a metallic sphere is q. If the sphere is put in contact with an identical uncharged sphere, the charge will spread over the two spheres. By symmetry, the charge on each sphere will be g/2*. Repeating this process, we can get charges q/2, 4/4. ete. Coulomb varied the distance for a fixed pair of charges and measured the force for different separations. He then varied the charges in pairs, keeping the distance fixed for each pair. Comparing forces for different pairs of charges at different distances, Coulomb arrived at the relation, Eq. (1.1). ‘Coulomb's law, a simple mathematical statement, was initially experimentally arrived at in the manner described above, While the original experiments established it at a macroscopic scale, it has also been established down to subatomic level (r~ 10*° my). Coulomb discovered his law without knowing the explicit magnitude of the charge. In fact, it is the other way round: ‘Coulomb's law can now be employed to furnish a definition for a unit of charge. In the relation, Eq. (1.1), eis so far arbitrary. We can choose any positive value of k. The choice of determines the size of the unit of charge. In SI units, the © Atorsion balance is a Sensitive device to measure force, It was also used later by Cavendish to measure the very feeble gravitational force between two objects, to verify Newton's Law of Gravitation. Implicit in this is the assumption of additivity of charges and conservation: Z two charges (q/2 each) add up to make a total charge a.valve of Kis about 9 x 10" “y-. The unit of charge that results from this choice is called a coulomb which we defined earlier in Section 1.4. Putting this value of Iein Eq, (1.1), we see that for q,= q,=1C,r =1m F=9%10°N ‘That is, 1 C is the charge that when placed at a distance of 1 m from another charge of the same magnitude in vacuum experiences an electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 * 109 N, One coulomb is evidently too big a unit to be used. In practice. in electrostatics, one uses smaller units like 1 mC or L He. ‘The constant k in Eq, (1.1) is usually put as k= 1/4ne, for later convenience, so that Coulomb's lawis written as 1 aa, Ia.) FIGURE 1.3 (a) Geometry and ee a2 0) Rapees Hetwnee changes 4 is called the permittivity of free space . The value of, in SI units is y= 8.854 x 10°? C N'm? Since force isa vector, itis better to write Coubmb’s law in the vector notation. Let the position vectors of charges q, and q, be r, and x, respectively [see Fig. 1.3(a)]. We denote force on g, due to q, by F,, and force on q, due to q, by Fy. The two point charges g, and g, have been numbered 1 and 2.for convenience and the vector leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by ty: mano In the same way, the vector leading from 2 to 1 is denoted by r,.: Fa Ry? 8-H = ‘The magnitude of the vectors x, and rq 1s denoted by r,, and ry», respectively (r,, = r,,)- The direction of a vector is specified by a unit vector along the vector. To denote the direction from 1 to 2 (or from 2 to 1), we define the unit vectors: Fa Fis Coulomb's force law between two point charges q, and q, located at ¥, andr,, respectively is then expressed as, 1 Fa = a Mane th ‘Some remarks on Eq, (1.3) are relevant: a + Equation (1.9) is valid for any sign of q, end g, whether positive or negative. If q, and q, are of the same sign (either both positive or both Pa 0.3)Electric Charges and Fields negative). F,, is along #,,. which denotes repulsion, as it should be for like charges. If g, and q, are of opposite signs, F,, is along ~ Fai EF yg) Which denotes attraction, as expected for unlike charges. ‘Thus, we do not have to write separate equations far the cases of like and unlike charges. Equation (1.8) takes care of both cases correctly Pig. 1.800). Theforce F,, on charge q, due to charge q,, by simply interchanging 1 and 2, Le., ws ane obtained from Eq. (1.3), Fi, ‘Thus, Coulomb's law agrees with the Newton's third law. Coulomb's law [Eq, (1.3)] gives the force between two charges q, and 4g, in vacuum. If the charges are placed in matter or the intervening space has matier, the situation gets complicated due to the presence of charged constituents of matter. We shall consider electrostatics in matter in the next chapter, ‘Example 1.3 Coulomb's law for electrostatic force between two point charges and Newton's law for gravitational force between two stationary point masses, both have inverse-square dependence on the distance between the charges and masses respectively, (a) Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratto of their magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two protons, (b) Estimate the accelerations of electron and proton due to the electsical foree of their mutugl attraction when, they are 1A 10" m) apart? (m, = 1.67 x 107" kg, m, = 9.11 109" kg} Solution (a) i) The electric force hetween an electron and a proton at a distance apart is: ‘where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive, The corresponding gravitational force (always attractive) is: where m, and m, are the masses of a proton and an electron respectively. K 2 = = 24x10 Fe| 4xeGmyn, (i) On similar lines, the ratio of the magnitudes of electric force to the gravitational force between two protons at a distance r apart 1s: [me|___e* Fe axacm,m, 13% 10 However, it may be mentioned here that the signs of the two forces are different, For two protons, the gravitational force ts attractive ic) e 510 "a Physics poser i) Pee ey in nature and the Coulomb force is repulsive. The actual yalues Of these forces between two protons inside a nucleus (distance between (wo protons is = 107" m Inside a nucleus) are F, ~ 230 N, whereas, F, ~ 1.9 10*N. The (dimensionless) ratio of the two forces shows that electrical forces are enormously stronger than the gravitational forces. {b) The electric force F exerted by a proton on an electron is same in magnitude to the force ‘by an electron on a proton; however, the masses of an electron and a proton are different. Thus, the ‘magnitude of force 1s 1 LF] = Ggey pF = 8.987 = 10° Nin?/C? x (1.6 x107%C}* / (107%)? =2.3x 10°N Using Newton's second law of motion, F = ma, the aéscleration that an electron will undergo is a= 2.3X10°N / 9.11 X10! kg = 2.5 x 10% m/s? Comparing this with the value of acceleration due to gravity, we can conclude that the effect of gravitational field is negligible on. the motion of electron and it undergoes very large accelerations under the action of Coulomb force due to a proton. The value for acceleration of the proton is. 2.3% 104 N / 1.67 x 10 ky= 1.4 x 10" m/s? ‘Example 1.4 A charged metallic sphere A is suspended by a nylon thread. Another charged metallic sphere B held by an insulating $m ——__+ a i oF ie Sem 8 FIGURE 1.4Electric Charges and Fields handle is brought close to A such that the distance between their centres is 10 em, as shown in Fig, 1.4(a). The resulting repulsion of A is noted (for example, by shining a beam of light and measuring the deflection of its shadow on a screen). Spheres A and B are touched by uncharged spheres C and D respectively, as shown in Fig, 1.4(b). C and D are then removed and B is brought closer to A to a distance of 5.0 cm between their centres, as shown in Fig. 1.4(c). What is the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb's law? ‘Spheres A and C and spheres B and D have identical sizes. Ignore the sizes of A and B in comparison to the separation between their centres. Solution Let the original charge on sphere A be qand that on B be q. Aa distance r between their centres, the magnitude of the electrostatic force on each is given by neglecting the sizes of spheres A and 8 in comparison to r. When an identical but uncharged sphere C touches A, the charges redistribute on A and C and, by symmetry, each sphere carries a charge 4/2. Similarly, after D touches B. the redistributed charge on each is ¢/2. Now, if the separation between A and B is halved, the magnitude of the electrostatic force on each Is 1 (a/2Na‘/2)__1_| ane, 0/2)" Ane, Thus the electrostatic force on A, due to B, remains unaltered. eT mang, 1.6 Forces setween Murtipte Cuarces The mutual electric force between two charges Is given by Coulomb's law. How to calculate the force on a charge where there are not one but several charges around? Consider a system of n stationary charges q,. dy. dq» «++ Gq iN vacuum. What is the force on q, due to q,. q, --. d,2 Coulomb's law is not enough to answer this question. Recall that forces of mechanical origin add according to the parallelogram law of addition, Is the same true for forces of electrostatic origin? Experimentally, itis verified that force on any charge due to. anumber of other charges ts the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other charges. This is termed as the principle of superposition. To better understand the concept, consider a system of three charges g, q, and q,. as shown in Fig. 1.5{a). The force on one charge, Say q,, duc to two other charges q,, q, can therefore be obtained by performing a vector addition of the forces due to each one of these charges. Thus, ifthe force on g, due to q, is denoted by F,,. F,, is given by Eq, (1.3) even though other charges are present. FIGURE 1.5 A system of 1a 5 {3 taren'dhinrge= Thine, Bae 4 multiple charges. eae (b} multiple charg i12 " Physics El i Inthe same way, the force on q, due to q,, denoted byF,,, is given by i da which again is the Coulomb force on q, due to q,, even though other ceeentlccmondl Thus the total force F, on q, due to the two charges q, and q, Is given as R=Fu+Fa- 1_ ade ane, m3, anes ry a4) The above calculation of force can be generalised to @ system of charges more than three, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b) ‘The principle of superposition says that in a system of charges q,, doy + yy thee force on q, due to q, is the same as given by Coulomb's law, Le., itis unaffected by the presence of the other charges q,. q,. -.. d,-The total force F, on the charge q,, due to all other charges, is then given by the veetor stim of the forces Fry Fay Fy 1g Roh. +R, +4 By= ge] Mea, + Wha + ee, Arey | ne 3 Tin (1.5) The vector sum is obtained as usual by the parallelogram law of addition of vectors. All of electrostatics is basically a consequence of ‘Coulomb's law and the superposition principle, Example 1.5 Consider three charges q,, q,. q, each equal to q at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side L. What Is the force on a charge Q (with the same sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle, as shown in Fig. 1.6? Solution In the given equilateral triangle ABC of sides of length |, if wwe draw a perpendicular AD to the aide BC, AD = AC cos 30° = (/3 /2) | and the distance AO of the centroid O from A is (2/3) AD = (1/8) | By symmatry AO = BO = CO,Electric Charges and Fields Thus, s) Force F, on @ due to charge qat A = 77 a along AO 3 is Hote awe oarpetnr «5-2 osm 3 Force F, on @ due to charge qat C = aan along CO. 3 The resultant of forces F, and F, is G5 ee along OA, by the 394), parallelogram law, Therefore, the total foree on Q = Gag pelt #) = 0, where F 1s the unit vector along OA. It is clear also by symmetry that the three forces will sum to zero, ‘Suppose that the resultant force was non-zero but in some direction, Consider what would happen if the system was rotated through 60° about O. Example 1.6 Consider the charges q. q, and -q placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle, es shown in Fig, 1.7. What is the force on each charge? nO ini-inl=r A ee: FIGURE L? Solution The forces acting on charge q at A due to charges q at B and -q at Care P,, along BA and F,, along AC respectively, as shown in Fig, 1,10, By the parallelogram law, the total force F, on the charge qat Ais given by FF, =F § where § ls a unit vector along BC. The force of attraction or repulsion for each pair of charges has the same magnitude P= Geof ‘The totel force F, on charge qat B is thus F, ‘unit vector along AC. #,, where Fy is a Peed"s Physics f@ © FIGURE 1.8 Electric field (a) duce charge Q, (b) due to a charge -Q. 14 ‘Similarly the toial force on charge -q at C is F, = V3 F a, where Ais ‘the unit vector along the direction bisecting the ZBCA. It is interesting to see that the sum of the forces on the three charges F,+F,+F,=0 The result is not at all surprising. It follows straight from the fact that Coulomb's law Is consistent with Newton's third law. ‘The proof is left to you as an exercise, 1.7 Exectric Freip Let us consider a point charge Q placed in vacuum, at the origin O. If we place another point charge qat a point P, where OP =r, then the charge Q will exert a force on qas per Coulomb's law. We may ask the question: If charge q ls removed, then what is left in the surrounding? Is there nothing? If there is nothing at the point P, then how does a force act when we place the charge qat P. In order to answer such questions, the carly scientists Introduced the concept offeld. According to this, we say that the charge Q produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding. When another charge qis brought at some point P, the field there acis on sand produces a force. The electre feld produced by the charge @ ata point r is given as 19,19 4ney rf Aneg where # = r/r, is a unit vector from the origin to the point r, Thus, Eq.(1.6) specifies the value of the electric field for each value of the position vector r. The word “field" signifies how some distributed quantity (which could bea scalar or a vector) varies with position. The effect of the charge has been incorporated in the existence ofthe electric field. We obtain the force Fexerted by a charge Qn a charge q. as Blr)= 0.6) (1.7) Note that the charge q also exerts an equal and opposite force on the charge Q, The electrostatic force between the charges Q and q can be looked upon as an interaction between charge qand the electric field of Qand vice versa. If we denote the position of charge q by the vector r, it experiences a force F equal to the charge q multiplied by the electric field Eat the location of q. Thu Fit) = qEtr) (1.8) Equation (1.8) defines the SI unit of electric field as N/C*. ‘Some important remarks may be made here: () From Eq. (1.8), we can infer that if q is unity, the electric field due to a charge is numerically equal to the force exerted by it. Thus, the electric field due to a charge @ at a point in space may be defined as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if placed © An alternate unit V/m will be introduced in the next chapter,Electric Charges and Fields at that point. The charge Q. which is producing the electric field. is called a source charge and the charge q, which tests the effect of a source charge, is called a test charge. Note that the source charge Q must remain at its original location. However, ifa charge qis brought at any point around Q, @ itself is bound to experience an electrical force due to q and will tend to move. A way out of this difficulty is to make qnegligibly small. The force F is then negligibly small but the ratio F/qis finite and defines the electric field: e=um(F) (9) A practical way to get around the problem (of keeping Q undisturbed in the presence of q) 's to hold @ to its location by unspecified forces! This may look strange but actually this is what happens in practice. When we are considering the electric force on a test charge q due to a charged planar sheet (Section 1.15), the charges on the sheet are held to their locations by the forces due to the unspecified charged constituents inside the sheet. (i) Note that the electric eld B due to Q, though defined operationally in terms of some test charge q, is independent of q. This is because F is proportional to q, so the ratio F/q does not depend on q. The force F on the charge qdue to the charge @ depends on the particular location of charge q which may take any value in the space around the charge Q. Thus, the electric field E due to Qis also dependent on the space coordinate r. For different positions of the charge q all over the space, we get different values of eleciric eld E, The fleld exists at every point in three-dimensional space (ii) For a positive charge, the electric field will be directed radially outwards from the charge. On the other hand, if the source charge is, negative, the electric field vector, at each point, points radially inwards. liv) Since the magnitude of the force F on charge q due to charge Q depends only on the distance r of the charge q from charge Q, the magnitude of the electric field E will also depend only on the distance r, Thus at equal distances from the charge Q, the magnitude of its electric field E is same. The magnitude of electric field Edue to a point charge is thus same on a sphere with the point charge at its centre; in other words, it has a spherical symmetry. 1.7.1 Electric field due to a system of charges Consider a system of charges q,, qj, .... 4, with position vectors ¥,, Ty, T, relative to some origin O. Like the electric fleld at a point in space dite to a single charge, electric field at a point in space due to the system of charges is defined to be the force experienced by a unit test charge placed at that point, without disturbing the original positions of charges q,, dy: +) dy We can use Coulomb's law and the superposition principle to determine this field at a point P denoted by position vector. 15Electric field B, at r due to q, at r, is given by ARE, Ty where #, is a unit vector in the direction from q, to P, and ry, is the distance between q, and P. In the same manner, electric field E, at ¥ due to g, at ris tls ane, ri where fp is a unit vector in the direction from q, to P PIGURE 1.9 Blecine field ata pom! ANd T,, is the distance between q, and P. Similar due lo a system of charges ss te expressions hold good for fields B,. E,, E, due to vector sum of the electric elds at CARES Qy, dys = Fy 16 point due tulividuel charges By the superposition principle, the eleciric field E at r due to the system of charges fs (as shown in Fig, 1.12) E(e) = E, (r)+ By () +... + Ble) @., ia Las. = Set Bi ot By 4g mis Amey ts neg re EQ) = 0.10) Arey Fis a vector quantity that varies from one point toanother point in space and is determined from the positions of the source charges. 1.7.2 Physical significance of electric field You may wonder why the notion of electric field has been introduced here at all. After all, lor any system of charges, the measurable quantity 1s the force ona charge which can be directly determined using Coulomb's law and the superposition principle [Eq. (1.5)]. Why then introduce this intermediate quantity called the electric field? For electrostatics, the concept of electric field is convenient, but not really necessary. Electric field is an elegant way of characterising the electrical environment of a system of charges. Electric field at a point in the space around a system of charges tells you the force a unit positive test charge would experience ifplaced at that point (without disturbing the system). Electric field isa characteristic ofthe system of charges and Is independent of the test charge that you place at a point to determine the field. The term field in physics generally refers to a quantity that is defined at every point in space and may vacy from point to point. Electric field isa vector field, since force is a vector quantity. ‘The true physical significance of the concept of electric field, however, emerges only when we go beyond electrostatics and deal with time- dependent electromagnetic phenomena. Suppose we consider the force between two distant charges q,, q, in accelerated motion. Now the greatest speed with whicha signal or information can go from one point toanother 1s ¢, the speed of light. Thus, the effect of any motion of q, on q, cannotElectric Charges and Fields arise instantaneously. There will be some time delay between the effect (force on q,) and the cause (motion of q,). It is precisely here that the notion of electric field (strictly, electromagnetic field) is natural and very useful, The field picture is this: the accelerated motion of charge 4, produces electromagnetic waves, which then propagate with the speed ¢, reach q, and cause a force on q,. The notion of field elegantly accounts for the time delay. Thus, even though electric and magnetic fields can be detected only by their effects (forces) on charges, they are regarded as physical entities, not merely mathematical constructs. They have an independent dynamics of their own, i.c., they evolve according to laws of their own. They can also transport energy. Thus, a source of time- dependent electromagnetic fields, turned on for a short interval of time and then switched off, leaves behind propagating electromagnetic fields transporting energy. The concept of field was first introduced by Faraday and is now among the central concepts in physics. Example 1.7 An clectron falls through a distance of 1.5 em in a uniform electric field of megnitude 2.0 x 10¢N C* (Fig. 1.10(a)]. The direction of the field 1s reversed keeping tts magnitude unchanged and a proton falls through the same distance [Flg. 1.13(b)]. Compute the time of fall in each case. Contrast the situation with that of ‘free fall under gravity’. o FIGURE 1.10 Solution In Fig. 1.13(aj the field is upward, so the negatively charged electron experiences a downward force of magnitude ef where E is ‘the magnitude of the electric field. The acceleration of the electron is a, = eB/m, where m, Is the mass of the electron. ‘Starting from rest, the time required by the electron to fall through a distance his given by For e= 1.6 10%, m, £=2.0%10'NC*,h=1.5x 107 m, £=2.9% 10% In Fig, 1.18 (b), the field is downward, and the positively charged proton experiences a downward force of magnitude eE. The acceleration of the proton is a, = e&/m, Nia ra De wisse ale peo yy = LG 10 kg, The time of fall for the proton is ry 2 1718 "s Physics ootarta feta ‘Thus, the heavier particle (proton) takes a greater time to fall through the same distance. This is in basic contrast to the situation of ‘free fall under gravity’ where the time of fall 1s independent of the mass of the body. Note that in this example we have ignored the acceleration due to gravity in calculating the time of fall. To see if this is justified, Jet us calculate the acceleration of the proton in the given electric fleld: _ 0.6 x 10" ©) x (2.0 x 10' NC" = 1.67 x10" kg 9 x 10 ms* which Is enormous compared to the value of g (9.8 m 7), the ‘acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration of the electron is even wreater. Thus, the effect of acceleration due to gravity can be ignored ih tis example, Example 1.8 Two point charges q, and q,. of magnitude +10 C and =10" C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m apart, Calculate the electric fields at points A, B and C shown in Fig. 1.11. Be +E, 005m 005m 005m FIGURE 1.11 Solution The electric field vector B,, at A due to the positive charge q, points towards the right and has'@ magnitude _ {9x10°Nm?C*)x(10"C) _ Pes (0.051 ~ ‘The electric field vector By, at A duc to the negative charge q, points towards the right and has the same magnitude. Hence the magnitude of the total electric field B, at A is Ey= Bit By = 7.2% 108NCT B, ts directed toward the night, 3.6 x 10° NCtElectric Charges and Fields ‘The electric fleld vector ,,, at B due to the positive charge q, points towards the left and has a magnitude (9 10°NmC7) x110°C) (0.05my* ‘The electric field vector E,, at B due to the negative charge q, points towards the right end has a magnitude (9x 10°Nm?C*) (10°C) ie =3.6x10'NC! Egg = M 4x10? NC* (0.15my ‘The magnitude of the total electric field at Bis Ey = Eyy— Byy = 3.2% 10° N Ct E,, is directed towards the left. ‘The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge gy and g, Is (9x10°Nm?C*)<(10%C) _ (O10my The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in Fig. 1.14, The resultant of these two vectors is Be Bye 9x10° NCT x K a et Et B,cos & B,.c08 F= 9x 10° NC E. points towards the right. ees 1.8 Execrric Fietp Lines We have studied electric field in the last section. It isa vector quantity and can be represented as we represent vectors, Let us try to represent E due to a point charge pictorially. Let the point charge be placed at the origin, Draw vectors pointing along the direction of the eleciric eld with their lengths proportional to the suengih of the field at each point. Since the magnitude of electric t field at a point decreases inversely as the square of the distance of that point from the charge, the vector gets \ t shorter as one goes away from the origin, always pointing radially outward. Figure 1.12 shows such a picture. In \ dus figure, each arrow indicates the electric field, Le., the | force acting ona unit positive charge, placed at the tail of \ Lf that arrow. Connect the arrows pointing in one direction <— <—<—~@—> —> —> and the resulting figure represents a fleld line. We thus x \ get many field lines, all pointing outwards from the point charge. Have we lost the information about the strength a \ or magnitude of the field now, because it was contained v J \ in the length of the arrow? No. Now the magnitude of the field is represented by the density of fleld lines. E is strong | near the charge, So the density of field Imes is more near the charge and the lines are closer. Away from the charge, FIGURE 1.12 Piel of a point charue the field gets weaker and the density of field lines is less, resulting in well-separated lines. Another person may draw more lines, But the number of lines is nat important. In fact, an infinite number of lines can be drawn in any region. 19"Physics Region of Itis the relative density of lines in different regions which is weak field important. We draw the figure on the plane of paper, Le., in two- dimensions but we live in three-dimensions. So ifone wishes to estimate the density of field lines, one has to consider the number of lines per unit cross-sectional area, perpendicular tothe lines. Since the electric fleld decreases as the square of the distance from a point charge and the area enclosing the charge increases as the square of the distance, the number of field lines crossing the enclosing arca remains constant, whatever may be the distance of the area from the charge. We started by saying that the field lines carry information about the direction of electric fleld at different potnts in space. Having drawn a ceriain set of field lines, the relative density (Le., closeness) of the field lines at diflerent points indicates the relative strength of electric fleld at those points. The field lines crowd where the fleld is strong and are spaced apart where it is weak. Figure 1.13 shows a set of field lines. We can imagine two equal and small elements of area placed at points Rand S normal to the field lines there. The number of field lines in our picture cutting the area elements is proportional to the magnitude of field at these points. The picture shows that the field at R is stronger than at S. To understand the dependence of the fleld lines on the area, or rather the solid angle subtended by an area element, let us try to relate the area with the solid angle, a generalisation of angle to three dimensions. Recall how a (plane] angle is defined in two-dimensions. Let a small transverse line element Tbe placed at a distance r from a point O. Then the angle subtended by Al at O can be approximated as A@ = Al/r. Likewise, in three-dimensions the solid angle* subtended by a small perpendicular plane area AS, at a distance r, can be written as AQ = AS/?*. We know that in a given solid angle the number of radial field linesis the same. In Fig. 1.16, fortwo points P, and P, at distances 7, and r, from the charge, the element of area sublending the solid angle AQ is 1.40 at P, and an element of area 17.40 at P,, respectively. The number of lines (say n) cutting these area elements are the same. The number of field lines, cutting unit area element is therefore a/(1? AQ) at P, and n/(rj AQ) at P.,, respectively. Since n and AQ are common, the strength of the field clearly hasa 1/r* dependence. ‘The picture of field lines was invented by Faraday to develop an intuitive non-mathematical way of visuelising electric fields around charged configurations. Faraday called them lines of force. This term is somewhat misteading, especially in case of magnetic fields. The more appropriate term is field lines (electric or magnetic) that we have adopted in this book. Electric eld lines are thus a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration of charges. An electric field line is, in general, electric field strength on the distance and its relation to the number of field lines. © Solid angle is a measure of a cone. Consider the intersection of the given cone witha sphere of radius R. The solid angle AQof the cone is defined to be equal 20 (© A8/R’, where AS Is the area on the sphere cut out by the conea curve drawn in sucha way that the tangent toitat each point is in the direction of the net field at that point, An arrow on the curve is obviously necessary to specily the direction of electric field from the two possible directions indicated by a tangent to the curve. A field line is a space curve, ie., a curve in three dimensions. Figure 1.14 shows the field lines around some simple charge configurations. As mentioned earlier, the field lines are in 3-dimensional space, though the figure shows them only ina plane. The field lines ofa single positive charge are radially outward while those of a single negative charge are radially inward, The field lines around a system of two positive charges (q, q) give a vivid pictorial description of their mutual repulsion, while those around the configuration of two equal and opposite charges (q, -@), a dipole, show clearly the mutual attraction between the charges. The field lines fallow some important general properties: ) Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. I there is a single charge, Whey may start orend at infinity. (ii) In acharge-free region, electric field lines can be taken (o be continuous curves without any breaks. (ii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (Ifthey did, the field at the point of intersection will not have a unique direction, which is absurd.) liv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative nature of electric field (Chapter 2). 1.9 Execrric Fiux Consider flow of a liquid with velocity v, through a small fat surface dS, ina direction normal to the surface. The rate of flow of liquid is given by the volume crossing the area per unit time U dS and represents the flux of liquid flowing across the plane. If the normal to the surface is not parallel to the direction of flow of liquid, ie., tov, but makes an angle 0with it, the projected area in a plane perpendicular tovis §dScos 0. Therefore, the ux going out of the surface dS is v-m dS. For the case of the electric field, we define an analogous quantity and call it electric flux. We should, however, note that there is no flow of a physically observable quantity unlike the case of liquid flow. In the picture of electric field lines described above, we saw that the number of field lines crossing a unit area, placed normal to the field at a point is a measure of the strength ofelectric field at that point. This means that if Electric Charges and Fields \ 1 / Aa Bra ° @) @ FIGURE 1.14 Field lines due to some simple charge configurations: 21FIGURE 1.15 Dependence of flux on the inclination 9 between Band a FIGURE 1.16 Convention for defining normal a and AS, 22 we place a small planar clement of area AS normal to E at a point, the number of field lines |g crossing it is proportional’ to £ aS. Now 2 suppose we tilt the area element by angle 6 ——|=48 Clearly, the number of field lines crossing the * area element will be smaller. The projection of —e the area clement normal to Eis AScosé. Thus, the number of field lines crossing AS is proportional to EAS cosd, When (= 90°, field lines will be parallel to AS and will not cross it atall (Fig. 1.15). The orientation of area element and not merely its magnitude is important in many contexts. Forexample, in a stream, the amount of water flowing through a ring will naturally depend on how you hold the ring. If you hold itnormal to the flow, maximum water will flow through it than if you hold it with some other orientation. This shows that an area element should be treated as a vector. It has a magnitude and also a direction, How to specify the direction of a planar area’? Clearly, the normal to the plane specifies the orientation of the plane. Thus the direction ofa planar area vector is along its normal. How to associate a vector to the area of'a curved surface? We imagine dividing the surface into a large number of very small area elements, Each small area element may be treated as planar anda vector associated with it, as explained before. Notice one ambiguity here. The direction of an area element is along itsnormal. But anormal can point in two directions. Which direction do we choose as the direction of the vector associated with the area element? ‘This problem is resolved by some convention appropriate to the given context. For the case of a closed surface, this convention is very simple. ‘The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be in the direction of the outward normal. This is the convention used in Fig. 1.16, Thus, the area element vector AS at a point on a closed surface equals AS a where ASis the magnitude of the area element and fi is aunit vector in the direction of outward normalat that point. We now come to the definition of electric flux. Electric flux Ag through an area element 4S is defined by A@= EAS = BAS cost) aay which, as seen before, is proportional to the number of field lines cutting the area element. The angle @ here is the angle between E and AS. For a closed surface, with the convention stated already, @is the angle between, Eand the outward normal to the area element. Notice we could look at the expression F AS cos@ in two ways: E (4S cos¢) ic., E times the 7 TE will not be proper to Say that the number of field lines is equal to EAS. The number of field lines is after all, a matter of how many field lines we choose to draw. What is physically significant is the relative number of field lines crossing a given area at different points.Electric Charges and Fields projection of area normal to E, or E, AS, i.e., component of E along the normal to the area element times the magnitude of the area element. The unit of electric flux is NC? m?. ‘The hasie definition of electrie flux given by Eq. (1.11) can be used, in. principle, to calculate the total flux through any given surface. All we have todo is to divide the surface into small area elements, calculate the flux at each clement and add them up. Thus, the total flux ¢through a surface Sis b=D EAS (1.12) The approximation sign is put because the electric field Bis taken to be constant over the small area element. This is mathematically exact only when you take the limit AS > 0 and the sum in Eq. (1.12) is written asan integral. 1.10 Execrric Dirote An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges qand—q. separated by a distance 2a. The line connecting the two charges defines a direction in space, By convention, the direction from -q to qis said to be the direction of the dipole. The mid-point of locations of -q and q is called the centre of the dipole. The total charge of the electric dipole is obviously zero. This does not mean that the field ofthe electric dipole is zero. Since the charge q and ~qare separated by some disiance, the electric fields due to them, when added, do not exactly cancel out. However, at distances much larger than the separation of the two charges forming a dipole (r>> 2a), the fields due to q and -q nearly cancel out. ‘The electric eld due to a dipole therefore falls off, at large distance, faster than like 1/r*(the dependence on rof the field due to a single charge q). These qualitative ideas are borne out by the explicit calculation as follows: 1.10.1 The field of an electric dipole The electric field of the pair of charges |-q and q) at any point in space can be found out from Coulomb's law and the superposition principle. The results are simple for the following two cases: (i) when the point is on the dipole axis, and (i) when it is in the equatorial plane of the dipole, ie., ona plane perpendicular to the dipole axis through its centre. The electric field at any general point P is obtained by adding the cleciric fields B, due to the charge ~q and E,, due to the charge q. by the parallelogram law of vectors @ For points on the axis Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of the charge q, as shown in Fig, 1.20{a). Then = 4 E “Gnagirvae? 1.13f@)) where p isthe unit vector along the dipole axis ({rom -q to q), Also 2a GeghcaP? (1.130b)}"s Physics 2a Bg Bae eo ‘The total field at P is Se a BE Es actin, ? a mole (ray |? fa) __a Sai ans, (PoP a1 For r>> a 4qa . Ear Aner P (r>>a) 0.15) (ty For points on the equatorial plane The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two charges +q and ~q are given by qi Pea ang, Pea (1.16(@)) 1 Roget [1.16(b)] Ant P+ a7 FIGURE 1.17 Electric field of a dipole and are equal. aC (a) point on the exis, (b) @ point ‘The directions of E,, and E., are as shown in om the easton plane © he ciple jag 1-200). Clearly the cofiponents hormal othe apole pis the dipole moment velo" ol" axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis magnitude p= q% 2a and 2 add up. The total electric field is opposite to P. We have directed from -q to @. . {E,,+E_,)cosd P a.17) 18) From Eqs. (1.15) and (1.18), it is clear that the dipole field at large distances does not involve qand a separately; it depends on the product ga. This suggeats the definition of dipole moment. The dipole moment vector p of an electric dipole is defined by p=qx2aP (2.19) that is, its a vector whose magnitude is charge q times the separstion 2a(between the pal of charges q,-q) and the direction Is along the line from -qto q, In terms of p, the electric field ofa dipole at large distances takes simple forms: Ata point on the dipole axis 2 Bag >a 0.29 Ata point on the equatorial plane P ae Bae a a2nElectric Charges and Fields Notice the important point that the dipole field at large distances falls offnotas 1/r* but as1/r*, Further, themagnitude and the direction. of the dipole field depends not only on the distance r but also on the angle between the position vector r and the dipole moment p. We can think of the limit when the dipole size 2a approaches zero, the charge g approaches infinity in such a way that the product q* 2ais finite, Such a dipole is referred to as a point dipole. For a point dipole, Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) are exact, true for any r. 1.10.2 Physical significance of dipoles In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of negative charges* le at the same place. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero, CO, and CH, are of this type of molecules. However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied, But in some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do not coincide. Therefore they have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Such molecules are called polar molecules. Water molecules, HO, is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting properties and important applications in the presence or absence of clectric field. Example 1.9 Two charges 410 uC are placed 5.0 mm apart, Determine the cleciric fleld at (a) @ point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm away from its centre O on the side of the positive charge, as shown in Fig, 1.2M(a), and (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line passing through © and normal to the axis of the dipole, as shown in Fig, 1.21(b). -10mc +10 uc FIGURE 1.18 i) © Centre of a collection of positive point charges is defined much the same way = axon care stiiona, Oe26 "a Physics Solution (2) Meld at P due to charge +10 uC 10°C x 1 = gp(.854x107 CN Tm) 15-0.25) x104 mit = 413% 10° NC along BP Field at P due to charge -10 uC _ 10°C : 1 © 4n(8.854x10" Nm) * (1540257 x10* m= = 3.86 * 108 NC along PA. The resultant electric field at P due to the two charges at A and B is = 2.710° NC along BP. In this example, the ratio OP/OB is quite large (= 60). Thus, we can ‘expect to get approximately the same result as above by directly using the formula for electric field at a far-away point on the axis ofa dipole. For a dipole consisting of changes + q. 2a distance apart. the electric field at a distance r from the centre on the axis of the dipole has a. magnitude au Bays (/a>D where p= 2a qis the magnitude of the dipole moment. ‘The direction of electric field on the dipole axis is always along the direction of the dipole moment vector (i.e., from -q to g). Here, p=10*CxX5x10%m =5x 1o%Cm Therefore, 2x5x10%Cm 1 ae “GnG.854x10 FE Nm) MSP xIO% me ~ 2-6 * 10° NCO along the dipole moment direction AB, which is close to the result obtained earlier. (b) Field at Q due to charge + 10 pC at B 10% x 1 “Gr (6.854x10 GN m=) “15* + (0.25)"1 x 10% me = 8.99% 10° NC along BQ £ Field at Q due (o charge ~10 uC al A . 1c x a “ARG SEXO FEN ms) 50257104 = 3.99 x 10° NC” along QA. Clearly. the components of these two forces with equal magnitudes ‘cancel along the direction OQ but add up along the direction parallel to BA, Therefore, the resultant elecirle fleld at Q due to the two charges at A and B is 0.25 i5* + (0.257 = 188 10? NC” along BA. As in (e), we can expect to get approximately the same reoult by directly using the formula for dipole field at a point on the normal to the axis of the dipole: « 8.09 x 10°NC ‘along BAElectric Charges and Fields 2 angr (a>) stom . 1 4n(8854x10 CNT (P10 = 183 10° NC ‘The direction of electric Meld In this case Is opposite to the direction of the dipole moment vector. Again, the result agrees with that obtained before. 1.11 Diote iw a Unirorm Exrternat Fietp Consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E, as shown in Fig. 1.19. (By permanent dipole, we mean that p exists irrespective of B:; it has not heen inchuced by B.) There is a force gE on gand a force -qE on -q, The net force on the dipole is zero, since E is uniform, However, the charges are separated, so the forces act at different points, resultinginatorque on the dipole. When the net force is zero, the torque (couple) is independent of the origin. Its magnitude equals the magnitude of FIGURE 1.19 Dipole in « cach force multiplied by the arm of the couple (perpendicular '"!/0rm electric Held distance between the two antiparallel forces). Magnitude of torque = q BX 2 asin® =2qazsing Its direction is normal to the plane of the paper. coming out of it The magnitude of p x B is also p Esin0 and its direction E is normal to the paper, coming out of it. Thus, Beconal + =pxE (1.22) +— Sens This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field ° ° E, When pis aligned with B, the torque is zero. a What happens ifthe field is not uniform? In that case, the net force will evidently be non-zero. In addition there will, in general, be a torque on the system as before. The general case is involved, so let us consider the simpler situations when ps parallel to E or antiparallel to E, In either case, the net torque is zero, but there is a net force on the dipole if B is not uniform, Figure 1.20 is self-explanatory. It is easily seen that when p is parallel to B, the dipole has a net force in the direction of increasing field. When p is antiparallel to E, the net force on the dipole is in the direction of decreasing Direction ef net force = —> Direction of increasing field = ——» @) Qe et Foree on -@ field. In general, the force depends on the orientation of P with respect toB, This brings us to a common observation in frictional electricity. A comb run through dry hair attracts pieces of paper. The comb, as we know, acquires charge through friction. But the paper is not changed. What then explains the attractive force? Taking the clue from the preceding Direction of net force = <— Direction of increasing feld = + o FIGURE 1.20 Electric force on a dipole: (a) E parallel to p, (b) B tiparallel (0 p. ae"s Physics Volume charge AQ~ Pav FIGURE 1.21 Definition of linear surlace and vol charge densities In each case, the element (AL AS, AV) chosen is small on the macroscopic seale but contains a very large number of anleroseople constitue 28 discussion, the charged comb ‘polarises’ the piece of paper, ie., induces a net dipole moment in the direction of field. Further, the electric field due to the comb is not uniform. This non-undformity of the field makes a dipole to experience a net force on it. In this situation, if Is easily seen that the paper should move in the direction of the comb! 1.12 Conrmvous Cuarce Distripution We have so far dealt with charge configurations involving diserete charges 4p» Gor --+ dye One reason why we restricted to discrete chargesis thal the mathematical treatment is simpler and does not involve calculus. For many purposes, however, it is impractical to work in terms of discrete charges and we need to work with continuous charge distributions. For example, on the surface of a charged conductor, itis impractical to specify ‘the charge distribution in terms of the locations of the microscopte charged constituents. It is more feasible to consideran area element AS (Fig. 1.2.1) on the surface of the conductor (which is very small on the macroscopic scale but big enough to include a very large number of electrons) and specify the charge AQ on that element, We then define a surface charge density cat the area element by Ag as Q.23) ‘We can do this at different points on the conductorand thus arrive at a continuous function o, called the surface charge density. The surface charge density so defined ignores the quantisation of charge and the discontinuity in charge distribution at the microscopic level”. ¢ represents macroscopic surface charge density, which ina sense, is a smoothed out average of the microscopic charge density over an area clement AS which, as said before, is large microscopically but small macroscopically. The units for eare C/m*. Similar considerations apply for a line charge distribution and a volume charge distribution. The linear charge density 4 of a wire is defined by 4Q al where ALis a smaill line element of wire on the macroscopic scale that, however, includes a large number of microscopic charged constituents, and AQ is the charge contained in that line element. The units for are C/m. The volume charge density (sometimes simply called charge density) is defined in a similar manner: AQ av where AQ is the charge included in the macroscopically small volume element AV that includes a large number of microscopic charged constituents. The units for pare C/m*. The notion of continuous charge distribution is similar to that we adopt for continuous mass distribution in mechanics. When we refer to o a (0.24) Pp 1.25) = At thie microscopic level, charge distribution ts discontinuous, because they are discrete charges separated by intervening space where there Is no charge.—— Electric Charges and Fields the density of a liquid, we are referring to its macroscopic density. We regard it as a continuous fluid and ignore its discrete molecular constitution. The field due to a continuous charge distribution can be obtained in much the sameway as for a system of diserete charges, Eq, (1.10). Suppose a contintious charge distribution in space has a charge density p. Choose any convenient origin O and let the position vector af any point in the charge distribution be r. The charge density p may vary from point to point, Le., it isa function of r, Divide the charge distribution into small volume elements of size AV. The charge in a volume element AVis pAV. Now, consider any general point P (inside or outside the distribution) with position vector R (Fig. 1.21). Electric field due to the charge pAV is given by Coulomb's law: 1 pav, ne, at (1.26) where ris the distance between the charge element and P, and # isa unit vector in the direction from the charge element to P. By the superposition principle, the total electric field due to the charge distribution is obtained by summing over electric fields due to dilferent volume elements: 1 ane, atv (1.27) Note that p. r’, #” all can vary from point to point. In a strict mathematical method, we should lei AV->0 and the sum then becomes an integral; but we omit that discussion here, for simplicity. In short, using Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle, electric field can be determined for any charge distribution, discrete or continuous or part discrete and part continuous. 1.13 Gauss’s Law As a simple application of the notion of electric flux, let us consider the ‘otal flux through a sphere of radius r, which encloses a point charge q at its centre. Divide the sphere into small area elements, as shown in Fig. 1.22. The flux through an area element AS is ‘as Ag= EAS ne HAS. (1.28) where we have used Coulomb's law for the electric field due to a single charge g. The unit vector F is along the radius vector from the centre to the area element. Now, since the normal to a sphere at every point 18 along the radius vector at that point, the area element AS and F have the same direction. Therefore, E= FIGURE 1.22 Klux 4 fs Ag= AS (1.29) through a sphere Ane, enclosing a point since the magnitude of a unit veetoris 1 charge q al its centre The total flux through the sphere is obtained by adding up flux through all the different area elements: 29FIGURE 1.28 Calculation of the of uniform elecirie etd through the surface of a cylinder a 30 9-2. ot ails Ane, r AS Since each area element of the sphere is at the same distance rfrom the charge, Now §, the total area of the sphere, equals 4x1, Thus, ae xanr? 0.39 Equation (1.30) is a simple illustration of a general result of electrostatics called Gauss's law. We state Gauss’s law without proof: Electric flux through a closed surface S / asn q= total charge enclosed by S. ‘The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero ifno charge is enclosed by the surface. We can scc that explicitly in the simple situation of Fig, 1.23. Here the electric field is uniform and we are considering a closed cylindrical surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E. The total flux # through the surface is #= 4, + ¢, +45. where 4, and ¢, represent the flux through the surfaces 1 and 2 (of circular cross-section) of the cylinder and g, is the Mux through the curved cylindrical part of the closed surface. Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is perpendicular to E, so by definition of flux, $,= 0. Further, the outward normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal to 1 is opposite to B. ‘Therefore 4 =-ES, 6,=+ES, S,=S,=S where Sis the area of circular cross-section. Thus, the total flux is zero, as expected by Gauss's law. Thus, whenever you find that the net electric flux through a closed surface is zero, we conclude that the total charge contained in the closed surface is zero. ‘The great significance of Gauss’s law Eq, (1.31), ts that it is true in general, and not only for the simple cases we have considered above. Let us note some important points regarding this law: ( Gauss's law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape (i) The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, Eq. (1.31), includes the sum ofall charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located anywhere Inside the surface. (ii In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges inside and some outside, the electric field {whose fhux appears on the left side of Bq, (1.31)]1s due to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law. however. represents only the total charge inside S.Electric Charges and Fields liv) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss's law is called the Gaussian surface. You may choose any Gaussian surface and apply Gauss’s law. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface pass through any discrete charge. This is hecause electric field due to asystem of discrete charges is not well defined at the location of any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the field grows without any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge distribution v) Gauss's law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the clectrostatic field when the systert has some symmetry. This is facilitated by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface. (vi) Finally, Gauss's law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb's law. Any violation of Gauss's law will indicate departure from the inverse square law. Example 1.10 The cleciric field components in Fig. 1.24 are 6, = ax", £, = 8, = 0, in which a = 800 N/C m”*. Calculate (a) the flux through the cube, and (b) the charge within the cube. Assume that a= 0.1m. a FIGURE 1.24 Solution fa) Since the electric field has only an x component, for faces perpendicular to x direction, the angle between B and AS is +-n/2. Therefore, the flux 9 = E.AS is separately zero for each face of the cube except the two sbaded ones, Now the magnitude of the electric field at the left face Is Bae =aa'™ by=aat the left face) ‘The magnitude of electric field at the right face is ax! = a (2a)? te= 2a at the right face). ‘The corresponding fluxes are pee ee tee, 8 os care ee eee ae y =-Be iH b= ByrAS = Ky AS cns0 =F, AS, since @= 0° y aye 3 5 Net flux through the cube32. "a Physics Pee eC) Se eee = Opt 6,7 Mget - By =o (y- B= ac? (2a)? - a = ad’ (J2-1) 00 (0.1)°? (¥2-1) 1.05 Nm? ct (b) We can use Gauss's law to find the total charge inside the cube. We have $= a/s, or q =4s,. Therefore, q= 1.05 x 8.854 x 10°? C =9.27 x 10 C. Example 1.11 An electric field is uniform, and in the positive x direction for positive x, and uniform with the same magnitude but in the negative x direction for negative x. It is given that B= 200 i N/C for x> 0 and B= -200 i N/C for x < 0, A right circular cylinder of Jength 20 cn and radius 5 em has its centre at the origin and its axis along the eaxis so that one face is at x= +10 em and the other is at 4=-10 em (Fig. 1.28). (a) What is the net outward flux through each flat face? (b) What is the flux through the side of the cylinder? (c) What is the net outward flux through the cylinder? (d) What is the net charge inside the cylinder? Solution (@) We can see from the figure that on the left face B and AS are parallel, Therefore, the outward ux is 4-818 =~ 200 bas = +200 AS, since i-AS=- AS = +200 x n (0.05) 1.57 Nm? ct (On the right face, B and AS are parallel and (herefore d= BAS= +1.57N mC. (b) For any point on the side of the cylinder B is perpendicular to AB and hence B-A8 = 0. ‘Therefore, the flux oul of the side of the cylinder is zero, (c) Net outward flux through the cylinder $=157+1.57+0=3.14Nm?C? y as sqm ee 7% as © si 10an 20cm x=10cn (a) The net charge within the cylinder can be found by using Gauss's law which gives 9 59 a = 3.148.854 10 C = 278x104eElectric Charges and Fields 1.14 Appiicarions or Gauss’s Law The electric field due to a general charge distribu tion is, as seen above, given by Eq. (1.27). In practice, except for some special cases, the summation (or integration) involved in this equation cannot be carried out to give electric fleld at every point in space. For some symmetric charge configurations, however, it is possible to obtain the electric field ina simple way using the Gauss's law. This is best understood by some examples. 1.14.1 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire Consider an infinitely long thin straight wire with uniform linear charge density 2. The wire is obviously an axis of symmetry. Suppose we take the radial vector from O to Pand rotate it around the wire. The points P, P’, P” so obtained are completely equivalent with respect to the charged wire. This implies that the electric field must have the same magnitude at these points. The direction of electric field at every point must be radial (outward if A> 0, inward if 1 <0). This is clear from Fig. 1.26. Consider a pair of ine elements P, and P, of the wire, as shown. The electric fields produced by the two elements of the pair when summed give @ resultant electric Neld which is radial (the components normal to the radial vector cancel). This is true for any such pair and hence the total field at any point P is radial. Finally. since the wire is infinite, electric field does not depend on the position of Palong the length of the wire. In short, the electric field is everywhere radial in the plane cutting the wire normally, and its magnitude depends only on the radial distance r. To calculate the field, imagine a cylindrical Gaussian surface, as shown in the Fig, 1.26(b), Since the field is everywhere radial. flux through the two ends of the cylindrical Gaussian surface is ero. At the cylindrical part of the surface, E is normal to the surface at every point, and its magnitude is constant, since it depends only on r. The surface area of the curved part is 2erl, where Lis the length of the cylinder. ») FIGURE 1,26 (a) Electric fleld due to an infinitely Jong thin straight wire Is radial, (b) The Gaussian surface tor a long thin wire of unliorm Unear charge density. oS"s Physics Flux through the Gaussian surface flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface = Ex2erl ‘The surface includes charge equal to AL Gaus EX Qnrl= AV ey a Drege " law then gives ie,E Vectorially, Eat any point is given by a 2re,r E (1.32) where @ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing through the point. Bis directed outward if/.is positive and inward if Ais negative, Note that when we write a vector Aas.a scalar multiplied by a unit vector, Le., as A= A a, the scalar Ais an algebraic number, It can be negative or positive. The direction of A will be the same as that of the unit vector @ if A> 0 and opposite to @ if A<0. When we want to restrict to non-negative values, we use the symbol |A|and call it the modulus of A. Thus, |A|>0. Also note that though only the charge enclosed by the surface (A) was included above, the electric field Eis due to the charge on the entire wire. Further, the assumption that the wire is infinitely long is crucial. Without Uiis assumption, we cannot (ake E (0 be normal to the curved part of the cylindrical Gaussian surface. However. Eq. (1.32) 18 approximately true for electric field around the central portions of along wire, where the end effects may be ignored, 1.14.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet Let o be the uniform surface charge density of an infinite plane sheet (Fig, 1.27). We take the x-aais normal to the given plane, By symmetry, the electric field will not depend on y aad z coordinates and its direction at every point must be parallel to the x-direction. ‘Surface We can take the Gaussian surface to be a 2 charge densitye rectangular parallelepiped of cross-sectional area A,as shown. (A cylindrical surface will also do.) As seen from the figure, only the two faces 1 and 2 will contribute to the flux; electric field lines are parallel to the other faces and they, therefore, do not contribute to the total flux. ‘The unit vector normal to surface 1 ts in -x direction while the unit vector normal to surface 4 xt x is in the +x direction. Therefore, flux E.AS through both the surfaces are equal and add up. Therefore the net flux through the Gaussian surface is 2 FA. The charge enclosed by the closed surface is oA. 34 Therefore by Gauss’s law, FIGURE 1.27 Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.Electric Charges and Fields 2EA=cA/e, or. B= 0/28, Vectorically, Baa 1.33) 2e where A isa unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it Eisdirected away from the plate if c is positive and toward the plate if os negative, Note that the above application of the Gauss’ law has brought out an additional fact: Eis independent of also. Fora finite large planar sheet, Eq. (1.33) is approximately true in the middle regions of the planar sheet, away from the ends. 1.14.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell Let o be the uniform surface charge density ofa thin spherical shell of radius R (Fig. 1.28). The situation has obvious spherical symmetry. The field at any point P, outside or inside, can depend only on r (the radial distance from the centre of the shell to the point) and must be radial (Le., along the radius vector) @ Field outside the shell: Consider a point P outside the shell with radius vector r. To calculate E at P, we take the ©, passing through P. All points on this sphere are equivalent relative to the given charged configuration. (That iswhat we ‘mean by spherical symmetry.) The electric field at each point of the Gaussian surface, therefore, has the same magnitude Band is along the radius vector at each point. Thus, Band AS at every point are parallel and the flux through each element is EAS. Summing over all AS, the flux through the Gaussian surface Is E * 4 1°, The charge enclosed is where q = 4 R’ ois the total charge on the spherical shell. Vectorially, 0.34) ‘The electrie field is directed outward if q>0 and inward if <0. This, however, is exactly the field produced by a charge qplaced at the centre O. Thus for points outside the shell, the field due to a untformly charged shell ts as if the entire charge of the shell is concentrated at its centre. (i!) Field inside the shell: In Fig. 1.28(b), the point P is inside the shell. The Gaussian surface is again a sphere through P centred at O. - u Surface charge Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius rand with centre densitys Gaussiag surface Sg Gaussian 's law Surface charge Gaussian density 6 % FIGURE 1.28 Gaussian surfaces for a point with ()r> Rb) r R. r R: In this case, the total change enclosed by the Gaussian spherical surface is zero since the atom is neutral. Thus, from Gause’s Jaw, E(x an 7=0 of B()=0; r>R At r= R both cases give the same result: 0. SUMMARY 1, Electric and magnetic forces determine the properties of atoms, ‘molecuiles and bulk matier. 2. From simple experiments on frictional electricity, one can infer that there are two types of charges in nature; and that tke charges repel and unlike charges attract, By convention, the charge on a glass rod rubbed with silk Is positive: that on a plastic rod rubbed with fur is, then negative 3. Conductors allow movement of electric charge through them, instilators do not, In metals, the mobile charges are electrons; in electrolytes both positive and negative ions are mobile. 4. Eleciric charge has three basic properties: quantisation, additivity and conservation, ‘Quantisation of elecirie change means that total charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge (e) ic. 47 ne, where n= 0, £1, £2, £9, ... Proton and electron have charges. e,~e, respectively. For macroscopic charges for which risa very large ‘number, quantisation of charge can be ignored. Additivity of electric charges means that the total charge of a system. 4s the algebraic sum (i.e., the sum teking into account proper signs) of all Individual changes in the system. Conservation of electric charges means that the tatal charge of an isolated system remains unchanged with time. This means that when. 20 sunveg, 3738 "h Physics ). Some of the important properties of fleld lines ar bodies are charged through friction, there is transfer of dectric charge from one body to another, but no creation or destruction of charge. Coulomb's Law: The mutual electrostatic force between two point charges 9, and q, is proportional to the product qq, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 1,, separating them. Mathematically, k Go) 5 ee Fy, = force on g, due to % 2 where f, 1s a unit vector in the direction from g, to gy and k= ta the constant of proportionality In SI units, the unit of charge is coulomb. The experimental value of the constant 4 is 9 = 8.804 «107 ON mi? The approximate value of kts k=9%10°Nm? Cc? ‘The ratlo of electrle force and gravitational force between a proton and an electron is ne ke? @ man, ‘Superposition Principle: The principle is based on the property that the forves with which two charges altraet or repel each other are not affected by the presence of a third (or more) additional charge(s), For anassembly of charges qd. dy. the force on any charge, say q,.18 the vector eum of the force on. @ due t0 gy, the force on q, die t0 ay, and soon, For each pair, the force is given by the Coulomb's law for ‘two charges stated earlier. The electric field E at a point duc to a charge configuration is the force on a small positive test charge q placed at the point divided by the magnitude of the charge. Electric lield due to a point charge qhas armagnitude |] /4eayr: sts radially outwards from q, iq ix positive and radially inwards if qis negative, Like Coulomb force, electric field ‘also satistles superposition principle. ‘An electric field line ty a curve drawn in such a way tha the tangent at each point on the curve gives the direction of electric field at that Poult, The relative closeness of field lines indicates the relative strengU of dectrc field at different points they crowd near each other in regions, of strong electrle field and are far apart where the electric fleld is weak. In regions of constant electric field, the fleld lines are uniformly spaced parallel straight lines. 2a x 10" ) Field fines are continuous curves without any breaks. (i) Two field lines cannot cross each other, (li) Electrostatic fled lines start at positive changes and ‘end at negative charges —they eannot form closed loops. ‘An clectric dipole is « pair of equal and opposite changes q and —q separaied by some distance 2a. Its dipole moment vector p has magnitude 2qa and is in the direction of the dipole axis from ~q to 4,Electric Charges and Fields 12. Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane {i.e., the plane perpendicular toits axis and passing through its centre) at a distance from the centre: 1 Trg aE Sa ferrae Dipdle electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre: 2or ama a F eee * Trae ot ‘The 1/1 dependence of dipole electric flelds should be noted In contrast to the 1/r? dependence of electric field due to a point charge. 13, In a uniform electric field B, a dipole experiences a torque ¢ given by t=pxE but experiences no net force. 14. The Mux Agof electric Feld B through 4 small area element AS ta ven by Ag = EAs ‘The vector area element AS ix AS=ASh where ASis the magnitude of the area element and i is normal tothe area element, which can be considered planar for sufficiently small AS, Foran area element ofa closed surface, is taken tobe the direction of outward normal, by convention 18, Gauss’s law The flux ofeleciric field through any closed surface Sis Iegtimes the total charge enclosed by S. The lav is especially useful in determining electric eld E, when the source distribution has simple symmetry: () Thin inpintely iong straight wire of uniform tinear charge density A de Der where ris the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire and Ais the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing through the point. li Infinite thin plane sheet of uniferm surface charge density @ 2g where A is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on either side. 3940 "a Physics (ii) Thin spherical shellof uniform surface chargedersity ¢ 4 te ©2R B=0

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