Chapter 13

Trade in Ancient India

13.1Trade in Ancient India: Trade played a significant role in the economy of ancient India.
It was a crucial factor that influenced the social, cultural, and political life of the people. The
trade routes connecting India to the rest of the world were established centuries ago, and they
have played a vital role in shaping the country's history. In this article, we will explore the
trade in ancient India, including the major trade routes, goods traded, and the impact of trade
on the society and economy of ancient India.

13.2 Trade Routes in Ancient India

The trade routes in ancient India can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which
existed between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization had a well-
developed system of trade, as evidenced by the discovery of seals, pottery, and other artifacts
that suggest trade with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and other parts of India. The major trade
routes in ancient India were:

1. The Silk Road: The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes that connected
China to the Mediterranean. The Silk Road passed through Central Asia and India,
and it was an important route for the trade of silk, spices, tea, and other luxury goods.
2. The Spice Route: The Spice Route was another important trade route that connected
India to the Middle East and Europe. It was used for the trade of spices, including
pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, and nutmeg.
3. The Maritime Route: The Maritime Route was used for sea trade and connected India
to Southeast Asia, East Africa, and the Mediterranean. It was used for the trade of
spices, textiles, and precious stones.
4. The Grand Trunk Road: The Grand Trunk Road was a major trade route that
connected the northern and eastern parts of India. It was used for the trade of textiles,
food, and other goods.

13.3 Goods Traded in Ancient India

The trade in ancient India involved the exchange of a wide variety of goods, including spices,
textiles, precious stones, metals, and pottery. Some of the most important goods traded in
ancient India were:

1. Spices: Spices were the most important commodities traded in ancient India. Pepper,
cinnamon, cardamom, and nutmeg were some of the most valuable spices, and they
were exported to Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.
2. Textiles: Textiles were another important commodity traded in ancient India. India
was known for its high-quality cotton, silk, and woolen textiles, which were in high
demand in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
3. Precious Stones: India was known for its vast reserves of precious stones, including
diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. These stones were exported to the Middle East,
Europe, and Southeast Asia.
4. Metals: India had significant deposits of metals such as gold, silver, copper, and iron.
These metals were used for making jewellery, utensils, and weapons, and they were
exported to the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.
13.4 Impact of Trade on Ancient India

The impact of trade in ancient India was far-reaching and had significant implications for the
economy, society, and culture of the country. The trade routes connecting India to the rest of
the world were well-established, and they facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas, leading
to cultural and economic growth. In this article, we will explore the impact of trade in ancient
India in more detail.

Economic Impact

Trade played a significant role in the economic growth of ancient India. The exports of
spices, textiles, and other goods generated significant revenue for the country, which was
used to fund the construction of infrastructure, including roads, canals, and ports. The
construction of these infrastructure projects, in turn, facilitated further trade and economic
growth.

The growth of trade also led to the development of urban centers, as traders and merchants
established settlements near major trade routes and ports. These urban centers served as hubs
for trade and commerce and became centers of economic and cultural activity. The growth of
urban centers also led to the development of specialized crafts and industries, such as
weaving, metalworking, and pottery, which further stimulated economic growth.

Societal Impact

Trade had a significant impact on the society of ancient India. The exchange of goods and
ideas facilitated by trade led to the spread of Indian culture and traditions, as well as the
adoption of new ideas and practices from other parts of the world. This cultural exchange led
to the development of a cosmopolitan society, where people from different cultures and
backgrounds coexisted and shared ideas and experiences.

The growth of trade also led to the development of a merchant class, who played a crucial
role in the economy and society of ancient India. Merchants were often wealthy and
influential, and they played an important role in the governance and administration of the
country. They were also patrons of the arts, and they supported the development of literature,
music, and other cultural activities.

Cultural Impact

The impact of trade on the culture of ancient India was significant. The exchange of goods
and ideas facilitated by trade led to the development of a rich and diverse culture,
characterized by a fusion of Indian and foreign influences. The introduction of new ideas and
practices from other parts of the world led to the development of new art forms, literature,
and music.

The trade in spices, textiles, and other goods also played a crucial role in the development of
Indian cuisine. Spices such as pepper, cinnamon, and cardamom were widely used in Indian
cuisine, and they were exported to other parts of the world. The development of Indian
cuisine, in turn, led to the development of new culinary traditions, such as Mughlai cuisine,
which was a fusion of Indian and Persian influences.
In conclusion, the impact of trade in ancient India was significant and far-reaching. It led to
the growth of the economy, the development of urban centers and specialized crafts, and the
emergence of a merchant class. It also facilitated cultural exchange and the development of a
cosmopolitan society, characterized by a rich and diverse culture. The legacy of trade in
ancient India can still be seen today, in the country's cuisine, art, literature, and music.

Indian Architecture
14.1 TECHNOLOGIES USED DURING INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
The Indus valley people were probably the first-ever skilled craftsmen, who made wonders
with minimum resources they have. They have achieved many notable advancements during
the 3300 to 1300 BC when their civilization flourished.
City-Planning
They made their living area and housing in a well-structured manner. They used baked
bricks and lime for construction, where the bricks used were in uniform size and moisture-
resistant. They used to apply gypsum and natural tar to make them waterproof. The structure
of the city was greatly planned with the residential area on the higher land and water storages
on the lower part.

They displayed excellent architecture and perfect urban sanitization methods where the
bathrooms were built to one side of the house and the drains were connected to the central
drain of the street. Many of those houses were equipped with own wells.
Cooking Methods
A variety of underground and over-ground mud ovens were discovered by archaeologists
which reveal that they knew different methods of cooking and baking. As wheat was found
to be their staple food, they might have used these ovens for baking bread. The cylindrical
pits which were plastered with lime were found at the site where the Harappans might have
stored wheat grains.
14.2 Seal and Trade
There are many important innovations in this civilization. They include standardized weights
and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead, and tin. They were
experts in seal carving and used them for the identification of property and to stamp clay on
trade goods. They also used balances and perfect weighing stones to trade.
14.3 Arts
They used to wear ornaments made out of metals like gold embedded with gems and semi-
precious stones. Painted terracotta pots and the sketches found on articles reveal their
expertise in arts. The discovered artifacts of Indus valley civilization include the stamps that
they decorated with animal figures such as buffalos, elephants, tigers, and rhinoceros.
The Fire-altars were found in Kali-began where they used to perform their religious
practices. They invented the methods of using fire to make Ornaments, things, and vessels.
14.4 Scripts and Gods

They used to have some typical script that includes signs and symbols. The scholars are still
working on them to decipher. They used to worship many gods such as Pruthvi Devi,
Pasupathi, Siva Linga, Nagdevta, Surya dev and trees such as Neem tree and Peepal tree,
which confirm them as followers of Hindu traditions.
14.5 FAMOUS HISTORIC SCULPTURES OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Sculptures were the first kind of "Artform" that came into existence. Since the humans started
to settle, they decided to make houses and those beautiful mud abodes, were nothing less than
sculptures. Later the art evolved, when the abodes became more form oriented, and making
of bricks gave form to the homes that came to be. This can be seen in the spaces and designs
of Harrappan Civilization. Later, sculptures became the means of depicting the culture and
lifestyle of a place, and much later it became one of the most loved form of Art and homes
started to become embellished by it.

India has had fair number of Sculptural marvels, and have their significance in depicting the
Indian Culture.

Some of the famous Sculptures from the Indian/Subcontinental Indian Culture are:

1. The Dancing Girl, Mohen Jo Daro, c. 2500 BC-

The statue of the famous 'Dancing Girl, found to be in the times of Harappa. The statue, in
bronze, is 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in) tall, and depicts a naked young woman or girl with
stylized proportions standing in a confident, naturalistic pose. Dancing Girl is well-regarded
as a work of art, and is a cultural artefact of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The statue is regarded as one of the oldest and magnificent artwork till date. It is utterly
significant to decipher the origin of the First Civilization and the settlements in the Indian
Subcontinent.

2. Ashoka Pillar, Sarnath, 3rd Cebtury B.C.-

The most celebrated capital (the four-lion one at Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)) erected by Emperor
Ashoka circa 250 BC. also called the "Ashoka Column" . Four lions are seated back to back.
At present the Column remains in the same place whereas the Lion Capital is at the Sarnath
Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National
Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was placed onto the centre of
the flag of India.

3. Buddha Statue, Sarnath:

Sculpture of Gautama Buddha delivering his first sermon in the deer park at Sarnath. He
preached the Four Noble Truths, the middle path and the Eightfold Path. In the statue, he is
seated in Padmasana with his right hand turning the Dharmachakra, resting on a Triratna
symbol, flanked on either side by a deer.

4. Nataraj, Chola Bronze Sculpture-

The famous Shiva Dance- Nataraja and the bronze sculpture, of the Natatraj of the Chola
period is one of the most significant religious sculptures, and beholding the stature even
today. Made with the Lost wax technique, the Chola bronzes bring together the art of
metallurgy and the aesthetics of the sacred and the sensous dance come out in a remarkable
fashion. Sculpting as an art has evolved to so much greater extent since the pre-historic times,
and today a lot of variations can be seen in this, in terms of materials, aesthetic, and even
themes. The sculptors are more profound these days and that can be seen in the installations
today.

14.6 Coinage of India: Coins used in Ancient India

The study of coinage in history is called numismatics. The beginning of ancient Indian
coinage can be traced between 1st millennium BCE to 6th Century BCE. This stage comprised
of coins that were made of copper and silver.The coins found in ancient Indian history were
mainly stamped bars of metal. The metal stamped bars were inspired by the currency that was
in circulation during the Janpadas in the early historical phase and evolved further with the
emergence of different dynasties.

Prehistoric and Bronze Age

In the Indian context, no significant evidence is found to conclude that people in Stone age
used currency or they conducted exchange in barter. The Indus Valley Civilization seems to
have conducted an extensive trade on a wide network, but it was predominantly conducted
around the barter system. However, the Harappans also used metals like silver of fixed
weight for trade and mercantile activities.

Coins in the Vedic Period

The Rigveda has references to nishka (gold) and nishka greeva (ornaments of gold) but it is
not sure if these could be understood as coins. However, the later Vedic texts had references
to nishka, suvarna, shatamana, and pada. But scholars are of the opinion that these terms do
not indicate a wide circulation of conventional coins.

Coinage during Janapadas

The most definite literary and archaeological evidence that suggests the usage of coins in the
subcontinent, dates around 6th-5th Century BCE. It was in the context of the emergence of
states, urbanisation, and rising trade activities that the Buddhist texts and Panini’s
Ashtadhyayi refer to terms like kahapana/karshapana, nikkha/nishka, shatamana, pada,
vimshatika, trinshatika, and suvanna/suvarna. It is interesting to note the basic unit of the
weight of the Indian coins was the red and black seed of gunja berry (Abrus precatorius). In
South India, the standard weight of the coins was ascertained by calculating the relationship
between the weight of two kinds of beans- the manjadi (Odenthera pavonia) and Kalanju
(Caesalpinia bonduc).

Punch-marked coins
The most conventional system of coinage emerged with the circulation of punch-marked
coins, that were mostly made of silver, and sometimes even copper. They were sometimes
square, or round but mostly rectangular in shape.The symbols on these were hammered using
punches and dies. That is why we know them as punch-marked coins. A standard punch-
marked coin often weighed around 32 rattis or about 52 grains (1 grain = 64.79 mg). Punch
marked coins are found across the subcontinent and were popular till the early centuries CE.

The Punch marked coin series can be further divided into four categories: The Taxila-
Gandhara type, the Kosala type, the Avanti type, and the Magadhan type.

With the expansion of the Magadhan Empire, the coins that belonged to the Magadhan
category replaced the other three types. It must be noted that these coins do not have any
legends inscribed on them which could convey the details of the kingdom.

Coins of Kuru Janapada

Coins of Magadha Janapada

Coinage and the Maurya’s
The Mauryan Empire used the punch-marked coins but with royal standard to make sure of
their authenticity. The liberty to use two different metals for coins was granted, and hence
coins in silver and copper were very popular.

Coinage by the Indo-Greeks

The next prominent range of coins that were issued belongs to 2nd/1st century BCE by the
Indo-Greeks. The Indo-Greeks system of coinage becomes significant because the minting
was executed in a more refined manner. The coins were mostly made of silver, usually round,
with exceptions to few rectangular or circular) bore the name of the issuing ruler along with
depicting legends. For example, the coins of Menander and Strabo I show them passing
through different stages of life, suggesting their long reigns.The languages on these coins was
Prakrit, inscribed mostly in Kharoshthi script.

”.

The Kushana type coins

The Kushanas (1st-4th Centuries CE) were the first dynasty in the subcontinent that issued a
large number of gold coins. The lower denomination was usually found in copper coins.The
coins usually bore the figure, name, and title of the ruler on the obverse and the deities on the
reverse. The legends are either entirely in Greek, or in some cases in Kharoshthi on the
reverse.
Coinage by the Imperial Guptas
The Imperial Guptas issued well-minted and well-executed gold coins, die struck with
various impressive legends in Sanskrit. These coins, also known as dinaras, were mostly
found in North India.The obverse has the kings in various poses, mostly in martial mood, but
sometimes even in artistic calibre. Coins have also shown rulers like Samudragupta and
Kumaragupta playing Vina.The Gupta coins were issued in gold in large numbers and have
been credited to their fine aesthetic appeal. However, the purity of gold saw a decline during
the later Guptas.

Post Gupta Coinage

The dynasties like the Gurjaras, Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Paramaras, and the Palas from circa
530 CE to 1202 CE can be put under a broad category of Indo-Sassanian styled coinage. The
main features of these coins included the bust of the ruling sovereign in a simplified
geometric style on the obverse and a motif like a fire altar on the reverse.

Coinage by the Imperial Cholas

The coinage of the imperial Cholas bore semblance to the South Indian dynastic coins.
The Chola coins exhibited a tiger crest. They also suggested political developments. The
emblems like fish and bow which belonged to the Pandyas and Cheras suggested a political
conquest of these political powers, and also the idea of co-existence

14.7 Pottery tradition in India

  Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Mehargarh from
the Indus Valley Civilization. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced
extensively in India. Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and
reconstructing the past.
 Historically with distinct culture, the style of pottery changed. It reflects the
social, economic and environmental conditions a culture thrived in, which
helps the archaeologists and historians in understanding our past. It holds
significant value in understanding cultures where script was either absent or
remains un-deciphered.

Evolution of pottery making in India

Neolithic age:
First reference of pottery in this age. It is hand-made pottery but during the later period foot-
wheel is also used.

Chalcolithic age:
It is marked by the occurrence of distinct pottery cultures. Such as- Black and red-ware
pottery, black-on-red ware and Ochre colored pottery.

Harappan civilization:
Pottery traditions that existed during this time include- Polished Ware Pottery with rough
surface, Burial Pottery of Harappa, Ochre colored pottery (OCP), Black-grey burnished ware,
Black-on-red ware, Grey-ware and Painted grey-ware
Vedic age:
Pottery traditions that existed during this time include- Painted Grey-ware (PGW), Northern
Black Polished ware (NBPW), megalithic pottery found in Kerala.

Mauryan period:

 Use of the pottery wheel became universal.

 The pottery associated with the Mauryan period consists of many types of ware.
 But the most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery
known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), which was the hallmark of
the preceding and early Mauryan periods.
Gupta period:
Gupta pottery remains found at Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar afford an
outstanding proof of the excellence of pottery. The most distinctive class of pottery of this
period is the red ware.

Kushan period:
The Kushan cultural phase in Bengal and North Indian sites brought a new horizon in
ceramic craft. The characteristic pottery of this phase is marked by a unique red polished
ware with stamped design along with a large number of dull or sturdy red ware.

Important elements of pottery analysis

1. The three key elements of pottery analysis are fabric, form and decoration.
2. The form or morphology of a pot consists of four main elements: its base, body,
neck and rim.
3. Fabric is the outer physical surface of the pottery which is a combination of
factors such as clay used, degraissant mixed, firing technique (i.e. oxidation and
reduction) etc
4. Another aspect of the physical form of pottery is decoration and surface
treatment.

Questions:

1. What are the different types of architecture found in India ? Describe them in brief.
2. Write a short note on sculptures in India.
3. Write a short note on seals.
 4. Write a short note on coinage of India.
5. What do you understand by pottery? Explain.
6. Write a short note on evolution of pottery.

Puppetry, Dance, Music

15.1 Theatre & Drama

Theatre and drama have a long and rich history in ancient India, dating back to at least the 5th
century BCE. There were several different forms of drama in ancient India, including
Sanskrit theatre, folk theatre, and puppet theatre.

Sanskrit theatre, also known as Natyashastra, was the most sophisticated and prestigious form
of drama in ancient India. It was a highly stylized form of theatre that included dance, music,
and elaborate costumes and makeup. The plays themselves were typically based on Hindu
mythology or historical events and were written in Sanskrit, the language of the educated
elite.

The Natyashastra, written by the sage Bharata in the 2nd century BCE, is the most important
text on Sanskrit theatre. It outlines the rules and principles of theatre, including the different
types of characters, the emotions they should express, and the types of stories that are suitable
for theatre.

One of the key features of Sanskrit theatre was the use of the nataka or drama, which was the
most serious and complex form of play. The nataka typically dealt with philosophical and
moral themes and was intended to educate and enlighten the audience. Other forms of
Sanskrit theatre included the prakarana or comedy, the natika or romantic play, and the bhana
or farce.

In addition to Sanskrit theatre, there were also various forms of folk theatre in ancient India.
These included the tamasha, which was a type of street theatre that often-included music and
dance, and the jatra, which was a type of travelling theatre that performed in villages and
small towns.

Another form of theatre in ancient India was puppet theatre, which was particularly popular
in the northern regions of the country. Puppet theatre, or yatra, involved the use of elaborate
puppets that were controlled by puppeteers. The stories performed in yatra were often based
on Hindu mythology and were intended to entertain and educate the audience.

Overall, theatre and drama played an important role in ancient Indian culture, providing a
means of entertainment and education for people of all social classes. While Sanskrit theatre
was the most sophisticated and prestigious form of drama, there were also many other forms
of theatre that were popular and widely enjoyed. Today, the legacy of ancient Indian theatre
can still be seen in the vibrant and diverse theatre traditions that continue to thrive in the
country.
15.2 Dance in India

Dance
Dance is a type of art that generally involves movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to
music, performed in many different cultures and used as a form of expression, social
interaction and exercise or presented in a spiritual or performance setting.

Dance may also be regarded as a form of nonverbal communication between humans, and is
also performed by other animals (bee dance, patterns of behavior such as a mating dance).
Gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are sports that incorporate dance,
while martial arts kata are often compared to dances. Motion in ordinarily inanimate objects
may also be described as dances .

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and
moral constraints and range from functional movement to virtuoso techniques such as ballet.
Dance can be participatory, social or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial,
competitive or erotic. Dance movements may be without significance in themselves, such as
in ballet or European folk dance, or have a gestural vocabulary/symbolic system as in many
Asian dances.

Origin of Dance in India

In Hindu mythology, dance is believed to have been conceived by Brahma. Brahma inspired
the sage Bharata Muni to write the Natya Shastra, a treatise on performing arts, from which a
codified practice of dance and drama emerged. He used pathya (words) from the Rigveda,
abhinaya (gestures) from the Yajurveda, geet (music) from the Samaveda and rasa (emotions)
from the Atharvaveda to form the Natyaveda (body of knowledge about dance). The best-
known of Hindu deities-Shiva, Kali and Krishna-are typically represented dancing. Shiva's
cosmic dance, tandava, Kali's dance of creation and destruction and Krishna's dance with the
gopikas (cow-herd girls)-Rasa Lila-are popular motifs in Hindu mythology.

In ancient India, there were no dedicated auditorium halls or theaters, and dance was usually
a functional activity dedicated to worship, entertainment or leisure. Dancers usually
performed in temples, on festive occasions and seasonal harvests. Dance was performed on a
regular basis before deities as a form of worship. Even in modern India, deities are invoked
through religious folk dance forms from ancient times. Classical dance forms such as Bharata
Natyam use mudras or hand gestures also to retell episodes of mythological tales such as the
slaying of Kaliya by Krishna.

Gradually dancers, particularly from South India, moved from temples to houses of royal
families where they performed exclusively for royalty.

India offers a number of classical Indian dance forms, each of which can be traced to
different parts of the country. Classical and folk dance forms also emerged from Indian
traditions, epics and mythology. There are many Indian folk dances such as Bhangra, Bihu,
Ghumura Dance, Sambalpuri, Chhau and Garba and special dances observed in regional
festivals such as Lohri and Navratri.

Dance Forms in India

The 2 major dance forms in India are classical and folk dance. The major difference between
Classical and Folk dance is the origin.
Classical dance has a deep-rooted relationship with the Natya Shastra where the specific
features of each of the Classical dance forms have been mentioned.
Folk dance, on the other hand, emerged from the local tradition of the respective state, ethnic
or geographic regions.

Classical Dance in India

The classical dance form originated from the Natya Shastra. There are 8 classical dance
forms in India as per the source and scholar.
The Cultural Ministry of India has included Chhau into the list of classical dances that makes
a total of 9 classical dance forms.
The 8 basic technicalities that are expressed in the classical dance are given below:

1. Shringar: Love
2. Hasya: Humorous
3. Karuna: Sorrow
4. Raudra: Anger
5. Veer: Heroism
6. Bhayanak: Fear
7. Bibhats: Disgust
8. Adbhoot: Wonder

List of Classical dances in India State of Origin

Bharatnatyam Tamil Nadu

Kathak Uttar Pradesh

Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh

Odissi Odisha

Kathakali Kerala

Sattriya Assam

Manipuri Manipur

Mohiniyattam Kerala
Questions based on these classical Indian dance forms are common in the UPSC exam for the
prelims phase.

Folk Dances in India

Folk dances in India represent the culture and tradition of the community from where it
originated.
Folk dances are usually performed during the respective community’s celebration- childbirth,
festivals, weddings, etc.
There are different types of Folk dances in India.
The list of Folk Dances in India is given below:

State of Origin List of Folk Dances in India

Andhra Pradesh Vilasini Natyam, Bhamakalpam, Veeranatyam, Dappu, Tappeta Gullu,

Lambadi, Dhimsa, Kolattam.

Arunachal Buiya, Chalo, Wancho, Pasi Kongki, Ponung, Popir

Pradesh

Assam Bihu, Bichhua, Natpuja, Maharas, Kaligopal, Bagurumba, Naga dance, Khel
Gopal.

Bihar Jata-Jatin, Bakho-Bakhain, Panwariya

Chhattisgarh Gaur Maria, Panthi, Raut Nacha, Pandwani, Vedamati, Kapalik

Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Raas, Tippani Juriun, Bhavai

Goa Tarangamel, Koli, Dekhni, Fugdi, Shigmo, Ghode, Modni, Samayi nrutya,
Jagar, Ranmale

Haryana Jhumar, Phag, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga, Khor.

Himachal Jhora, Jhali, Chharhi, Dhaman, Chhapeli, Mahasu

Pradesh

Jammu & Rauf, Hikat, Mandjas, Kud Dandi Nach

Kashmir
Jharkhand Alkap, Karma Munda, Agni, Jhumar, Janani Jhumar, Mardana Jhumar, Paika,
Phagua

Karnataka Yakshagana, Huttari, Suggi, Kunitha, Karga

Kerala Ottam Thullal, Kaikottikali

Maharashtra Lavani, Nakata, Koli, Lezim, Gafa, Dahikala Dasavtar

Madhya Pradesh Jawara, Matki, Aada, Khada Nach, Phulpati, Grida Dance, Selalarki,
Selabhadoni

Manipur Dol Cholam, Thang Ta, Lai Haraoba, Pung Cholom

Meghalaya Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Nongkrem, Laho

Mizoram Cheraw Dance, Khuallam, Chailam, Sawlakin, Chawnglaizawn, Zangtalam

Nagaland Rangma, Zeliang, Nsuirolians, Gethinglim

Odisha Savari, Ghumara, Painka, Munari

Punjab Bhangra, Giddha, Daff, Dhaman, Bhand

Rajasthan Ghumar, Chakri, Ganagor, Jhulan Leela, Jhuma, Suisini, Ghapal

Sikkim Chu Faat, Sikmari, Singhi Chaam or the Snow Lion, Yak Chaam, Denzong
Gnenha, Tashi Yangku

Tamil Nadu Kumi, Kolattam, Kavadi

Tripura Hojagiri

Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Raslila, Kajri, Jhora, Chappeli

Uttarakhand Garhwali, Kumayuni, Kajari, Jhora, Raslila

15.3 MUSIC IN INDIA

THE SOUND OF MUSIC

Music is sound (and silence). While dance is practically exclusively movement of body
parts, music can be created by body parts (mouth, hands, feet, etc.) as well as musical
instruments (tabla, harmonium, guitar, etc.).
THE ORIGIN
In India, the origin of music, indeed sound itself is traced back to the origin of the universe.
According to Hindu mythology, the first ever sound is the Naadbrahma (Brhma as Sound),
which pervades the entire universe. It is the purest sound in the universe and is believed to be
unstruck. Another myth associates the origin of sound (and dance) with the Tandava of Shiva
and Onkar. It is said that sage Narada then introduced the art of music to the earth from
heaven. Like dance, origin of the music in India was in devotional songs and was restricted to
religious and ritualistic purposes and was mainly used in temples only. This then developed
in association with folk music and other musical forms of India and gradually derived its own
musical characteristics.
MUSIC IN ANCIENT INDIA
The history of music in India can be traced back to the Vedic times. The concept of
Naadbrahma was prevalent in the Vedic ages. All organised music traces its origins back to
the Sam Veda which contains the earliest known form of organised music. The earliest raga
owes its origin to the Sam Ved. During the late Vedic Period, music prevailed in the form
called Samgana, which was purely a chanting of the verses in musical patterns. After that
music changed its course a little bit. The epics were narrated in musical tones called `Jatigan.`
Between the second to the seventh century AD, a form of music called `Prabandh Sangeet`,
written in Sanskrit became very popular. This form gave rise to a simpler form called
Dhruvapad, which used Hindi as the medium.
The first reference to music was made by Panini in 500 BC and the first reference to musical
theory is found in `Rikpratisakhya` in 400 BC. Bharata’s Natyashastra (4th century AD),
contains several chapters on music, which was probably the first clear written work on music
that has divided music into octaves and twenty-two keys. The next important work on music
is `Dathilan` that also mentions the existence of twenty-two srutis per octave. According to
ancient notion, only these twenty-two srutis can be made by the human beings. Two other
important works written during this period were `Brihaddesi` written by Matanga in 9th
century AD, which attempts to define Raga and `Sangeeta Makaranda; written by Narada in
11th century AD, which enumerates ninety-three Raagas and classifies them into masculine
and feminine species.
MUSIC IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
In the medieval period, the nature of Indian music underwent a change due to the impact of
the Muslim influence. At this time, Indian music slowly started branching off into the two
distinct forms of Hindustani and Carnatic music. These two traditions of music started to
diverge only around 14th century AD. The Persian influence brought a substantial change in
the Northern style of Indian music. In the fifteenth century AD, the devotional Dhruvapad
transformed into the Dhrupad or classical form of singing. The Khayal developed as a new
form of singing in the eighteenth century AD. Carnatic classical or kriti is mainly based on
the Saahitya or lyric oriented, while Hindustani music emphasizes on the musical structure.
Hindustani music adopted a scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka or Octave of natural notes while
Carnatic music retains the style of traditional octave. Both Hindustani and Carnatic music
express great assimilative power, also absorbing folk tunes and regional characteristics as
well as elevating many of these tunes to the status of ragas. Thus, these two systems of music
have mutually influenced each other.
MUSIC IN MODERN INDIA
With the advent of the British in India, the court arts underwent a decline. Since most of the
nawabs and noblemen lost their wealth and did not have the rewards to lavish on performers,
most of the musicians had to move over to other occupations. A few gharanas did however
manage to survive and continued. However, on the whole, Indian music took a backseat and
interest and resources to sustain this art started to fade. A parallel development that gradually
started forming at this time was that newer forms of media were now emerging.. Thus, with
the advent of television, radio etc western influences started creeping into Indian music.
There was the spread of popular or `pop` music and this trend increased with the spread of
cinema. Classical music too started being exported out of the country in the 60`s, and an
experiment of combining western music with the Indian Classical form also took place. This
gave rise to what is popularly referred to as fusion music. In the 70`s and 80`s disco and pop
music entered the Indian musical scene. The 90`s further popularised the pop trend among the
Indian audiences. With the further spread of information technology and an increasingly
global world, we see a host of musical forms existing in contemporary India—rock, Hip-hop,
jazz etc. Apart from these western forms of music, traditional forms of Indian music, such as
Khayal, Ghazal, Geet, Thumri, Qawwali etc. also find place in the contemporary music.
Bhajans and Kirtans, which form a separate stream of religious songs, are also quite widely
sung across the country. During all this historical development of music in India, Folk Music
continued to keep its existence side by side classical music.

15.3 Painting

Indian Paintings - Walk Through the Different Shades

Here is a blunt glimpse of sundry art forms that have contributed to making the Indian
painting genre so diversified and deep:
Cave Art

Who would have believed that during the times when humans lived in caves, art existed? The
rich and complex history of Indian paintings spans thousands of years with its origin in the
prehistoric times. When you look at the Bhimbetka caves of Madhya Pradesh, which has
numerous wall paintings in the caves, you understand the time slippage through which art has
survived miraculously. Along with this, another epitome of prehistoric cum cave art can be
seen in the sites of Ajanta Ellora, Sittanavasal, Bagh, etc. These sites also have frescos of
deities like Buddha, Shiva, Krishna, etc, displaying the versatility of Indian art.

Madhubani

Loaded with a spectacular set of impeccable patterns and rich history, Madhubani paintings
stand tall at the pinnacle of Indian art forms. This art form is known to originate way back in
the times of Ramayana during the wedding preparation of Lord Rama and Goddess Sita. It
was King Janaka who summoned all his prominent artists and told them to decorate the entire
palace with mesmerising paintings on the auspicious wedding. During that time, villagers
used to paint these artworks on the mud walls of their homes. The theme of these paintings is
mainly cultural and traditional. Any art lover will fall in love with the appealing geometric
designs, symbolic depictions, and representation of events from religious mythologies.
Madhubani paintings are still available in numerous offline/online art galleries and come in
five genres named as Godna, Kohbar, Bharni, Tantrik, and Katchni.

Phad
You must have seen in any Bollywood flick that represents historic times that messengers
used to read from a scroll to communicate with another state’s king. Phad paintings have their
origin in Rajasthan and are basically the artworks made on the scrolls. There is no precise
origination date for Phad artworks but it is estimated that this style is approximately 1000
years old. These scroll paintings have scenes and tales of heroes and deities depicted on cloth
scrolls tinges of red, orange, and yellow. The subject matter of Phad paintings swirls around
representations of battlefields, adventurous tales, epic love stories, and affluent princely
states. This form of folk painting is known for embedding more than one story in a single
creation without compromising on the aesthetic of the artwork.

Warli

Sourced in the Thane and Nasik region of Maharashtra, Warli paintings are around 2500
years old art form that is known to represent mundane routines of the people living in the
tribe and the beauty of nature. Daily activities such as dancing, farming, praying, etc became
the center of creation for the artists making Warli paintings. Similar to their dotage, the
techniques used to make these paintings are also conventional. For instance, in the older
times, women used branches to make buoyant patterns using rice paste that is embedded on
the mud walls of houses. The artworks were used to celebrate different occasions like
wedding ceremony and harvesting season.

Kalamkari
India is known to shelter and nourish different civilisations in its lap from time to time.
Mughals came to India and ruled a major chunk of the nation for hundreds of years.
Kalamkari is the gift of Persia that was introduced in Indian art in the 15th century. The name,
Kalamkari itself got its origination from two words ‘Kalam’ meaning pen and ‘Kari’ that
means artistry. This enchanting artistry is incredibly passed on through generations and is still
practiced in the Andhra Pradesh state. Kalamkari paintings are known to showcase the
spectacular animal depictions, flower representations, and blissful Mehrab patterns.
Intriguingly, these artworks also come in Kalamkari textiles and are made using shades like
black, mustard, rust, indigo, and green.

Gond

The origination of Gond paintings goes back to the Gondi tribe located in central India.
Artists develop enthralling depictions representing the mythological stories, oral narrations,
conventional songs, crucial happenings, cultural rituals, and natural aesthetics using the
appealing dash and dot patterns. The ecstasy, affluent specificity, and vivacious motifs of
Gond paintings put them amongst the most appealing epitomes of Indian folk art.
Traditionally, the colours were made using natural ingredients like plant sap, leaves, soils,
mud, cow dung, etc. However, today’s artists utilise the water colors to make mesmerising
paintings on canvas or paper.
Pattachitra

This folk art of India is sourced from the region of Odisha. Themes of Pattachitra paintings
were basically the depiction of mythological and religious epics such as Mahabharata and
Ramayana. The term Pattachitra comes from two words; Patta that means leaf and Chitra that
refers to painting. So, Pattachitra means painting on a leaf, which was the literal meaning
when this art form was originated. The mind-boggling attributes of Pattachitra artworks
include vivid outlines, vivacious colours, adorned borders, and flamboyant designs.

Pichwai

Made on the cloth paper, Pichwai paintings have their origin in Deccan, Aurangabad, and
Nathdwara (Rajasthan) regions. Artists who started making Pichwai paintings were mainly
focused on narrating the majestic stories of Krishna to the commoners. This art form is also
practiced and available in the present scenario. Foreign art collectors show special interest in
acquiring Pichwai artworks making these paintings as the major exporting product of
Nathdwara. Artists today live in a closed community with regular communication because
making Pichwai artwork is mainly a collective effort more than an individual’s contribution.
If you ever want to see the depth of spirituality blended in an Indian artwork, Pichwai
artworks are the best examples.

Miniature
Another product of the Mughals, miniature paintings are popular because of the sharp
brushwork, in-depth work, blissful styles, and highly appealing looks. Originated in the
16th century, miniature paintings are also celebrated because of a splendid fusion of Islamic,
Indian, and Persian art attributes. Artists used the natural stone colours on a paper-based
canvas, also known as wasli. The ingredients that are utilised to craft such highly vivacious
paintings gold, silver, colours extracted from minerals, valuable stones, and conch shells.

Mysore

Coming straight from the Mysore city (state of Karnataka), this art form carries rich antiquity
of historical rulers. Originated somewhere between 1336 -1565 AD, Mysore paintings are
known for their serenity, non-expressive shades, exquisiteness, explicit detailing, superior
motifs, and ecstatic designs. With subject matters mostly revolving around the representation
of deities and Hindu mythologies, Mysore paintings are a classic example of a mashup of art
and spiritualism.

Kalighat

Coming from the state of Rasagullas and Misthi, Kalighat is another Indian folk art, which is
still practiced. This form of Indian art is relatively new and was originated in 19th century in
West Bengal, in the environs of Kalighat Kali Temple, near Calcutta (now Kolkata). Artists
used to create enthralling designs on a paper. These artists were known as ‘Patuas’ who were
mainly focused to show the mundane life routine of common people and depiction of
religious deities. The style these artists choose remains subtle but very gratifying. Colours
used in the creation process of these paintings were mainly natural. Some of the preferred
colours to make Kalighat paintings red, white, blue, indigo, and ochre.

Kerala Murals

Whenever you get chance, try to make time for the enthralling and captivating frescos in the
temples of Kerala. These frescos are popularly termed as Kerala Murals whose theme is
centred on the representation of Hindu Mythological tales and depiction of legends from the
religious epics. A good number of these mural paintings can be found in the ancient palaces
of Kerala that tell us the royal stature of Kerala Murals during the period 9th to 12th century
CE. Most famous mural paintings of this art form are Krishna’s depictions and the enigmatic
artworks of Shiva and Shakti.

15.4 Martial Arts

Martial arts have a rich and diverse history in India, with evidence of various forms of combat
practices dating back thousands of years. In ancient India, martial arts were seen not only as a
means of self-defense but also as a way of life and a path towards spiritual enlightenment.
One of the earliest forms of martial arts in India was called Kalaripayattu, which originated in the
southern state of Kerala. This form of martial arts was developed around 300 BCE and was
primarily used for self-defense against wild animals and invading armies. Kalaripayattu involves
various forms of combat techniques, including strikes, kicks, grappling, and weapons training.

Another ancient martial art form that originated in India is Silambam, which is believed to have
been practiced since 400 BCE. It is a weapon-based martial art form that involves the use of a
long staff or a pair of sticks. Silambam was primarily practiced in the southern parts of India and
was used by warriors in battles.

In addition to Kalaripayattu and Silambam, other martial art forms that originated in India include
Gatka, Thang-Ta, and Malla-Yuddha. Gatka is a weapon-based martial art that originated in the
northern regions of India, and it involves the use of swords and sticks. Thang-Ta is a martial art
form that originated in the northeastern state of Manipur and involves the use of swords and
spears. Malla-Yuddha is an ancient form of wrestling that was practiced in India during the
medieval period.

The practice of martial arts in ancient India was not limited to physical combat techniques. Many
of the martial art forms also emphasized mental and spiritual training, including meditation,
breathing exercises, and visualization techniques. These practices were seen as essential for
developing mental strength, focus, and discipline, which were considered to be just as important
as physical strength and combat skills.

The influence of Indian martial arts spread beyond the country's borders, with many of these
ancient practices influencing other martial arts systems across Asia. For example, Kalaripayattu
is believed to have influenced the development of other martial art forms, including Karate and
Kung Fu. The spiritual and meditative aspects of Indian martial arts have also been incorporated
into other practices, such as Yoga and Tai Chi.

In conclusion, martial arts have a long and rich history in ancient India, with various forms of
combat techniques and weapon-based practices that were developed for self-defense and
battles. Many of these martial arts forms also emphasized mental and spiritual training, which
were considered just as important as physical strength and combat skills. The influence of Indian
martial arts can still be seen in many other martial arts practices today, and they continue to be
an essential part of India's cultural heritage.

15.5Traditions

Ancient India had a rich cultural heritage with a diverse set of traditions and customs. These
traditions were deeply ingrained in the daily lives of people and were passed down from
generation to generation. Here are some of the significant traditions in ancient India:

1. Vedic Tradition: The Vedic tradition is one of the oldest and most significant
traditions in ancient India. The Vedas are a collection of sacred texts that contain
hymns, prayers, and rituals used in Vedic ceremonies. The tradition emphasized the
importance of sacrifice, devotion, and the pursuit of knowledge.
2. Yoga: Yoga is a tradition that originated in ancient India and is now popular
worldwide. Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual practice that includes postures,
breathing techniques, and meditation. It is used to promote physical health, mental
well-being, and spiritual growth.
3. Ayurveda: Ayurveda is a system of medicine that originated in ancient India. It
emphasizes the importance of balance and harmony in the body, mind, and spirit.
 Ayurvedic practices include diet, herbal remedies, massage, and other natural
therapies.
4. Caste System: The caste system was a social hierarchy that divided people into
different groups based on their birth. The system was prevalent in ancient India and
was based on the principles of purity and pollution. The highest caste was the
Brahmins, who were priests and scholars, followed by Kshatriyas, who were warriors,
then Vaishyas, who were merchants, and finally Shudras, who were laborers.
5. Festivals: Ancient India had a rich calendar of festivals and celebrations. Festivals
were celebrated to mark significant events such as harvests, religious occasions, and
the changing of seasons. Some of the most popular festivals in ancient India were
Diwali, Holi, and Dussehra.
6. Art and Architecture: Art and architecture were an essential part of ancient Indian
culture. The country is famous for its intricate sculptures, paintings, and architectural
marvels such as the Taj Mahal, the temples of Khajuraho, and the Ajanta and Ellora
caves.
7. Education: Education was highly valued in ancient India, and it was believed to be the
key to success and enlightenment. The country had a vast network of schools and
universities, and students were taught a wide range of subjects, including
mathematics, science, philosophy, and literature.
8. Respect for Elders: Ancient India was a society that placed great importance on
respect for elders. The elderly were seen as sources of wisdom and knowledge, and
their advice was highly valued. Children were taught to be respectful towards their
elders and to care for them in their old age.

In conclusion, ancient India had a rich and diverse set of traditions and customs that were
deeply ingrained in the daily lives of people. These traditions included the Vedic tradition,
yoga, Ayurveda, the caste system, festivals, art and architecture, education, and respect for
elders. Many of these traditions continue to be practiced in modern-day India and are a
testament to the country's rich cultural heritage.

15.6Fairs and Festivals

India has a rich and vibrant cultural heritage that is reflected in its numerous festivals and
fairs. Festivals and fairs are an integral part of the Indian way of life and are celebrated with
great enthusiasm and fervor. In ancient India, festivals and fairs were held to mark various
events and occasions and to honor deities and ancestors. Here are some of the most popular
festivals and fairs in ancient India:

1. Diwali: Diwali is one of the most important festivals in India, and it is celebrated with
great enthusiasm and fervor. It is also known as the festival of lights and marks the
victory of good over evil. People decorate their homes with lights, flowers, and
rangolis, and exchange gifts with family and friends.
2. Holi: Holi is a spring festival and is celebrated to mark the end of winter and the
beginning of spring. It is also known as the festival of colors and is celebrated by
people smearing colored powder and water on each other.
3. Dussehra: Dussehra is celebrated to mark the victory of Lord Rama over the demon
king Ravana. The festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm and is marked by the
burning of effigies of Ravana and his brothers.
 4. Navratri: Navratri is a nine-day festival celebrated in honor of the goddess Durga. It is
celebrated with great enthusiasm and is marked by the worship of the goddess and the
playing of traditional folk dances.
5. Makar Sankranti: Makar Sankranti is a harvest festival celebrated in January to mark
the end of the winter solstice. It is celebrated by flying kites and feasting on
traditional dishes made with sesame and jaggery.
6. Janmashtami: Janmashtami is celebrated to mark the birth of Lord Krishna. It is
celebrated with great enthusiasm and is marked by the chanting of hymns and the
enactment of scenes from the life of Lord Krishna.
7. Pongal: Pongal is a harvest festival celebrated in South India to mark the end of the
harvest season. It is celebrated by cooking traditional dishes and decorating homes
with colorful rangolis.
8. Pushkar Fair: The Pushkar Fair is one of the most popular fairs in India and is held in
Rajasthan. It is a five-day fair that attracts traders and tourists from all over the world.
The fair is marked by the trading of livestock, traditional dance performances, and the
playing of traditional folk music.
9. Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela is a major religious festival that is held every three
years in India. It is one of the largest gatherings of people in the world and is marked
by the bathing of pilgrims in holy rivers and the performing of traditional religious
rites.

In conclusion, festivals and fairs were an integral part of the cultural heritage of ancient India.
They were celebrated to mark various events and occasions and to honor deities and
ancestors. Many of these festivals and fairs continue to be celebrated in modern-day India,
and they are a testament to the country's rich cultural heritage.

15.7Current developments in Arts and Culture

India is a country with a rich cultural heritage, and its art and culture continue to evolve and
develop. In recent years, there have been significant developments in Indian art and culture,
ranging from the revival of traditional art forms to the emergence of new contemporary art
practices. Here are some of the current developments in art and culture in India:

1. Contemporary Art: Contemporary Indian art has been gaining increasing recognition
and appreciation both domestically and internationally. Indian artists are
experimenting with a variety of styles, techniques, and mediums, including digital art,
installation art, performance art, and video art. Some of the leading contemporary
artists in India include Bharti Kher, Subodh Gupta, Jitish Kallat, and Atul Dodiya.
2. Street Art: Street art is gaining popularity in Indian cities, with artists using public
spaces as a canvas to create thought-provoking and visually stunning works. Street art
festivals like the St+Art festival have been organized in cities like Mumbai, Delhi,
and Hyderabad, bringing together artists from India and around the world.
3. Traditional Art Forms: Traditional Indian art forms like Madhubani, Warli, and
Pattachitra are experiencing a revival, with young artists taking up these art forms and
bringing them to new audiences. There is also a renewed interest in traditional crafts
like pottery, weaving, and embroidery, with many artists creating contemporary
works using these techniques.
4. Museums and Galleries: India has a growing number of museums and galleries,
showcasing the rich cultural heritage and contemporary art practices. The National
Museum in Delhi, the Indian Museum in Kolkata, and the Chhatrapati Shivaji
 Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai are some of the leading museums in the
country. There are also several private galleries that promote contemporary Indian art,
including the Vadehra Art Gallery, the Chemould Prescott Road Gallery, and the
Gallery Maskara.
5. Film Industry: India's film industry, popularly known as Bollywood, continues to
grow and evolve, producing a wide range of films in different languages and genres.
Indian films are gaining increasing recognition at international film festivals, and
many Indian actors and directors are making their mark in Hollywood.
6. Literature: Indian literature continues to thrive, with writers exploring a range of
themes and styles. Indian authors are gaining international recognition, with writers
like Arundhati Roy, Jhumpa Lahiri, and Salman Rushdie winning literary awards and
gaining widespread critical acclaim.

In conclusion, India's art and culture continue to evolve and develop, reflecting the country's
rich heritage and its contemporary realities. From traditional art forms to contemporary
practices, from museums to galleries to street art, India's cultural landscape is vibrant and
diverse, and it promises to continue to inspire and engage audiences both at home and abroad.

15.8 Indian’s Cultural Contribution to the World. Indian Cinema

India is a country with a rich cultural heritage, and it has made significant contributions to the
world in the fields of art, literature, music, and cinema. Indian cinema, popularly known as
Bollywood, has gained widespread recognition and popularity around the world, making it an
important cultural export of India. Here are some of the ways in which Indian cinema has
contributed to the world:

1. Diversity: Indian cinema is known for its diversity, reflecting the country's rich
cultural heritage and its regional and linguistic diversity. Indian films are made in
many languages, including Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Bengali, and Kannada,
among others. Indian films explore a wide range of themes, from romance to social
issues, and from comedy to tragedy, making them appealing to a diverse audience.
2. Music: Indian cinema is known for its music, which has gained a worldwide
following. Indian films feature a mix of traditional Indian music and Western-
influenced music, creating a unique sound that is instantly recognizable. Indian music
has also influenced Western music, with artists like Madonna and Beyonce
incorporating Indian music elements into their songs.
3. Global Reach: Indian cinema has a global reach, with Indian films being screened in
countries around the world, from the United States to Japan. Indian films have gained
a loyal following in countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, as well as in
the Middle East and Africa.
4. Technological Innovation: Indian cinema has been at the forefront of technological
innovation, with filmmakers using cutting-edge technologies to create visually
stunning films. Indian filmmakers were among the first to adopt digital technologies,
and they continue to push the boundaries of what is possible in film.
5. Influence on Fashion: Indian cinema has influenced fashion around the world, with
Indian fashion designers gaining international recognition for their innovative designs.
Indian cinema has been known for its colorful and extravagant costumes, which have
inspired fashion trends around the world.
6. Cultural Diplomacy: Indian cinema has been an important tool of cultural diplomacy,
promoting Indian culture and values around the world. Indian films have helped to
 break down cultural barriers and promote understanding and appreciation between
different cultures.

In conclusion, Indian cinema has made significant contributions to the world, reflecting
India's rich cultural heritage and its contemporary realities. From diversity to music, from
global reach to technological innovation, Indian cinema has left its mark on the world and
continues to inspire and engage audiences around the globe.

Questions:

1. What are the various dance forms in India?

2. What do you mean by puppet ? What is puppetry ? Why puppetry is art dying?
3. Write a short note on Indian Classical Music.
4. What are traditional theatre forms in India ? List the main elements of theatre. Name some
of the traditional art forms of India.
5. Write a short note on modern theatre in India ?