Materials

This topic covers density, flow of liquids, Hooke’s law, the Young modulus and elastic strain
energy.
This topic should be studied using a variety of applications, for example making and testing
food, engineering materials, spare-part surgery for joint replacement.
This unit includes many opportunities for developing experimental skills and techniques by
carrying out more than just the core practical experiments.

Students will be assessed on their ability to:

m
23 be able to use the equation density ρ=
V
24 understand how to use the relationship upthrust = weight of fluid displaced
25 a be able to use the equation for viscous drag (Stokes’ Law),
F = 6πηrv.
b understand that this equation applies only to small spherical objects moving at
low speeds with laminar flow (or in the absence of turbulent flow) and that
viscosity is temperature dependent
26 CORE PRACTICAL 2: Use a falling-ball method to determine the viscosity of
a liquid
27 be able to use the Hooke’s law equation, ∆F = k∆x, where k is the stiffness of the
object
28 understand how to use the relationships
• (tensile or compressive) stress = force/cross-sectional area
• (tensile or compressive) strain= change in length/original length
Young modulus = stress/strain.
29 a be able to draw and interpret force-extension and force-compression graphs
b understand the terms limit of proportionality, elastic limit, yield point, elastic
deformation and plastic deformation and be able to apply them to these graphs
30 be able to draw and interpret tensile or compressive stress-strain graphs, and
understand the term breaking stress
31 CORE PRACTICAL 3: Determine the Young modulus of a material
32 be able to calculate the elastic strain energy Eel in a deformed material sample, using
the equation ∆Eel = F∆x , and from the area under the force-extension graph
1
2

The estimation of area and hence energy change for both linear and non-linear
force-extension graphs is expected.

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 1
 Solid Materials
Hooke’s Law
The stretching force F is directly proportional to the extension (or compression) 'x .

F=-k∆x

where k is a constant called spring constant, Hooke’s constant or stiffness of the spring.

The minus sign here only indicates that the force is in the opposite direction to the extension.
You do not have to include the minus sign in your calculation.

4 b

Force (N)
3 b

2 b

1 b

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Extension (m)

The gradient of the graph is the stiffness.

Elastic strain energy

When a spring is stretched or compressed, energy is stored in the spring. This form of energy is called
elastic potential energy or elastic strain energy.
The amount of elastic strain energy stored in a spring is equal to the work done by the force exerted
on it. Thus, it can be obtained by calculating the area under the force-extension graph, which is

1 1
Eel F 'x k'x 2
2 2

Question:
A spring is compressed by 0.2m when a 28 N force is exerted on it. Find the spring constant and
elastic strain energy stored in the spring.

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 2
 Force - extension graph

Proportionality limit:
The point beyond which force is no longer proportional to extension is called the proportionality limit.
(The point upto which a material obeys Hooke's law).

elastic limit
The point upto which a material return to its original length, when the force is removed is called
elastic limit.
During elastic deformation, the bonds between molecules in the material are stretched but come back to
original length once the forces are removed.
plastic deformation.
After the elastic limit, further force produces permanent deformation, which means that after removing
the force they can’t return to their original lengths. This is called plastic deformation.
During plastic deformation molecular bonds are strained to the point of fracture, making it not possible to
return to the same state.

Stress, strain and Young Modulus

Stiffness is dependent on the material of the spring is made of and the dimensions of the spring.
We now want to introduce a quantity that measures how hard it is to produce extension for a certain material.
In other words, we want this quantity to be a property of the material and to be independent on its
geometrical dimensions. This quantity is called Young Modulus. Inorder to study Young modulus you
should understand stress and strain.

Stress (V ) : It is defined as the force divided by cross section area, that is

force F
stress or V Unit : Nm-2 or Pa
cross sec tion area A

Strain (H) : It is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length of the material.

change in legth 'x Strain has NO UNIT

strain or H
original length x

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 3
 Young Modulus (E).
It is defined as the ratio of stress and strain,

Young Modulus stress

_____ V
strain E
H

F/A
___ Fl
E
x/l E ___
Ax

Young Modulus is a quantity that is similar to the spring constant (stiffness) of a spring as it also
measures how difficult it is to produce an extension.
The difference is that Young Modulus is a property of material and is
not dependent on the dimensions of a particular sample. Anything made from the same
material have the same Young Modulus, regardless of their shape or length.
Stress / Pa
Gradient = stress/strain = Young Modulus (E)

Area under graph = 1/2 x Stress x Strain

= 1/2 x (F/A) x (x/L)

= 1/2 x (Fx) / (AL)

= Energy stored /volume = Energy density

Strain

Types of stress and strain

z Tensile Stress: Stretching force / Area of cross scection

z Compressive Stress: Compressive force /Area of cross section

z Tensile Strain: Increase in length / original length

z Compressive Strain : Decrease in length / original length

question:
A wire fence is made of steel wire of diameter 2.5 mm. A force of 1500 N is applied to tension a single length
of this wire.
(a) Calculate the stress produced in the wire.
(b) If the Young modulus of steel is 210 GPa, calculate the extension, produced in a 33 m length of this wire
when it is tensioned.

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 4
Stress - strain graph

A stress—strain graph is a very convenient tool to describe characteristics of a solid

The gradient of the linear part of the stress-strain graph is equal to Young Modulus of the material.

z Proportionality limit: the point beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true when stretching a
material
z Elastic limit: Maximum stress/force for which the material will return to its original length (when the
applied force is removed)

z Yield point: The point at which for little/no increase in force/stress there will be a large extension/
strain

z Ultimate Tensile Strength(stress) UTS : The maximum stress a material can withstand before breaking.

z Linear region: the region before the proportionality limit.

z Elastic region: the region before the elastic limit.

z Plastic region: the region after the elastic limit.

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 5
Describing materials
Strength of a material is defined as the stress (the force per unit cross-sectional area) that it can withstand.
Strong materials will have high Ultimate tesile Strength.

Force /N strong , Hard

weak

extension /mm

Hard materials resist plastic deformation by denting or scratching. Hard materials usually will be strong.
Eg.diamond

Tough materials can withstand impact forces and absorb a lot of energy before breaking, by undergoing
plastic deformation.
Eg. rubber, Kevlar(a type of material for fabricating bulletproof vest)
Brittle
Stress /Pa

Tough

Strain

Brittle materials break/shatter/snap with little or no plastic deformation.

Eg.ceramics, biscuit

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 6
Stiffness is a measure of a material's resistance to deformation.

Stiffness is determined by calculating its Young’s Modulus. Stiff materials will have high Young Modulus.

Stress /Pa

Stiff

Flexible

Strain

Malleable materials show large plastic deformation under compression. They can be beaten into sheets

Eg: iron, gold, tin

Ductile materials show large plastic deformation under tension. These materials can be pulled into wires

Eg. copper

Stress /Pa Strong , stiff

malleable
, ductile

Strain

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 7
 Question :
State which material is :
a) strong
b) stiff
c) tough
d) brittle
e) hard
f) malleable
g) ductile
h) elastic

Elastic Hysteresis
When rubber is stretched the stiffness gradually decreases and it becomes relatively easy to stretch as the
chains uncoil; once this has happened the rubber is much stiffer.
The stress–strain graph for rubber shows that the behaviour as a load is removed is not the same as that
when the load is being increased. This is called hysteresis and the curves are said to make a hysteresis loop.

Rubber absorbs more energy during loading than it releases in

unloading. The difference is represented by the area of the hysteresis
loop, shown shaded in the stress–strain graph.
If you repeatedly stretch and release a rubber band, you can feel the
effect of heating caused by hysteresis.

In an experiment to measure the extension of a rubber band the following graph was obtained.

12 –
Force / N
(i) If the rubber band has a cross-sectional area of 6.0 × 10–6 m2 calculate
10 – the stress produced in the elastic band when it is fully loaded.

8–
(ii) Estimate how much work is done on the rubber band as it is fully loaded.
6–
(iii) Hence show that the energy dissipated during the loading and
4– unloading process is approximately 1 J.

2–

0–
–

0 100 200 300 400 500

Extension / mm

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 8
 Combinations of Springs

Springs in Series

Consider two springs with force constants k1 and k2 connected in series supporting a load F = mg.
Let the force constant of the combination be represented by k

For the combination, supporting the load F = mg:

F = kx ( where x = the total extension )

F
and x=
k
For each spring the stretching force is same. (F =mg)

F k1
F = k1 x1 or x1 =
k1

F
F = k2 x2 or x2 =
k2 k2

The total extension,

m
F F F
x = x1 + x2 or = +
k k1 k2
F = mg

1 1 1
= +
k k1 k2

Springs in Parallel

Consider two springs with force constants k1 and k2 connected in parallel supporting a load
F = mg.
Let the force constant of the combination be represented by k

F = k x ( where x = the total extension)

The two individual springs both stretch by x

but share the load (F = F1+F2) k1 k2

F1 = k1 x while F2 = k2 x F2 F2

Thus the total force is

F = F1 + F2 or kx = k1 x + k2 x m

k = k1 + k2 F = mg

PHYSICS DEPT. / C H S E 9