DEVELOPMENT

What is development?

Development is a process of change and growth which takes place in societies and countries.

It can also be defined as the improvement in the standard of living of people.

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

SOCIAL ASPECTS:

This is when people have better standard of living and their basic needs are fully met.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS:

This is when a country produces more for each person and the society gets richer.

POLITICAL ASPECTS:

This is when there is more freedom and justice and people have more control over their lives.

BENEFITS OF DEVELOPMENT

 Creation of employment opportunities

 Brings new technology which leads to mass production
 Leads infrastructural development
 Creates business opportunities
 Improves people’s health through the construction of medical facilities
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

 It can lead to destruction of the environment

 It can lead to cultural erosion/loss of craftsmanship
 Shortage of land especially for agriculture
 It can lead to high crime rate
 It can lead to social inequalities/widens the gap between the rich and the poor

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WHY DEVELOPMENT IS SLOW IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 Lack of funds
 Poor technology
 Lack of skilled labour
 Cultural rigidity/unhelpful traditional beliefs
 High population
 Neo colonialism
 High rate of corruption
 Huge debts
 Shortage of land
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

SOCIAL INDICATORS

There are two main indicators used to measure social development:

 Health
 Education
HEALTH

 Infant mortality rate: The number of babies in every 1000 live births that die before
their first birthday.
 Life expectancy: The average age a person is likely to reach or live
 Doctor patient ratio: The number of sick people attended by each medical practitioner.
 Death rate: The number of lives lost per thousand people in a year.
 Birth rate: The number of babies born per thousand people in a year
 Calorie intake: The amount of energy contained in the food eaten
EDUCATION

 School enrolment: The percentage of children in primary and secondary school.

 Literacy rate: The number of people in every thousand who can read and write
 Adult literacy: The number of elderly people in every thousand who can read and write.
HOW SOCIAL INCATORS CAN BE USED TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

 If infant mortality rate is high, it shows that the country is developing and if is low, it shows that
the country is developed.
 If life expectancy is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows that the
country is developing.
 If doctor patient ratio is high it shows that the country is developing and if it is low, it shows that
the country is developed.

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  If death rate is high, it shows that the country is developing and if it is low, it shows that the
country is developed
 If birth rate is high, it shows that the country is developing and if it is low, it shows that the
country is developed.
 If school enrolment is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows that
the country is developing.
 If literacy rate is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows that the
country is developing.
 If adult literacy rate is high, it shows that the country is developed and if is low it shows that the
country is developing.
 The higher the calorie intake the more developed a country is and the low the calorie intake the
less developed a country is

REASONS FOR HIGH INFANT MORTALITY RATE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 Lack of wide spread immunisation programmes

 Lack of access to clean water
 Shortage of health facilities
 Shortage of qualified doctors/high doctor patient ratio
 Poor sanitation and hygiene
 Poor diets/lack of balanced diets
 Poor health education among mothers on how to raise babies
 HIV/AIDS infection from mother to infant
REASONS FOR LOW INFANT MORTALITY RATE IN THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

 Availability of wide spread immunization of programmes

 Availability of clean water
 Availability of health facilities
 Availability of qualified doctors
 Good sanitation and hygiene
 Availability of balanced diets
 Availability of health education among mothers on how to raise babies

WHY LIIFE EXPECTANCY IS LOW IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 Lack of access to clean water

 Shortage of hospitals/clinics
 Poor hygiene and sanitation
 High HIV/AIDS infections
 Poor diets
 Lack of exercise facilities
 Lack of health education

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 WHY LIFE EXPECTANCY IS HIGH IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

 People eat balanced diets

 Availability of qualified doctors
 Health education is offered to the people
 Good sanitation and hygiene
 Availability of clean water
 Availability of exercise facilities

WHY THERE IS HIGH CALORIE INTAKE IN THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

 High employment rates/high income levels which enables them to afford variety of food
 Improved technology leading to high food production
 Provision of supplementary feeding
 Wide variety of food to choose from
 More knowledge on nutrition

WHY THE DOCTOR PATIENT RATIO IS LOW IN THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

 There are many health institutions for training health personnel

 They have good preventive measures in place which controls the spread of diseases
 They are many trained medical personnel
HOW CAN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IMPROVE/REDUCE DOCTOR PATIENT RATIO

 They can build more medical facilities to improve access to health services to the people
 They can train more doctors to reduce shortage in the hospitals
 They should develop preventive measures to control the spread of diseases
 They can also recruit more doctors from other countries and increase their salaries

HOW SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CAN BE ACHIEVED IN A COUNTRY

 Building more schools for more people to gain access to education

 Providing health facilities to improve the health of many people
 Providing clean and safe water
 Providing better housing for the poor
 Providing cloths for the poor
 Providing supplementary feeding
 Providing health education
 Providing proper sanitation and hygiene
ECONOMIC INDICATORS

 GNP(Gross National Product): This is the total monetary value of goods and services of a
country in one year including earnings from investments abroad

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  GNP per Capita: This is the total monetary value of goods and services of a country in
one year including earnings from investments abroad, divided by the population of the
country.
 GDP(Gross Domestic product): This is the total monetary value of goods and services of
a country in one year excluding earnings from abroad.
 Energy use per capita: This is the total amount of oil, gas, coal and electricity consumed
by each person in a country in a year.
 Employment: This is the number of people in regular waged jobs.
 Percentage of people engaged in agriculture
HOW ECONOMIC INDICATORS CAN BE USED TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

 If GNP is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows that the
country is developing.
 If GNP per capita is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows
that the country is developing.
 If GDP is low, it shows that the country is developed, and if it is low, It shows that the
country is developing
 If energy per capita is high, it shows that the country is developed and if it is low it
shows that the country is developing
 If there is high employment, it shows that the country is developed, and if there is low
employment it shows that the country is developing.
 If the percentage of people engaged in agriculture is high, it shows that the country is
developing and if it is low, it shows that the country is developed
REASONS FOR HIGH ENERGY USE IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

 They use many electric appliances

 They use many vehicles
 They have many modern industries
 They depend mostly on commercial farming which uses advanced technology

HOW ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CAN BE ACHIEVED IN A COUNTRY

 Training more people to acquire business skills

 Setting up more industries
 Improving infrastructure
 Inviting MNC’s to invest in the country
 Creating market for locally produced goods
 Promoting political stability in the country
 Giving people loans/grants to start businesses

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ADVANTAGES OF USING GNP PER CAPITA TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

 It is a standardized measure which allows easy comparison between countries

 The data is available from the World Bank
 It highlights international wealth differences
 It is better than raw GNP measurement which ignores the size of the population, or GDP
which excludes investments abroad
DISADVANTAGES OF USING GNP PER CAPITA TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

 It ignores the gap between the rich and the poor

 It leaves out production e.g. informal sector
 It ignores the quality of life
 It ignores the environmental consequences of wealth
 It ignores happiness, satisfaction or well-being
 Population figures may be out dated/government statistics may be inaccurate

POLITICAL INDICATORS

 Percentage of females in leadership position

 Voter turnout
 Adherence to human rights
 Peace
 Security
 Free and fair elections
 Equality
 Corruption
 Freedom of opinion

HOW POLITICAL INDICATORS CAN BE USED TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

 If the number of women in leadership position is high it shows that the country is
developed and if it is low it shows that the country is developing.

 Voter turnout-if the percentage of adults who participate in elections is high it shows
that the country is developed and if it is low, it shows that the country is developing.

 Adherence to human rights-if there is high respect to human rights, it shows that the
country is developed and if it is low, it shows that the country is developing.

 Peace-peace or absence of wars shows that the country is developed while presence of
wars shows that the country is developing

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  Security-if the sense of safety is high, it shows that the country is developed and if is
low, it shows that the country is developing.

 Equality-if there are many incidents of discrimination it shows that the country is
developing, and if they are lo, it shows that the country is developed.

 Freedom of opinion-if people are free to express themselves even if it opposes the
government, it shows that the country is developed and if people are denied freedom of
speech it shows that the country is developing

WHY POLITICAL ASPECTS ARE DIFFICULT TO MEASURE

 They are intangible
 Most countries prohibit human rights groups from monitoring human rights violations
 Most people in developing countries are illiterate and so are unaware of their rights
 Culture/religion can be obstacles to the understanding of human rights
 Sovereignty of countries can be an obstacle
 Use of different political systems
 Political indicators are sensitive
 They are subjective/relative/understood differently by different people

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 High employment levels
 Many industries
 High income levels
 High energy consumption
 Use advanced technology
 Low percentage of people engaged in agriculture
 Export finished good
 Strong currencies
 Many skilled manpower

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Low death rate
 High school enrolment
 High calorie intake
 High literacy rate
 High life expectancy
 Low infant mortality rate
 High adult literacy

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WHY COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH ARE HIGHLY DEVELOPED
 They use of advanced technology
 Long history of industrialization
 They import cheap raw materials
 They export expensive finished goods
 They have many skilled manpower
 They control world trade
 During colonialism they took away raw materials from the developing countries to
enrich themselves
 Neo colonialism-MNC’s invest in developing countries

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Low income levels

 Few industries
 High percentage of people engaged in agriculture
 Low energy use
 Weak currencies
 They export raw materials
 They import finished goods
 They use simple technology
 High unemployment

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Low life expectancy

 High infant mortality rate
 Low school enrolment
 Low adult literacy
 Low calorie intake
 High death rate
 High birth rate
 Low literacy
WHY ARE CONTRIES ON THE SOUTH LESS DEVELOPED

 Slave trade which took away skilled labour in the developing countries
 Use of simple technology
 Use foreign debts
 They have few skilled manpower

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  They export cheap raw materials
 They import expensive finished goods
 Unfair international trade terms

NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES

These are states which have recently experienced fast growing economies. They used to be Less
Developed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NIC’S

 Economic characteristics
 Fast growing industrial sector
 They export more manufactured goods
 Rapid commercializing of agricultural sector
 Increasing levels of employment
 Rising income levels
 Emergence of Trans National Companies

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Rapid urbanization
 Rising life expectancy
 Falling birth rate
 Increasing literacy rate
 Rising school enrolment
 Decreasing death rate
 Decreasing infant mortality rate

WHY NIC’S DEVELOPED SO FAST

 Heavy investment in science and technology

 Large scale foreign direct investment e by MNC’s
 They adopted import substitution and export oriented strategy
 They have many skilled manpower
 Improved infrastructure
 Establishment of research centres

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THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

What is a theory?

A theory is a set of ideas which gives an explanation about something.

What is a theory of development?

Theory of development is an explanation offered about change and growth in the world.

MODERNISATION THEORY

What is modernization theory?

Modernization theory is a set of ideas that explains that for the developing countries to
develop, they should follow the stages followed by countries of the North

STAGES OF THE MODERNISATION THEORY

STAGE1: TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

In this stage people did the followed:

 They used bartering

 They depended on subsistence farming
 They used simple technology
 They lived low standards of life
 Many people stayed in rural areas
 They were ruled by chiefs
STAGE 2: PRE-CONDITIONS FOR TAKE OFF

 At the stage the economic and social life of people changed:

 People started to change from subsistence farming to commercial farming
 People started to specialize in certain jobs
 People started to move from rural areas to urban areas
 New technology was invented to speed up production
STAGE 3: TAKE –OFF/ THE BIG PUSH

 There was rapid increase in investment as capital goods/machineries were used

 Industrialization started
 More people moved from rural areas to urban areas
 Cities started to grow

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STAGE 4: DRIVE TO MATURITY

In this stage a country has achieved high economic growth hence the term maturity.

 High rate of manufacturing

 People started to export more and import less
 More people depended on paid jobs
 Wages/salaries improved for many workers
 The demand for consumer/finished goods increased
 Rising standard of living
STAGE5: HIGH MASS CONSUMPTION

 Demand for raw materials increased due to increased manufacturing

 High demand for consumer goods
 High standard of living

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

WHAT DOES THE THEORY SUGGESTS THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES SHOULD DO IN ORDER
FOR THEM TO DEVELOP:

 Invest in industry and infrastructure

 Change from subsistence to commercial farming
 People should move from rural areas to urban areas
 They must be specialization in jobs
 Borrow ideas from capitalist countries of the North
 Emphasise the importance of formal and technical education
 Invest in capital goods/machinery to increase production
 Encourage people to accept change or change their culture
 Tell people to work hard and be patient

STRENGHTS OF THE THEORY

 The richest countries like USA, UK have followed the modernization theory
 The NIC’s have successfully followed this pattern
 The theory shows that it is important to invest in capital goods, industry and
infrastructure which increases production and make more profits and boost the
economy
 It stresses the need to change our culture and work hard for the little money if people
want their country to develop
 Emphasise the need for people to change their attitude to accommodate
industrialization

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  Some aspects of modernization are evident all over the world e.g. people are moving to
cities, formal schooling is spreading and people’s attitudes and traditional life styles are
changing
 In some countries commercial farming has successfully replaced subsistence farming

WEAKNESES OF THE THEORY

 It puts more emphasis on economic growth and ignores other aspects of development
 It ignores environmental impact of industrialization such as pollution
 It ignores the fact that the North developed by exploiting/using resources from the
South, hence the South lack resources
 It ignores that countries want to preserve their culture
 It assumes that the economic growth will trickle down to everyone but many countries
have been divided into rich and poor people
 Some countries like former USSR (socialist) have developed without being capitalist
 It ignores the negative impacts of urbanization

BENEFITS OF MODERNISATION TO THE COUNTRY

 Technological development
 Creation of more wealth
 Infrastructural development
 Human resource development/high literacy rate
 Improved standard of living
 Improved services delivery through research and development
 Availability of affordable goods and services
DEPENDENCY THEORY

What is dependency theory?

Dependency theory is a set of ideas that states that for the developing countries to develop,
they shout cut links with the developed countries and develop on their own.

This theory was developed by socialists to explain why countries of the South lack behind in
development compared to countries of the North.

This theory argue that developed countries used resources from the South to develop
themselves thereby kept countries of the South poor. The developed countries exploited
developing countries by:

 Taking away raw materials

 Taking away fertile land during colonialism
 Taking away cheap labour through slave trade

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Dependency theorists believe that Europeans interrupted the development of Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and this is still happening today; the economies of developing countries are
controlled by countries of the North (Neo-Colonialism).

Countries of the South are dependent on countries of the North e.g.

 They sell raw materials to the North at low prices

 They buy finished goods at high prices from the North
 They get loans, grants and aid from the North
 MNC’s from the North operate in the South

POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MODERNISATION THEORY

WHAT THE DEPENDENCY THEORY SUGGESTS DEVELOPING COUNTRIES SHOULD DO INORDER

FOR THEM TO DEVELOP

 The developing countries should cut links with the North and develop on their own
 They should stop borrowing money from the developed countries
 They should save and invest within the country
 They should be self-reliant
 They should spend more money on capital goods and less on consumer goods
 They should use appropriate technology
 Encourage people to be patient and work hard
STRENGTHS OF THE DEPENDENCY THEORY

 It addresses the social, political and economic aspects of development

 It shows unfair trade relations between the North and the South where the South are
cheated
 It helps us to understand the bad effects of colonialism
 It also makes it clear that although colonies became politically independent, economic
power remained with their former colonisers/countries of the North
WEAKNESSES OF THE THEORY

 The theory wants the South to cut links with the North and ignores the fact that small,
poor countries are unable to raise enough money for investment
 If developing countries manufacture their own goods there will be less efficient use of
resources
 The world is linked together, so it will be difficult to cut all communication links
 People from the South prefer western culture and goods, so it is difficult to stop people
from importing from the North

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development is the improvement in the standard of living of people through wise
use of resources so that the future generations could also use them.

What is sustainable development theory?

Sustainable development theory is a set of ideas that explains that the resources should be
used wisely by the present generation to meet their needs so that the future generations could
also meet their needs.

OR

Ii is a set of ideas that advocate for the wise use of resources by the present generation to meet
its needs without jeopardizing the ability of the future generations to meet their needs.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

WHAT THE THEORY SUGGESTS THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES SHOULD DO INORDER FOR
THEM TO DEVELOP

 Set up world agreements on environmental issues

 Control population growth
 Recycle and re-use resources
 Use environmental friendly technology
 Individual responsibility on caring for the resources
 World resources should be evenly distributed between the North and South
STRENGTHS OF THE THEORY

 It forces us to think about conservation

 It makes us to realize that we are on the same boat
 It makes to realize that we are all in the same boat
 It makes us aware of the dangers facing the world

WEAKNESSES

 It ignores the fact that technology is capable of developing new resources to increase
food supply
 It ignore the fact that new sources of minerals or energy will be discovered

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ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

There has been a realization that women despite being the majority population have been
excluded from most areas of development such as:

 Political rights- there are few women in leadership position

 Legal rights-there few laws protecting women against oppression
 Access to education and training- most girls are not allowed to go to school or train in
certain subjects because they are considered to be male domain
 Access to property-most societies prohibit women from owning property e.g land,
livestock
 Unequal treatment at the work place- women are paid less even when they work the
same jobs as men
GENDER EQUALITY IN DEVELOPMENT

PROBLEMS OF SIDELINING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT:

 Under-utilisation of resources
 Results in large families because most women are ignorant of birth control methods due
to illiteracy
 Poor family health resulting in unhealthy and unproductive nation
 Less skilled manpower since women are not included in training
 Less enterprises since women have no access to credit schemes

POLICIES THAT ALLOW WOMEN TO PARTICIPATE IN DEVELOPMENT

 Giving women financial assistance

 Giving women the right to own property
 Giving women access to education and training
 Affirmation action for women-programmes that deliberately accelerate the promotion
of women in education, politics, businesses and the work place
 Promote women’s organisations that fight for their rights
 Include gender studies in the school curriculum
 Passing rights that give equal rights to both men and women

POPULISM

 It emphasizes on people being the agents of their own development i.e. they should
solve their own problems with the help of NGO’s.
 Populism theorists believe that in today’s societies human development is obstructed
by:

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  Concentration of power in government and private companies
 Rigid government rules and regulations that prevent people from solving problems
immediately
 Laws, decisions and actions that ignores the plight of the majority of the poor people
 Emphasizes on large scale projects that benefit the locals less
 Populism believes in small scale and community oriented development projects in
industries and agriculture

ARGUMENTS FOR SMALL SCALE PROJECTS

 They address people’s specific needs and wants

 Easy finance and management
 It can be operated by individuals since simple skills are required
 They are environmentally friendly
 They make use of local skills and resources
 They create employment opportunities

GLOBALISATION

This is the integration of the world’s economic, social and political systems into one entity.

It involves interaction and interdependence of all countries in the world.

THE ELEMENTS OF GLOBILISATION

PROBLEMS CREATED BY GLOALISATION

 Increase in poverty and inequalities between developed and developing countries

 Concentration of capital and wealth in the developed countries
 Emergence of MNC’s that are difficult to control and monitor
 Marginalization of MNC’s from the global village because they lack capital, technology,
and have weak economies that are unable to compete

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