3.1.

Basics of cartography
Kremena Boyanova & Benjamin Burkhard

Introduction Coordinate systems

Cartography (from Greek χάρτης khartēs, he coordinate system of a dataset is used
“map”; and γράφειν graphein, “write”) to deine the positions of the mapped phe-
is the art and science of representing geo- nomena in space. It furthermore acts as a
graphic data by geographical means. Maps key to combine and integrate diferent data-
are the main products of cartographic work sets based on their location. his enables the
and are graphic representations of features performance of various integrated analytical
of an area of the Earth or of any other celes- operations, such as overlaying or merging
tial body drawn to scale. Regardless of the data layers from diferent sources. Coordi-
map type or the mapping technique applied nate systems can be geographic, projected or
(Chapter 3.2), every map has a coordinate vertical systems.
system, a projection, a scale and includes
speciic map elements. hese attributes Geographic coordinate systems
usually depend on the size and shape of the
mapped geographical area and the graphical A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) uses
design of the map representation that needs a three-dimensional spherical surface to deine
to be informative and understandable for locations on the Earth, i.e. the Earth is repre-
the map-user (Chapters 5.4 and 6.4). sented as a sphere or a spheroid. A point on
that sphere is referenced by its longitude and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are latitude values. Longitude and latitude are an-
powerful tools for data Input, Management, gles measured in degrees from the Earth’s cen-
Analysis and Presentation (IMAP principle) tre to a point on its surface. he Prime merid-
providing multiple possibilities for a better ian and Equator act as reference for longitude
understanding of the structures and pat- and latitude respectively (Figure 1).
terns of human and natural activities and
phenomena (Chapter 3.4). Nevertheless,
much of its easy-to-apply default-function- 80

ality can be misleading for an inexperienced 60

60°E 55°N
map-maker.
40

In the present chapter, we discuss the main 20 55° Lat.

characteristics of maps such as coordinate 60°

system, geodetic datum, projection, scale 0 20 40 60

Longitude
and map elements; how to choose them ac-
cordingly and what their role is for proper
use of a map. he use of GIS has signiicant-
ly simpliied mapping and provides a good
environment for the visualisation of Ecosys- Figure 1. The world as a globe with longitude and
tem Services (ES). latitude values.

Chapter 3 49
Projected coordinate systems herefore it is very important when using
A Projected Coordinate System (PCS) is digital mapping tools that the used datasets
based on a GCS that is transferred into a are deined in an eligible coordinate system.
lat, two-dimensional surface. For that
purpose, a PCS requires a map projection,
which is deined by a set of projection pa- Geodetic datum and transfor-
rameters that customise the map projection
for a particular location. he various map mations
projections are discussed in detail below.
he geodetic datum deines a) the size and
shape of the Earth and b) the orientation
Vertical coordinate systems and origin of the used coordinate system
A vertical coordinate system deines the ver- through a set of constants. he geodetic da-
tical position of the dataset from a reference tum can be based on lat, spherical or ellip-
vertical position - usually its elevation (height) soidal Earth models:
or depth from the sea level (Figure 2).
– Flat Earth models are used over short
distances so that the actual Earth curva-
+6.3 ture is insigniicant (< 10 km);
mean low water – Spherical models represent the igure
mean sea water +5.8 +6.0 of the Earth as a sphere with a speciied
radius, leading to deformations in the
model which are largest at the poles;
Figure 2. Two vertical coordinate systems: mean
sea level and mean low water. used for short range navigation and
global distance approximations; and
While the deinition of a geographic or pro- – Ellipsoidal models are the most accurate
jected coordinate system is obligatory for all models of Earth; used for calculations
datasets, vertical coordinate systems are only over long distances; the reference ellip-
needed if the vertical height of data is of rel- soid is deined by semi-major (equato-
evance. Lack of, or wrongly deined, coordi- rial radius) and lattening (the relation-
nate system information leads to problems of ship between equatorial and polar radii).
spatial data integration. (Figure 3).
he ellipsoidal model can represent the
Landuse
topographical surface of the Earth (actual
surface of the land and sea at some moment
Streets
in time), the sea level (average level of the
Districts
oceans), the gravity surface of the Earth
Parcels
(gravity model) or the Geoid. he Geoid is
the equi-potential surface that the Earth’s
Parks
oceans would take due to the Earth’s grav-
River
itation and rotation, neglecting all other in-
luences such as winds, currents and tides.
Sand and Gravel Discharge
Sandstone
Point
Water Table Aquifer he World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-
Shale 84) datum deines geoid heights for the en-
tire Earth in a ten by ten degree grid. he
Figure 3. Integration of datasets for the same area
(inspired by Buckley 1997).

50 Mapping Ecosystem Services

Global Positioning System (GPS) is based he transformation of a spherical surface
on the WGS-84. into a plane leads to diferent distortions in
the lengths, angles, shapes and areas of the
he geodetic datums can be horizontal (lat- mapped surface. he distortions are usually
itude and longitude), vertical (height) and smallest along the standard lines and close
complete. he transformation between to the attachment point. Depending on the
datums requires the application of strict shape and size of the mapped area, appropri-
mathematical rules and sets of parameters, ate projection and standard lines should be
depending on the required transformation. selected. Distortions are inevitable and it is
Most GIS and mapping platforms support impossible to create the “perfectly” projected
automated transformation between datums map that fulils all map projection properties.
and coordinate systems. he four properties of the map and their re-
spective projection types are:

Map projections – Local shapes of the features on the map

are the same as on the Earth’s surface.
his conformal projection maintains all
Map projections are mathematical repre- angles.
sentations of the Earth’s spherical body on
a plain surface through mathematical trans- – he areas of the features on the Earth
formations from spherical (latitude, longi- are in the same proportions as on the
tude) to Cartesian (x, y) coordinates. Map map. Other properties - shape, angle,
projections usually depend for the transfor- and distance - are distorted in equal-ar-
mation on a form which can be developed ea projections.
or lattened – a plane, a cone, or a cylin-
der - which is attached to the sphere at one – he scaled distances along the standard
point or at one or two standard lines. he lines, or from the attachment point, to
respective map projections are referred to as all other points on the map are main-
planar, conic and cylindrical (Figure 4). tained in equidistant projections. his is
not valid along all lines or between any
two points on a map.
Flattеnable
surfaces
– he directions on the map are correct in
the true-direction (azimuthal) projection.
It gives the directions (or azimuths) of
all points on the map correctly with
respect to the centre. Some true-di-
rection projections are also conformal,
equal-area, or equidistant.

Flat maps For every map, only one or two of those

properties can be fulilled and the cartog-
rapher has to make a choice, depending
on the purpose and needs of the map (see
Chapter 5.4).

Figure 4. Developable (lattenable) surfaces (in

Monmonier 1996).

Chapter 3 51
Scale Scale selection
he scale represents the ratio of the distance Map scales can be expressed as a ratio, a ver-
between two points on the map to the corre- bal statement or as a graphic (bar) scale (Fig-
sponding distance on the ground. hus large ure 6). On non-analogous (digital) maps, it
scale maps (with a large reciprocal value of is essential to use a graphic scale bar (linear
the scale, such as 1:5,000) cover small areas bar). A scale bar adjusts to the resolution of
with great detail and accuracy, while small the respective display, a parameter which
scale maps (e.g. 1:1,000,000) cover larger cannot be controlled by the map maker. he
areas in less detail (Figure 5). he map scale variability of map size by using a projector is
also inluences generalisation (Chapter 3.4) an example of this problem.
and symbolisation (Chapter 3.3) of the map.
When choosing the map scale, the cartogra-
pher should consider: Elements of a map
– Purpose of the map - the mapped phe-
nomena need to be well-represented in Elements of a map are crucial for providing
the selected scale; the map-user with critical information about
– Map size - the scale need to be adapted the map content. Making a thematic map is
to the size of the mapped area and the to a large extent a creative act and the choice
desired inal size (format) of the map; of map elements depends on the context, au-
– Detail - the scale need to be adapted to dience and the preferences of the map-maker.
the detail in which the phenomena are Nevertheless, there are three levels for repre-
mapped. sentation of the elements of a map, presented
here by by their level of relevance (Figure 7):
Scale selection

1:5 000 1:25 000 1:50 000 1:100 000 1:200 000 1:500 000 1:1000 000
Mapped earth area
Small Large

More Information detail Less

Symbolisation
More generalised Less generalised

Figure 5. Interaction between map content and scale selection.

Ratio scales Verbal scales Graphic scales

10.000 5.000 0 10.000 Miles
1 : 10 000 One centimetre (on the map) represents 10 000 centimetres (in reality)
(or 100 metres) Alternating scale bar
1 : 25 000 One centimetre (on the map) represents 25 000 centimetres (in reality) 10.000 5.000 0 10.000 Miles
(or 250 metres)
1 : 100 000 One centimetre (on the map) represents 100 000 centimetres (in reality) Double alternating scale bar
(or 1 kilometre)
10.000 5.000 0 10.000 Miles
1 : 1 000 000 One centimetre (on the map) represents 1 000 000 centimetres (in reality)
(or 10 kilometres ) Hollow scale bar

Figure 6. Examples of ratio, verbal and graphic scales.

52 Mapping Ecosystem Services

– Elements that make the proper reading • Projection – provides information
of the map possible and it is recom- about the projection and possible dis-
mended to add them to all maps: tortions in the area, distance, direction
• Scale information; and shape of the mapped features;
• Map direction – a symbol, usually • Cartographer’s name and/or the au-
an arrow, that indicates the true north thority responsible for the composition
(the direction to the North Pole); if a of the map;
coordinate grid (graticule) is added to • Date of production;
the map or on small-scale (e.g. conti- • Data sources used to create the map.
nental) maps, a north arrow is not re-
quired; – Elements used selectively to assist efec-
• Legend – the legend lists all sym- tive communication (optional):
bols, their sizes, patterns and colours • Neatlines (clipping lines) – used to
used in the map and the features they frame the map and indicate the exact
depict (see Chapter 3.3); they should area of the map;
appear in the legend exactly as they are • Locator maps – to place the body of
found in the body of the map; the map within a larger geographical
context;
– Elements that provide context: • Inset map – a “zoomed in” map of
• Title – should provide a short and small areas from the map with high rel-
clear statement about the map content, evance, where information is too clus-
usually stating the name of the mapped tered for the scale of the map body;
area and the map theme (in ES maps - • Index maps – when labels or other
the mapped ES) along with the depict- information cannot be placed efective-
ed year in thematic maps; it should be ly in the body of the map, they can be
considered that this information can be input separately to increase readability.
included in the map legend title also;

Coordinate System: WGS 1984 UTM Zone 34N

UPPER OGOSTA WATERSHED Projection: Transverse Mercator
Datum: WGS 1984
Units: Meter

Author: Kremena Boyanova

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2014
Data source: SWAT model outputs

Freshwater Supply
(average 2000-2005)
Basin
0 - no relevant supply
1 - low relevant supply
2 - relevant demand Figure 7. Example map and its elements:
3 - medium relevant supply actual map, scale, north arrow, legend,
4 - high relevant supply
title, coordinate system and projection,
5 - very high relevant demand
cartographer’s name and institution, date
of production, data source and neatline.

Chapter 3 53
Conclusions Pearson F (1990) Map Projection: heory and
Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Cartography is based on a long tradition and Florida.
comprehensive knowledge of map-creation
and map-use. ES map-makers still need to be Snyder JP (1987) Map Projections - A Work-
aware of the general principles, techniques ing Manual. U.S. Geological Survey Pro-
(Chapter 3.2) and logics (Chapter 3.3) of fessional Paper 1395. U.S. Government
cartography, although with today’s software Printing Oice. Washington, D.C.
programmes, it seems all too easy to create
lots of maps rather quickly. Digital maps are Snyder JP (1993) Flattening the Earth: Two
the main means of map representation now- housand Years of Map Projections. Uni-
adays and the main tool for geographic data versity of Chicago Press. Chicago, Illinois.
interpretation, visualisation and communi-
cation. hey provide multiple opportunities
but also ‘traps’ for the map-maker. here- Online resources
fore, instead of producing large quantities
of badly-compiled and misleading maps, ES ArcGIS (ESRI Desktop Help): http://re-
map producers should harness the available sources.arcgis.com/en/help/
knowledge and techniques in order to sup-
port the proper application of ES and ES Buckley DJ (1997) he GIS Primer. Paciic
mapping in science, decision making and Meridian Resources Inc.: http://planet.bot-
society (Chapter 7). any.uwc.ac.za/nisl/GIS/GIS_primer/index.
htm

Further reading
Further:

Bugayevskiy LM, Snyder JP (1995) Map Pro- http://geokov.com/education/map-projec-

jections - A Reference Manual. Taylor & tion.aspx
Francis, Great Britain.
http://www.progonos.com/furuti
Fenna D (2007) Cartographic Science: A
Compendium of Map Projections, with http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/
Derivations. CRC Press, Boca Raton, notes/mapproj/mapproj_f.html
Florida.
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/
International Hydrographic Bureau (2003) notes/cartocom/cartocom_ftoc.html
User’s Handbook on Datum Transfor-
mations Involving WGS 84. 3rd Edition http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/
(Last correction August 2008). Special notes/datum/datum_f.html
Publication No. 60. Monaco.
http://www.librry.arizona.edu/help/how/
Maling DH (1992) Coordinate Systems and ind/maps/scale
Map Projections, 2nd Ed. Pergamon Press.
Oxford. http://awsm-tools.com/geo/convert-datum

Monmonier M (1996) How to lie with maps. http://gitta.info/LayoutDesign/en/html/in-

2nd ed. he University of Chicago Press. dex.html

54 Mapping Ecosystem Services