Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Course Code (8609)

Assignment No 1

Name: Faseh ur Rehman

User Id: 0000052294

Program: B.Ed 1.5

Semester : Autumn 2022

Q.1 Discuss the role of philosophy in educating a society.
Answer :
Higher schooling in America often undergoes reassessment, external and internal,
formal and informal. Colleges and universities review their applications; the officers
who decide the budgets scrutinize expenses and advantages; students and capability
college students evaluate institutions for best and relevance to their diploma goals.
This extensive reassessment can be due to changing demographics, rising costs, and
in lots of establishments, a developing problem via students with the chance that their
guides will help them to discover rewarding employment. Internal reassessment may
be a sign of accountable self-analysis, and—even aside from sports accomplished for
purposes of accreditation—is frequently mandated periodically by using guidelines
set in area with the aid of establishments themselves. Occasions like these offer an
possibility for philosophers and philosophy packages to country or restate the case
for their centrality and indispensability to their institutions’ task. We accept as true
with that this assertion can be helpful in making that case. We additionally agree with
that this statement may be of use to admissions places of work, deans’ places of work,
and improvement workplaces, in furtherance of the duties of scholar recruitment and
donor improvement.

The following remarks are divided into six predominant sections. We begin with the
aid of discussing (1) a philosophy application’s fundamental contributions to
schooling. We then turn to (2) its contributions to an institution’s core
curriculum. After that we touch upon (three) philosophy’s relations to other areas
of inquiry. We describe in segment (4) the contributions that philosophers could
make past the curriculum. After briefly discussing (5) one of a kind ranges of
 philosophy programs, we conclude with some comments on (6) how one might
cross approximately measuring the fulfillment of philosophy packages.

1. Fundamental Contributions to Education

The discipline of philosophy contributes in an indispensable way to the realization of
four goals that should be fundamental to any institution of higher learning: instilling
habits of critical thinking in students; enhancing their reading, writing, and public
speaking skills; transmitting cultural heritages to them; stimulating them to engage
fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and value.

Thinking Critically
Texts, lectures, web sites, and different media may be useful resources of statistics,
concepts, theories, intellectual views, and evaluative viewpoints. Their sheer quantity
and variety, but, increases 3 issues for their ability purchaser—how to discriminate
between facts and incorrect information, how to differentiate between what is
valuable to a specific subject matter and what is peripheral, and what is likely to be
fruitful as opposed to what is barren. Intellectually engaged readers, listeners, and
viewers have to have competencies and attitudes that enable them to confront these
issues and navigate successfully via those media.

A basic talent is the capacity to reconstruct an writer’s viewpoint or argument in such

a way that the reconstruction is fair to the writer and intelligible to a person who isn't
always already aware of the issues worried. In service of the goals of representational
accuracy and intelligibility, all philosophy publications emphasize the importance of
attending to the author’s thesis and the writer’s reasons for espousing the thesis. Not
from time to time this venture will contain stating the thesis greater certainly than the
author’s textual content itself does, along side reconstructing on the writer’s behalf
arguments that won't be fully said within the text. Accurate exposition of a point of
view usually requires a few sensitivity to the writer’s conceptual framework. The
reconstruction of arguments calls for some facility with the techniques of logical
inference. Finally, college students need to discover ways to disentangle what they
themselves consider and as a consequence, perhaps, need an writer to say from what
the author virtually does say. Some viewpoints can be alien—even offensive—to a
student. But with out a truthful, correct, and intelligible illustration of those
viewpoints, students will be at a disadvantage in criticizing viewpoints they discover
objectionable.

Taking a accountable vital stance toward a standpoint calls for attitudes of benign
skepticism and an openness to being at a loss for words. A distinguished
pedagogical model in better academia is that of energetic instead of passive
getting to know, in step with which college students aren't conceptualized as
receptacles of facts but as active participants inside the gaining knowledge of
system, stimulated, regularly, via interest. A relevant aspect of energetic
mastering is learning a way to project texts and their authors, no longer to see
them as unquestionable government, but as meriting further clarification,
interpretation, essential mission, and development. In coaching students to
undertake attitudes of benign skepticism and puzzlement, philosophy
publications train students to become greater energetic and impartial inquirers.

Reading, Writing, Verbal Communication

Because many philosophical texts are quite stressful on their readers, one principal
goal of philosophy guides is to train students a way to read, recognize, and summarize
conceptually tough fabric. Students are requested to pay careful attention to
conceptual distinctions, to isolate vital from peripheral factors, to be alert for
ambiguities and invalid inferences—in sum, to take an energetic in preference to
passive technique to reading. The talents advanced in mastering a way to control
tough theoretical texts are abilities on the way to serve a pupil properly in lots of other
venues, each within and outdoor academia’s walls.

Although it's miles an accomplishment for a pupil so that it will write clear expository
prose approximately a philosophical view, many philosophy publications,
specially above the introductory degree, strain the importance of studying the
way to do philosophy, which includes formulating, articulating, and protecting
one’s personal views. No other discipline emphasizes, in the same ways, verbal
argumentation and conceptual analysis. Few different disciplines emphasize, to
the same degree, students generating their very own theories or important exams,
as awesome from the exposition of existing fabric. The argument-focused nature
of philosophy calls for students to grow to be better writers and speakers if they're
to achieve their publications. For this motive many philosophy instructions are,
on every occasion appropriate, heavily discussion-based totally. The dialogue
can be Socratic: college students learn to issue evaluations to logical scrutiny by
using asking pertinent questions, constructing relevant analogies, and seriously
assessing the outcomes of the viewpoints expressed. Students study the
importance of accurate interpretation, logical company, clarity of expression, due
attention for others’ positions, the usage of concrete illustrative examples, and
staying targeted on the issues handy. These qualities of philosophical training in
writing and speaking make well-taught courses in philosophy specifically
 precious to pre-professional college students in addition to to the ones pursuing
a extra preferred schooling.

The Transmission of Cultural Heritage

More so than any other academic subject, philosophy research the records of ideas
and texts which have profoundly formed Western concept approximately simple
moral values, political structures and beliefs, human rights, the human precise, the
character of information and science, and the fundamental shape of truth. The records
of philosophy is absolutely the history of our intellectual history. It is hard to
overestimate the approaches wherein our modern concept has been motivated
through such philosophers as Plato, Aristotle, and others. Their texts repay cautious
examine, not handiest because in gaining knowledge of approximately them we learn
some thing about ourselves, but also because the troubles they boost and arguments
they gift are perennial, as timely now as they have been then.

In current years, philosophy departments have end up increasingly more conscious

that the traditional Western canon needs to be placed inside a plurality of
intellectual traditions. Some departments now provide publications in Asian
philosophy (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Near Eastern philosophies), African
philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African-American philosophy.

Reality, Knowledge, and Value

Inquisitive students can find themselves engaging in metaphysical thought when, for
example, they wonder whether the world described by the natural sciences is all that
exists, or whether humans have freedom of will if the world is deterministic, or
whether there is an afterlife. They raise questions in epistemology when they inquire
about the scope and limits of human knowledge: How much, if anything, can be
known for certain? What are the sources of knowledge? When is it legitimate to
accept the testimony of others, and on what grounds? Exposure to the diversity of
outlook and opinion that one encounters in a typical college community may lead
students to question whether the values they hold can be rationally defended against
the charge that they are nothing more than the product of their upbringing.

Q.2 Define realism. What are the influences of realism on education?

Answer :
“Realism means a belief or theory which looks upon the world as it seems to us to be
a mere phenomenon.”

Swami Ram Tirth.

Introduction: Realism is the doctrine that is associated with the study of the world
we live in. It is a philosophy away from the world of ideas or spiritual things. In
Realism the word ‘real’ denotes actual or the existing. It indicates those things or
events which exist in the world in its own right. It opposes the thing or event which
is imaginary or fictitious. It holds the view that knowledge acquired through senses
is true and what we observe and perceive through our own senses is real and the true
entity of the world. It says that physical world is objective and factual whereas
personal feelings and desires are subjective and secondary. That is why this
philosophy is also known as objectivism. Aristotle is generally regarded as the father
 of Realism. John Locke, Erasmas, Rabelias, Comenius, Bertrand Russell, Francis
Bacon, Milton are the chief protagonists of Realism.

According to C.V. Good, “Realism is the doctrine that objective

reality or the material universe exists independently of conscious mind, its nature and
properties are being affected by being known.”

Various aspects of Realistic Education: There are various aspects of education such
as curriculum, teaching methodology, discipline, aims of education and the like
which are influenced by realistic education.

1. Realism and Aims of Education: Realism explains the aims of education in

different perspectives.
2. Preparation for a Happy and Successful Life: The first and most important aim
of realistic education is to prepare learners for a happy and successful life. The
American educationist, Franklin Bobit has given following activities for achieving
happiness in life:

• Activities related to language

• Activities concerned with hygiene
• Citizenship activities
• Social activities
• Leisure activities
• Religious activities
• Vocational activities
• Activities of mental health
• Activities related to vocational behaviour
• Activities related to race-preservation

1. Preparation for Practical Life: Realism recommends preparing students for real
and practical life of material world which can be gained through senses.

• Training of Senses: Realism believes that fullest development of personality can

be possible through proper training of senses. The learners will not have a proper
knowledge about the material world unless their senses are trained and improved
properly.

1. Developing Physical and Mental Powers: The physical and mental powers are
required for developing intelligence, discrimination and judgements by which
learners will be able to overcome the challenges of life.
2. Developing Vocational Efficiency: This type of realistic aim makes education
craft-centric. Realism is in favour of developing vocational efficiencies among
learners so that they can prepare themselves for fulfilling livelihood demands.
3. Realism and Method of Teaching: Realism aims to prepare learners for real and
practical life. It calls for teaching-learning methodologies on the basis of subjects
and interests of the learners.
4. Inductive Method: Inductive method of teaching enables the learners to generalize
the truth from a particular fact. It encourages the construction of knowledge from
particular to general. At first, the object is shown to the learners and then its
description is demonstrated. It encourages learners to observe and experiment by
means of their senses.
5. Deductive Method: This method of teaching enables learners to arrive at a specific
truth from general principles. It encourages the construction of knowledge from
general to particular. It improves the reasoning capacity of learners.
• Observation Method: This technique calls for education from direct experiences
so that all senses are involved in the learning process. It augments the strength of
mind, knowledge and experiences of learners.

1. Experimental Method: Realism recommends to give emphasize on the learning of

science subjects which can be learned effectively through experimental method.
This method prepares the learners to face the challenges and to solve these taking
systematic procedures.
2. Field Trip: Realism is in favour of learning by direct experiences. Realism
discourages rote learning and bookish knowledge and prefers hands-on experience
for the purpose of learning. It gives importance on field trips which facilitate
learners to correlate classroom learning with reality.
3. Realism and Curriculum: Realism recommends the designing of curriculum for
realistic education which enables learners to solve different problems of life and to
lead a happy and successful life.
4. Subjects of study: It prescribes to include science subjects such as physics,
chemistry, biology, astrology, physiology etc.
5. Vocational subjects: Realism recommends the study of handicrafts, farming etc.
in the curriculum because it aims at preparing learners for practical life with respect
of their livelihood.

• Utilitarian subjects: Realism is in favour of including contemporary subjects in

curriculum for facilitating individual and social life of learners.

1. Language study: Realism gives importance to language study in curriculum and

prefers mother language as medium of instruction. The language study facilitates
learners in reading, writing and conducting all types of social interactions.
2. Practical studies: Realism lays stress on the inclusion of reading, writing, drawing,
Geography, Mathematics with additional physical activities in curriculum.
3. Realism and Discipline: Realism lays stress on synthetic form of impressionistic
and emancipator discipline on the basis of natural and social procedures. Realism
calls self-discipline for the learners by controlling their feelings, desires and
perform duties. Realism tells teacher to treat learners with affection and sympathy
and it allows considerable freedom to the learners so that moral and religious
education in the curriculum are recommended.
4. Realism and Teachers: Realism is in favour of training of teachers before they
involve in teaching. Realism believes that teachers should have full knowledge of
the subject matter, psychology of learners and the scientific way of delivering
education. The teachers must encourage the learners to observe and experiment the
natural objects and phenomena so that learners will be able to find out new facts
with respect of construction of knowledge. They should inform learners about the
scientific discoveries, inventions and researches in different fields of knowledge.

Q.3 Which philosophy id dominant in our contemporary educational system?

Answer :

Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It helps educators in

formulating beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in making value judgments.
Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps in answering what schools are
for, what subjects are important, how students should learn, and what materials and
methods should be used. Philosophy provides the starting point . . . in decision
making about education in its totality .
 Essential Questions

• How is philosophy a “crucial determinant” in curriculum trends and development?

• What are the broad categories of philosophy, and what beliefs are espoused in each?
• What do you perceive as the pros and cons of each philosophy?
• What is your philosophy of teaching and learning as it relates to curriculum?
• How does your philosophy of teaching and learning drive your future personal and
professional choices?

Philosophical Foundations

Welcome to the philosophical foundations of curriculum. In this chapter, we will

explore idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and educational philosophies
which are perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism.

Many sources consider philosophy to be “the study of basic ideas about knowledge,
truth, right and wrong. . . and the nature of meaning of life.” (Merriam-Webster
Dictionary). Locke defines philosophy as a “process of liberation from ignorance and
prejudice”

According to Doll, philosophy has the multifaceted effect of helping us to:

• indicate in general what we mean,

• make what we mean more specific and definite, and
• develop what we mean into a useful construct.

Thus, philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the curriculum

development process by helping clarify our thought process. And, because
philosophy is a process of the mind, there are a variety of philosophical thoughts that
need consideration.

To start with, there are two broad categories of philosophy: the traditional and modern
philosophies. In each of those categories, there are major philosophies such as
idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism, as well as educational
philosophies arising from those major philosophies. These include perennialism and
essentialism in the traditional category, while progressivism and reconstructionism
fall under the modern philosophies.

Idealism

Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main

proponent was the Greek philosopher, Plato. Idealism advocates that ideas constitute
what is real and permanent, i.e. ideas are the only true reality. Idealism also
emphasizes the spiritual component of man, i.e., man is a spiritual being.

According to this philosophy, education is the process of development of a person,

his/her conscious and spiritual self. The ultimate responsibility for learning rests with
learners. The school exists to develop character, increase knowledge, and cultivate
aesthetic taste. The teacher is expected to be a model, friend, and guide to the learners.

Realism

The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle, another main, Greek
philosopher. According to this philosophy, matter or objects that we see exist by
themselves, i.e., they exist absolutely with or without man. In other words, matter is
not a construct of the human mind.
 The following principles are therefore upheld:

• the principle of independence of matter,

• the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization, this means that law
and order prevail in the universe,
• the principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.

Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses are also a
source of knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values exist objectively;
they are absolute and eternal.

What then are the educational implication of realism? Following are a few:

• The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature and inner

workings of the universe.
• Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one generation to
another.
• Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.
• Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to discover important
principles and theoretical insights.

Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum for every learner.

Pragmatism

The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The proponents
of pragmatism were reacting against what they considered as failures or shortcomings
of the traditional school system, supported by idealism and realism. Some of the
criticisms included:
• Traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and needless content.
• Traditional curriculum did not give a “utility education.”
• The curriculum was rigid and did not cater to individual needs of particular learners.

Pragmatists, therefore, advocated for reality being considered as instrumental, i.e.,

used as an instrument to solve problems. Philosophy is therefore built on practical
usefulness, i.e., “cash value of ideas.” Hence, truth is what works, what turns out all
night. Truth also should be the idea that has been tested, verified, and found effective
in solving problems.

What are the educational implications of pragmatism?

Learning from Experience

If experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a source of education. We learn

by doing. However, not every experience is educative; experience must be
productive, i.e., produce growth.

Educational Aim: Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with Future Problems

That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems. According to Dewey, the process
involves:

• identifying the problem,

• formatting a hypothesis(es),
• gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
• testing each hypothesis, and
• storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.
 Curriculum

Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily living.
School is therefore an extension of home and community.

Methods of Study

These should include:

• problem-solving,
• activity,
• projects, and
• group involvement.

Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a motivator. Teaching must be child-
centered.

For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However, sciences are favored because the
child is able to explore new knowledge.

Existentialism

According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of

existence.” Sartre (1957) also states that “man is nothing else but what he makes of
himself.” A person is therefore free to choose the type of life to live and is in control
of his/her destiny. An individual is thus free to make choices and be responsible for
them.

Reality, therefore, is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the individual
chooses freely according to his/her perception.
Q.4 Describe the organization of school demanded by naturalism.

Answer :
Naturalism is a philosophy with the belief that nature alone represents the entire
reality. There is nothing beyond behind, or other than nature. According to this
philosophy, human life is the part of the scheme of nature. This philosophy gives
emphasis to matter, the physical world. It does not believe in spirituality and
supernaturalism. There are three different types of naturalism:

• Physical naturalism: It is believed that reality exists in the natural universe not
within the individual. Tagore has called nature as a 'manuscript of God'.
• Mechanical naturalism:It regards man as a mere machine. There is no spirit or
soul. Only matter is everything. Mind is also a matter made up atoms, empty
space, and motion.
• Biological naturalism: It tries to explain man in terms of lower form of life
from which he has evolved.

The chief exponent of naturalism are Bacon, Comenius, Herbert Spencer, Huxley,
Bernard Shaw, and Rousseau.

Naturalism and Education

Naturalism is a revolt against traditional system of education, which gives very
little freedom to the child. In naturalism, maximum freedom and central position is
given to the child. This philosophy believes that education should be according to
the nature of child. It advocates creation of natural conditions in which natural
development of child can take place.

Whenever a system of education becomes stereotype, there is reaction against it in

the form of revival of naturalism. According to Rousseau, there are three sources of
education namely, nature, men, and things. Education from nature is to prepare a
natural man.

Aim of Education

self-realization, self-expression and self-preservation.

Curriculum

There is no fixed curriculum. Every child is given the right to determine his own
curriculum. He is expected to learn directly from nature through personal
experiences. Subjects like agriculture, nature study, gardening, art, craft, geology,
and astronomy are taught. The subjects are correlated with the physical activities of
the child and with the life around him.

Methods of Teaching

Learning by doing, playway method, observation and experimentation are used, so

as to govern self. According to Rousseau, 'Students should not be given any verbal
lessons rather they should be taught experience alone. Teacher tries to give lots of
hand-on training and practical experiences'.
Discipline

Naturalist gives utmost freedom to the child to do and learn the behavior. There is
no punishment of any kind. External discipline is not desirable, as it stands in the
ways of child development. Naturalism also believes that formal education is the
invention of society, which is created and can be called artificial. Therefore, rigid
man-made discipline must be avoided in the teaching-learning process.

Role of Teacher

Teacher is always behind the screen. He is a spectator or an observer. Teacher plays

his role behind the scene. He does not interfere in students' activities. Teacher acts as
a facilitator, a setter of the stage, and as a supplier of materials and opportunities.

Q.5 Define rational knowledge. How is it different from intuitive knowledge?

Answer :
Rational Knowledge
Rational knowledge is all that we can obtain through the use of human reason ,
that is, through the mental understanding of the phenomena of reality that capture our
senses, and their analysis according to recognizable, demonstrable, understandable
methods.
This means that rational knowledge is extremely broad, since it encompasses both
scientific and empirical and philosophical knowledge , although these three are
different from each other.
There are different positions regarding the fact that all knowledge , being
necessarily human , passes through our mind and therefore is ultimately
rational. However, rational knowledge is considered as the fruit of human reasoning
as free as possible of emotions, prejudices , sensations, intuitions or subjective or
unprovable values.

Thus, only that which can be explained and demonstrated according to

a specific method , would be rational. In this sense, rational knowledge opposes
intuitive knowledge, which is not demonstrable, and religious knowledge, which
is based on faith and is dogmatic, and lacks demonstrable explanations.

2. Characteristics of rational knowledge

The fundamental thing of rational knowledge is that it follows from reason, that is, to
acquire it, a conscious, methodical, often argumentative effort must be made that
obeys the formal laws of logic .
This means that rational knowledge is an analytical way of thinking, linked to a
method. Therefore, it can be transmitted, demonstrated and replicated (in the
case of experimental science).
In general, the traditional conception of reason excludes all forms of emotionality or
subjectivity, aspiring to be as objective as possible . However, it is known that total
objectivity is impossible and that even in the most seemingly rational and scientific
forms a minimum margin of subjectivities persists.
3. Examples of rational knowledge
A couple of examples of rational knowledge are:
• Scientific knowledge , in which the conditions in which a natural phenomenon
occurs are replicated in a controlled environment, in order to isolate it and
understand how it operates, thus drawing reliable conclusions regarding
its underlying logic . All this following the scientific method , which is a rational
method of verification, demonstration and validation.
• Technical knowledge , which has to do with the use of tools and problem
solving, involves the conscious understanding of them in order to find their correct
mode of employment. All of which must be learned rationally.
• Philosophical knowledge , since it aspires to understand human reality and
existence from pure reflections, that is, without the need for experiments , but with
formal demonstrations of deductive validity.
4. Rational knowledge and empirical knowledge
Empirical knowledge is derived from the experience of the world itself , that is,
from perceptions , so it can be considered a sensitive knowledge (of the
senses). Thus, it can be more or less objective in assessing the object of study, ie, p ou
can lend itself to rational approaches, or not .
For example, a bad (empirical) love experience can be rationalized and
become social learning (something that is tried to be done in psychotherapy, for
example), or it can be translated into an emotional conclusion like “all men / women
are equal” .

5. Other types of knowledge

Other forms of knowledge are as follows:

• Scientific knowledge . The one that derives from the application of the scientific
method to the different hypotheses that arise from the observation of reality, in
 order to demonstrate through experiments what are the laws that govern
the universe .
• Empirical knowledge . The one that is acquired through direct experience,
repetition or participation, without requiring an approximation to the abstract, but
from the things themselves.
• Philosophical knowledge . He who emerges fromhuman thought , in the
abstract, using various logical methods or formal reasoning, which does not always
follow directly from reality, but from the imaginary representation of the real.
• Intuitive knowledge . The one that is acquired without a formal reasoning,
quickly and unconsciously, the result of often inexplicable processes.
• Religious knowledge . One who is linked to the mystical and religious
experience, that is, to the knowledge that studies the link between the human being
and the divine.