Determinant of a Square Matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = [ 21 … ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑥𝑛

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
|𝐴| = det 𝐴 = | 21 … | a determinant of the nth order. (i.e., order = n)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Example:
1 0 2 1 0
2 1 0 1 2
𝐴= 1 2 1 2 1
2 0 2 0 1
[1 1 0 2 2]5𝑥5

*If we delete rows and column, this results to a submatrix e.g., delete row 2 & 5; column 2 & 3.
This results to
1 1 0
[1 2 1 ]
2 0 1

* |𝐴|  is a function,since determinant in a function, it has a domain and range.

Domain = collection of square matrix

Range = real number system (if elements are real number)

𝑎11 𝑎12
If 𝐴 = |𝑎 𝑎22 |
21

𝑎 𝑎12
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
21

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12

If 𝑎
𝐴 = | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
- - - + + +

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32
−𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12

If n ˃ 3 Use Expansion of determinant and minors

Expansion of a Determinant by minors (Special Case of Laplace Expansion)

 The minor (M11) of element a11 is the determinant of a11, i.e.,
𝑎22 𝑎23
Minor M11 of a11 = |𝑎 |
32 𝑎33
Cofactor 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = (-1)i+j Mij
Cofactor of a11 = (-1)1+1 M11 = signed minor of a11

*In evaluating the determinant

a) Choose a particular row or column
b) The determinant is the products of that row or column by their respective cofactors.

Given: Anxn
|𝐴| = det 𝐴

(1) Choose the ith row

|𝐴𝑖 | = det 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖1 𝑥 𝐴𝑖1 ) + (𝑎𝑖2 𝑥 𝐴𝑖2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐴𝑖𝑛 )
𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑖𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑖 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛

𝑘=1

(2) Selecting the jth column

|𝐴| = det 𝐴 = 𝑎1𝑗 𝐴1𝑗 + 𝑎2𝑗 𝐴2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝐴𝑛𝑗

∑ 𝑎𝑘𝑗 𝐴𝑘𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑗 (1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛)

𝑘=1

* If matrix is very large (e.g., 5 x 5 matrix). The minor is 4 x4 matrix, hence it could not
be determine unless get again the signed minor.

Use Properties of Matrix

(1) For a large matrix, where all elements of a row or column are all zero, the determinant
of that matrix is zero.
(2) If any 2 rows or columns are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed (i.e.)
|𝐴| → − |𝐴|.
(3) If the corresponding elements of any 2 rows or columns are equal or have a constant
ratio, the determinant is zero.
(4) If all elements of any row or column are multiplied by a scalar, k, then the remaining
determinant is k|𝐴|
(5) If all elements of any row or column are multiplied by a non-zero scalar k and added
to any row or column, the determinant of resulting matrix remains unchanged.
Row ----- Hij (k) ← jth row x k added to ith row
Column ----- Kij (R) ← jth column x R added to ith column

e.g., H21 (-2) → means all elements of 1st row is multiplied by -2 and added to the element of 2nd
row.
 Example:
1 2 3
𝐴 = [4 5 6 ]
7 8 9

a) Using the long hand method

1 2 3 1 2
|𝐴| = |4 5 6| 4 5
7 8 9 7 8
- - - + + +

= (1𝑥5𝑥9 + 2𝑥6𝑥7 + 3𝑥4𝑥8) − (7𝑥5𝑥3) − (8𝑥6𝑥1) − (9𝑥4𝑥2)

= 45 + 84 + 96 − 105 − 48 − 72
|𝐴 | = 0

b) Evaluating the determinant using minors:

(1) Select 1st row:

|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |5 6| + 2(−1)1+2 |4 6| + 3(−1)1+3 |4 5|
8 9 7 9 7 8
= 1 (1)2 (5𝑥9 − 8𝑥6) + 2(−1)3 (4𝑥9 − 7𝑥6) + 3(−1)4 (4𝑥7 − 7𝑥5)
= 1(45 − 48) + 2(−1) (36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35)
= −3 + 12 − 9
|𝐴 | = 0

(2) Using the 1st column

1 2 3
|𝐴 | = [ 4 5 6 ]
7 8 9
|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |5 6| + 4(−1)1+2 |2 3| + 7(−1)1+3 |2 3|
8 9 8 9 5 6
= 1(45 − 48) − 4(18 − 24) + 7(12 − 15)
|𝐴 | = 0

c) Using the Property of Matrices (Elementary Row Equation)

1 2 3 𝐻21(−4) 1 2 3
|𝐴| = |4 5 6| ≈.𝐻31(−7) |0 −3 −6 |
7 8 9 0 −6 −12

Using column 1

|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |−3 −6 | + 0(−1)1+2 | 2 3

| + 0(−1)1+3 |
2 3
|
−6 −12 −6 −12 −3 −6
= 1(36 − 36) = 0
|𝐴 | = 0
LAPLACE EXPANSION

→ can choose several number of rows and columns and then expand it according to minors of those
rows and columns

Given: n x n matrix
i1, i2, … im ------ be m of the n rows ( in order of magnitude)
j1, j2, … jm ------ be m of the n columns

→ This results to 2 submatrices

𝑗1 𝑗2 … 𝑗𝑛 𝑗 𝑗 … 𝑗𝑛
|𝐴 | |𝐴 𝑚+1 𝑚+2 |
𝑖1 𝑖2 … 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑥𝑚 𝑖𝑚+1 𝑖𝑚+ 2 … 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥𝑛

No. of minors that can be selected:

𝑛 (𝑛−1)… (𝑛−𝑚+1)
= |𝐴 |
1∙2⋯𝑚

Laplace expansion in evaluating determinants of higher order (n ˃ 3)

Example:
1 2 3
𝐴 = [4 5 6 ] : |𝐴 | = ?
7 8 9

(1) Using the minors of the 1st 2 rows

Column 1
1 2 3
(−1)1+2+1+2 |𝐴 | |𝐴 | Column 2
1 2 3
|𝐴| = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)1+3+1+2 1 3 2 1 2
|𝐴 | |𝐴 | where: A
1 2 3 1 2
2+3+1+2 2 3 1
[(−1) |𝐴 | |𝐴 |] Row 2
1 2 3 Row 1

1 2 | |
(−1)6 | | 9
4 5
1 3 | |
= 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)7 | | 8
4 6
8 2 3 | |
[(−1) | | 7]
5 6

= 1(5 – 8) (9) + (−1) (b – 12) (8) + 1 (12 − 15)(7)

= −27 + 48 − 21 = 0

|𝐴 | = 0
2. Expansion using the minors of the 1st 2 columns

1 2 3
(−1)1+2+1+2 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
1 2 3
| 1 2 3|
|𝐴| = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)1+2+1+3 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
| 1 2 2|
1 2 3
(−1)1+2+2+3 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
1 2 1
1 2 | |
(−1)6 | | 9
4 5
| 1 2 | ||
= 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)7 | | 8
| 7 8 |
|4 5| | |
(−1)8 3
7 8
= −27 + 36 − 9

|𝐴 | = 0

𝑛(𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 =
𝑚!

Example: 4x4 matrix using m=2

4(4 − 2 + 1) 4(3)
ℓ= = =6
2! 2

Example 2

2 3 −2 4
|𝐴| = |3 −2 1 2|
𝑛(𝑛−𝑚+1) 4(4−2+1)
ℓ= = = 10
3 2 3 4 2! 1.2
−2 4 0 5
Solution:

Steps Exp. according to minors of 1st 2rows

1 2 3 4 2 3 3 4
(−1)6 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 | = 1| |.| | = 1(−4 − 9). (15 − 0) = −195
1 2 3 4 3 −2 0 5

1 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 −1 (
(−1)7 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 | = −1 | |.| |= 2 − 6)(10 − 16) = −24
1 2 3 4 3 1 4 5
 1 4 2 3 2 4 2 3
(−1)8 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(4 − 12)(0 − 12) = 96
1 2 3 4 3 2 4 0
2 3 1 4 3 −2 3 4
(−1)8 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(3 − 4). (15 − (−8)) = −23
1 2 3 4 −2 1 −2 5
2 4 1 3 3 4 3 3
(−1)9 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = −1 | |∙| | = −1(6 − (−8))(0 − 6) = 84
1 2 3 4 −2 2 −2 0
3 4 1 2 −2 4 3 2
(−1)10 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(−4 − 4)(12 − (−4)) = 144
1 2 3 4 1 2 −2 4

Determinant used in Linear Systems

A system with n unknowns

𝑎11 𝑋1 + 𝑎12 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏1 Can be represented by

⋮ }
Ax=B
𝑎𝑛1 𝑋1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

Column Vector of unknown

Ax = B Column Vector of Constant

Coefficient

Matrix
𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑥2
[ ⋮ . . . ] [ ] = [𝑏2 ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛

Cramer’s Rule:

Requirements:

1. No. of equation = no. of unknowns

2. Det A = |𝐴| ≠ 0 (This means that coefficient matrix MUST BE NON-SINGULAR)

Kth Column
Solution by Cramer’s Rules

1 𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑘−1 𝑏1 𝑎1𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑥𝑘 = | ⋮ . . . . . . . |
|𝐴 |
𝑎 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑘−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Column of Xk
Example:
3𝑋1 − 2𝑋2 + 4𝑋3 = 5
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 3𝑋3 = 2
−𝑋1 + 2𝑋2 −𝑋3 = 1

3 −2 4 𝑋1 5
[1 1 3 ] [𝑋2 ] = [2]
−1 2 −1 𝑋3 1

3 −2 4 1 1 3
𝐻
Step 1: det. The |𝐴| = | 1 1 3 | ≈ 12 | 3 −2 4 |
.
−1 2 −1 −1 2 −1

Multiply Row 1 by (-3)

𝐻21(−3) 1& add
1 to Row
3 2
≈ − |0 −5 −5|
𝐻31(1)
0 3Row 21 by 1 &
Multiple
add to row 3

−5 −5
≈ (−1)(−1)2 | | = −(−10 + 15)
3 2
|𝐴| = −5 ≠ 0 Solve by Cramer’s Rule

1 5 −2 4 33
𝑥1 = |2 1 3 |=
−5 5
1 2 −1

1 3 5 4 13
𝑥2 = |1 2 3 |=
−5 5
−1 1 −1

1 3 −2 5 −12
𝑥3 = |1 1 2| =
−5 5
1 2 1

Rank of Matrix

-largest 2x2 submatrix that can be obtained for the original matrix which is non-singular

Steps is obtaining the rank of the matrix

 1. Transform the original matrix
a. Elementary Transformation – process of obtaining a matrix from the original by
getting the:
a.1) Elementary row operation
b.1) Elementary Column operation

Elementary row Elementary

operation Column operation

1. Interchanging
- 2 rows Hij
- 2 columns Kij
2. Multiplying by non-zero scalar, k all element of a
- rows Hij(K)
- columns Kij(K)
3. Multiplying by a non-zero scalar all elements and adding to corresponding elements
- Row to row Hij(K)
- Column to Kij(K)
column

* Any transformation done in a matrix will not alter the rank of a given matrix.

Example:

4 0 0 0
[1 0 3 0]- by inspection Rank = 2xL
2 0 0 0
4 0
e.g., | |≠0
1 3

If 3𝑥3

4 0 0
𝐴 = |1 0 3|- All zeros (…) ranks |𝐴| = 0 so not possible
2 0 0

Example:
Find the rank of A:
−2 −3 −1 1 0
Interchanged 𝐻13
𝐴=| 0 1 7 1 −4|
1 2 4 0 −2
−2 −2 6 2 −4
 1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻13 | 0 1 7 1 −4 |
−2 −3 −1 1 0
−2 −2 6 2 −4

𝐻31(2) 1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻41(2)
|0 1 7 1 −4 |
0 1 7 1 −2
0 2 14 2 −8

𝐻32 (−1)
1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻42 (−2) |0 1 7 1 −4| ≈ 𝐴1
0 1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0
By inspection the rank of 𝐴1 = 2

r 𝐴1 = 2
∴r𝐴=2

Since Row 3 & Row 4 have all zero elements (this case an element in Row 3 is not zero then r
(A)=3)

In a 𝐴𝑚𝑥𝑚 matrix the largest possible rank obtainable is whichever is smaller from m or n
e.g. 𝐴3𝑥4 ‖ largest possible 𝑟(𝐴) = 3. This should be counted for non-singular (i.e.)
|𝐴| ≠ 𝑐.

Finding the A-1 By Elementary Row Echelon

𝐴−1 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴−1 B
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐴 −1 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴 −1

To get 𝐴 −1 :
1
𝐴 −1 = |𝐴| adj A

Where |𝐴| ≠ 0 or matrix should not be a singular

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13

A= [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] [𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑏11 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎11 = 𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 |𝑎 𝑎33 |
32

Adj 𝐴 = B T
Another Method of getting 𝐴−1 :

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑅𝑜𝑤
[𝐴|𝐼 ] [𝐼 |𝐴−1]
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: Compute the inverse

1 2 3
𝐴 = [1 3 4]
1 4 3
1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻21(−1)
[𝐴|𝐼3 ] = [1 3 4 |0 1 0] ≈ 𝐻31(−1)

1 4 3 0 0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0
𝐻32(−2)
= [0 1 1 |−1 0 0] ≈
0 2 0 −1 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻 1
3(− )
= [0 1 1 |−1 1 0] ≈ 2

0 0 −2 1 −2 1

1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻23(−1)
= [0 1 1 |−11 1 0 ]≈
1
𝐻13(−3)

0 0 1 −2 −2 − 2

5 3
−1 − 2
1 2 0 2
1 1
= [0 1 0 || − 2 0 2
≈ 𝐻12 (−2)
0 0 1 1 1
−2 1 2 ]
7 1
−3
2 2
1 0 0| 1 1
= [0 1 0 − 0 = [𝐼 |𝐴−1 ]
0 0 1| 2 2
1 1
1 − ]
2 2

Check if A−1 = I
7 −6 1 1 2 3 1 0 0
1
A−1 A = I = 2 [−1 0 1 ] [1 3 4] = [0 1 0]
−1 2 −1 1 4 3 0 0 1
7 −6 1
1
∴ A−1 = [−1 0 1]
2
−1 2 −1
Solve using the Inverse of the Coefficient Matrix

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 = 0
X1 + X 2 + X 3 − X 4 = 4
−X1 + X2 − X3 + X4 = −4
X1 − X 2 + X 3 + X 4 = 0

Solution:
A 𝐼4
𝐻21(−1)
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 𝐻31(−3)
1 1 1 −1 | 0 0 0 0] ~ 𝐻41(−1)
1 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
[1 −1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
[0 0 0 −2 | −1 1 0 0] ~ 𝐻24
0 0 −2 0 −1 0 1 0
0 −2 0 0 −1 0 0 1
𝐻 1
2(− )
2
𝐻 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 3(− )
2
𝐻
0 −2 1 0 | −1 0 0 1] ~ 1
41(− )
2
0 0 −1 0 −1 0 1 0
0 0 1 −2 −1 1 0 0
[

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
−1/2 0 0 −1/2
[0 1 0 0| ] ~ 𝐻24
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 1 1 0 1/2 0 0 0
[0 1 0 0 | 1/2 0 0 −1/2
] ~ 𝐻13(−1)
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 1/2 1/2 0
1/2 0 0 −1/2
[0 1 0 0| ] ~ 𝐻12(−1)
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

[0 1 0 0 | 1/2 0 0 −1/2 [ | −1 ]
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0 ] = 𝐼4 𝐴
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0
 −1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 −1]
∴ A−1 = [
2 1 0 −1 0
1 −1 0 0
−1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 −1] [ 1 1 1 −1] = [ 0 1 0 0]
AA−1 = [
2 1 0 −1 0 1 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
1 −1 0 0 1 −1 1 1 0 0 0 1

A−1 B
−1 1 1 1 0 1
𝐴 = 2[ 1 0 0 −1] [ 4 ] = [−1]
1
1 0 −1 0 −4 2
1 −1 0 0 2 −2

X1 =1
X2 = −1
X3 =2
X4 = −2

GAUSS ELIMINATION WITH PIVOTAL CONDENSATION

Solve:
2𝑋1 + 3𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = 5
4𝑋1 + 4𝑋2 − 3𝑋3 = 3
2𝑋1 − 3𝑋2 + 𝑋3 = 5

Transform the coefficient matrix into upper triangular matrix.

Solution:

2 3 −1 5 𝐻21(−2)
𝐴 = [4 4 −3 | 3 ] ~𝐻31(−1)
𝑏

2 −3 1 −1
2 3 −1 5
= [0 −2 −1 | −7 ] ~𝐻32(−3)
0 −6 2 −6
2 3 −1 5
= [0 −2 −1 | −7 ]
0 0 5 15

Starting from the bottom:

5𝑋3 = 15 ∥ 𝑋3 = 3
−2𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = −7 ∥ 𝑋2 = 2
2𝑋1 + 3𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = 5 ∥ 𝑋1 = 1