Instrumentation Amplifier

Introduction
Many industrial and consumer applications require the measurement and control of physical
conditions. For example, measurements of temperature and humidity inside a diary plant to
accurately maintain product quality, or precise control of the temperature of a plastic furnace
to produce a particular grade of plastic, etc.
These changes in physical conditions must be converted to electrical quantities using
transducers, and then amplified. Such amplifiers, which are used to amplify signals to
measure physical quantities are commonly known as Instrumentation Amplifiers. An
instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by a transducer and
often to control the physical signal producing it. The block diagram of an instrumentation
system is as shown in figure 2.1.
The input to an instrumentation amplifier is the output signal from the transducer. A
transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another. Most of the transducer
outputs are of very low-level signals.

Transmission lines

Input Stage Intermediate Output Stage

Stage

Transducer + Instrumentation Indicator and automatic

Pre-amplifier amplifier process controller

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of an instrumentation system

Hence, before the next stage, it is necessary to amplify the level of the signal, rejecting noise
and the interference. The general single ended amplifiers are not suitable for such operations.
For the rejection of noise, amplifiers must have high common-mode rejection ratio.
The special amplifier which is used for such low-level amplification with high CMRR, high
input impedance to avoid loading is an Instrumentation Amplifier.
The instrumentation amplifier is intended for precise, low-level signal amplification where
high input resistance, low noise and accurate closed-loop gain is required. Also, low power
consumption, high slew rate and high common-mode rejection ratio are desirable for good
performance.

Requirements of a Good Instrumentation Amplifier

An instrumentation amplifier is usually employed to amplify low-level signals, rejecting
noise and interference signals. Therefore, a good instrumentation amplifier has to meet the
following specifications:
Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain: Since the instrumentation amplifiers are required to
amplify very low-level signals from the transducer device, high and finite gain is the basic
requirement. The gain also needs to be accurate and the closed-loop gain must be stable.
Easier Gain Adjustment: Apart from a finite and stable gain, variation in the gain factor
over a prescribed range of values is also necessary. The gain adjustment must be easier and
precise.
High Input Impedance: To avoid the loading of input sources, the input impedance of the
instrumentation amplifier must be very high (ideally infinite).
Low Output Impedance: The output impedance of a good instrumentation amplifier must be
very low (ideally zero), to avoid loading effect on the immediate next stage.
High CMRR: The output from the transducer usually contains common mode signals, when
transmitted over long wires. A good instrumentation amplifier must amplify only the
differential input, completely rejecting common mode inputs. Thus, the CMRR of the
instrumentation amplifier must be ideally infinite.
High Slew Rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier must be as high as possible
to provide maximum undistorted output voltage swing.

Differential Input/Output Amplifier

The figure 2.2 shows the circuit of an amplifier that accepts a differential input voltage and
produces a differential output.

Figure 2.2: A differential input/output amplifier has a differential output voltage as well
as a different input
Let us analyse the differential input/output amplifier by assuming the junction of resistors R 2
& R3 is grounded. Now, the opamp A 1 is a non-inverting amplifier with R 1 as feedback
resistor and R2 as input resistor. The gain of
R1
A 1 =1+
R2
Similarly if junction of R2 & R1 are grounded A2 is a non-inverting amplifier with R 3 as
feedback resistor and R2 as input resistor. The gain of
R3
A 2=1+
R2
The input to the opamp A1, A2 at the junction of R2 & R3 is equal to V1 and A2 at the junction
of R2 & R1 is equal to V2.
The voltage at the resistance R2 is given by VR2 = V1 – V2 = Vi
VR2 is the differential input to the circuit.
The current flowing in R2 is given by
Vi
I 2=
R2
From the circuit the differential output voltage is
VO = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = I2 (R1 + R2 + R3)
Vi
V o= (R 1 + R 2 + R 3)
R2
The closed loop gain of the differential I/O amplifier is given by
(R 1 + R 2 + R 3 )
A CL(dif)=
R2
Normally R1 = R3
Thus,
(2 R 1+ R 2)
A CL(dif)=
R2
The gain can be altered by adjusting the resistor R2.
The common mode gain of the differential I/O amplifier can be analysed by connecting the
common mode voltage (Vn) to both the input terminals as shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: A differential input/output amplifier passes common mode inputs without
attenuation
The junctions of R1, R2 and R2, R3 will be at the same voltage as the noninverting input
terminal of A1 and A2 i.e., both the resistor junctions will be at the voltage V n Volts w.r.t gnd.
Thus there is no current flowing through R 1, R2, or R3. Thus the output voltage of each
amplifier will be Vn. The common mode gain is ACM = 1
Common mode signals are passed but not amplified.

Complete Instrumentation Amplifier (Three Op-amp Instrumentation

Amplifier)
The instrumentation amplifier consists of 2 stages one is differential input/output amplifier in
stage 1 and difference amplifier in stage 2 as shown in the figure 2.4.
The difference amplifier uses the differential output voltages from the differential
input/output amplifier to drive a grounded load.
The differential input/output stage offers a very high input resistance at each input terminal.

Figure 2.4: Instrumentation amplifier consisting of a differential input/output amplifier

and difference amplifier
The voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier is the
ACL = ACL1 x ACL2
where ACL1 is the voltage gain of stage 1 and ACL2 is the stage 2 gain.
The overall gain can be controlled by adjustment of R2.
Advantages of Three Op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier
The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit can be easily varied and
controlled by adjusting the value of R2 without changing the circuit structure.
The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used. Hence, it is easy to set
the gain accurately by choosing the resistor values carefully.
The input impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is dependent on the non-inverting
amplifier circuits in the input stage. The input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is very
high.
The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is the output impedance of the
difference amplifier, which is very low.
The CMRR of the op-amp 3(A3) is very high and almost all of the common mode signal will
be rejected.

SLE Component: Transducer Bridge Instrumentation Amplifier

The resistive transducer bridge is a network of resistors whose resistance varies due to
changes in some physical condition. For example, Thermistors change their resistance with
temperature and Light Dependent Resistors change their resistance to change in light
intensity.
By making such a bridge as a part of the circuit, it is possible to produce an electrical signal
proportional to the change in the physical quantity being measured.
Such an electrical signal can be amplified and used to monitor and control the physical
process. An instrumentation amplifier can be constructed with a transducer bridge connected
to one of its input terminals, as shown in the figure below.

Let the resistance of the transducer device in the resistive bridge be R T and the change in its
resistance be ΔR. The effective resistance of the transducer device is R T ±ΔR. The resistive
bridge is supplied with a DC voltage, Vdc.
When the bridge is balanced, i.e. at some reference condition of the physical quantity being
measured, we get,
Va = Vb
RA(Vdc)/(RA+RT) = RB(Vdc)/(RB+RC)
Under this condition, the differential input to the instrumentation amplifier is
VDiff = Vb – Va = 0
Thus, the output of the amplifier is zero. Consequently, the display device connected at the
output displays the reference value of the physical quantity being measured.
The reference condition is generally chosen by the designer and it depends on the device
characteristics of the transducer, the type of physical quantity being measured and the type of
the application.
When there is a change in the physical quantity being measured, the voltage V a will no longer
be equal to Vb. This is because the resistance of the transducer device changes from R T to
(RT ± ΔR).
This produces a differential input for the instrumentation amplifier and the output of the
amplifier will no longer be zero.
The resistances RB and RC are constant and hence the voltage VB remains same as before, i.e.
Vb = RB(Vdc)/(RB+RC)
But the voltage Va changes due to the change in resistance of the transducer device and is
now given as,
Va = RA(Vdc)/(RA+RT+ ΔR)
The differential voltage VDiff is,
VDiff = Vb – Va
VDiff = {RB(Vdc)/(RB+RC)} – {RA(Vdc)/(RA+RT+ ΔR)}
If all the resistances in the circuit are chosen to be of same value, i.e. RA = RB = RC = RT = R
VDiff = {R(Vdc)/(2R)} – {R(Vdc)/(2R+ ΔR)}
VDiff = {RVdc[2R+ΔR] – R.Vdc.2R}/ 2R(2R+ΔR)
VDiff = R.Vdc[2R+ΔR-2R]/{2R(2R+ΔR)}
VDiff = ΔR(Vdc)/{2(2R+ΔR)}
If the value of VDiff is positive, it indicates that Vb is greater than Va.
The output of the instrumentation amplifier is given as,
VO = (R3/R2)Vd
Vo = (R3/R2) [ΔR(Vdc)/{2(2R+ΔR)}]
As the change in resistance ΔR << 2R, Vo can be written as,
Vo = (R3/R2)[ΔR/4R](Vdc)
From the above equation, it can be noted that the output depends on the change in the
resistance ΔR. The display can be calibrated in terms of the units of the physical quantity
being measured.
Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier
The instrumentation amplifier, along with a transducer bridge can be used in a wide variety of
applications. These applications are generally known as data acquisition systems.
At the input stage, there is a transducer device that converts the change in the physical
quantity to an electrical signal.
The electrical signal is fed to an instrumentation amplifier. The amplified signal is then fed to
a display device, which is calibrated to detect the change in the quantity being measured.
Temperature Controller

A simple temperature controller system can be constructed using a thermistor as the

transducer device, in the resistive bridge, as shown in the figure above.
The resistive bridge is kept balanced for some reference temperature. For any change in this
reference temperature, the instrumentation amplifier will produce an output voltage, which
drives the Relay which in turn turns ON/OFF the heating unit, thereby controlling the
temperature.
Temperature Indicator
The circuit shown for temperature controller can also be used as a temperature indicator. The
resistive bridge is kept balanced for a particular reference temperature when Vo = 0V.
The temperature indicating meter is calibrated to reference temperature, corresponding to this
reference condition.
As temperature changes, the amplifier output also changes. The gain of the amplifier can be
appropriately set to indicate the desired range of temperature.
Light Intensity Meter
The same circuit can be used to detect variations in the intensity of light, by replacing the
thermistor by a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). The bridge is set to a balanced condition in
darkness.
When light falls on the LDR, its resistance changes and unbalances the bridge. This causes
the amplifier to produce a finite output, which in turn drives the meter.