9/5/2022

Electromagnetics:
Electromagnetic Field Theory

The Del Operator

& Field Operations
1

Outline

• Scalar vs. Vector Fields

• The Del Operator ∇
• Gradient of a Scalar Field ∇𝑉
• Divergence of a Vector Field ∇ · 𝐴⃗
• Curl of a Vector Field ∇ 𝐴⃗
• Laplacian Operation ∇

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Scalar vs. Vector

Fields

Slide 3

Scalar Field Vs. Vector Field (2D)

Scalar Field 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 Vector Field 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦

• Magnitude only • Magnitude

• Direction
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Scalar Field Vs. Vector Field (3D)

Scalar Field 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 Vector Field 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

• Magnitude only • Magnitude

• Direction
Slide 5

Isocontour Lines
Isocontour lines trace the paths of equal value. Closely space isocontours conveys that the
function is varying rapidly.

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The Del Operator

Slide 7

The Del Operator ∇

The del operator  is the vector differential operator.
It is sort of a 3D derivative.
Even though  is a
Coordinate vector, it is never
Del Operator
System
written as ∇.
  
Cartesian  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z
 1  
Cylindrical  aˆ   aˆ  aˆ z Derived from the Cartesian
   z
equation using coordinate
 1  1 
Spherical   aˆr  aˆ  aˆ transformation.
r r  r sin  

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Summary of Vector Operations

Operation Input Output

Vector Addition & Subtraction Vectors Vector
 
U V
 
Dot Product U V Vectors Scalar
 
Cross Product U V Vectors Vector
Gradient f Scalar Function Vector Function

Divergence  U Vector Function Scalar Function

Curl  U Vector Function Vector Function
Scalar Laplacian V2
Scalar Function Scalar Function

Vector Laplacian  2U Vector Function Vector Function

Slide 9

Gradient of a
Scalar Field

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Gradient of a Scalar Field (1 of 3)

Start with a scalar field 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 .

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Gradient of a Scalar Field (2 of 3)

Plot the gradient ∇𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 on top of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 . The background color is the
original scalar field 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 .

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Gradient of a Scalar Field (3 of 3)

The gradient will always be perpendicular to the isocontour lines.

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The Gradient ∇𝑉
The gradient calculates how rapidly, and in what direction, a scalar function is
increasing.

Coordinate
Gradient Operator
System
V V V
Cartesian V  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z
V 1 V V
Cylindrical V  aˆ   aˆ  aˆ z
   z
V 1 V 1 V
Spherical V  aˆr  aˆ  aˆ
r r  r sin  

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Algebra Rules for the Gradient

 U  V   U  V Sum/Difference Rule

 UV   U V  V U Product Rule

U  V U  U V
  Quotient Rule
V  V2

V n  nV n 1V Power Rule

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Properties of the Gradient

1. The gradient of a scalar function is a vector function.
2. The magnitude of V is the local maximum rate of change in V.
3. V points in the direction of maximum rate of change in V.
4. V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes
through that point.
5. V points toward increasing numbers in V.

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Divergence of a
Vector Field

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Divergence of a Vector Field (1 of 2)

Start with the following vector
field 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .

Observe how the field seems to

be converging to point in the
upper left and diverging from a
point in the low right.

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Divergence of a Vector Field (2 of 2)

The divergence is ∇ · 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .

Divergence measures the tendency

of a vector field to diverge from a
point or converge to a point.

Divergence is a scalar quantity and is

shown as the colored regions. Blue
indicates negative divergence
(convergence) and red indicates
positive divergence.
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Divergence of a Vector Field (2D)

Vector Field 𝐴⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦 Divergence ∇ · 𝐴⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦

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Divergence ∇ · 𝐴⃗
The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field that measures the tendency of a
vector field to diverge from a point or converge to a point.

Coordinate
Gradient Operation
System
 A Ay Az
Cartesian  A  x  
x y z
 1    A  1 A Az
Cylindrical  A   
    z
 1   r 2 Ar  1   A sin   1 A
Spherical  A  2  
r r r sin   r sin  
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Algebra Rules for Divergence

   
 
 A B   A B Distributive Rule

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Properties of Divergence ∇ · 𝐴⃗
1. The divergence of a vector function is a scalar function.
2. The divergence of a scalar field does not make sense.
3. The original vector field will point form larger to smaller
numbers in the scalar field calculated from the divergence.

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Curl of a Vector Field

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Curl of a Vector Field (1 of 2)

Start with the following vector
field 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .

Observe how the field seems to

be rotating around two different
axes.

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Curl of a Vector Field (1 of 2)

The curl is ∇ 𝐹⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .

Curl measures the tendency of the

vector field to circulate around an
axis.

Curl is a vector quantity and is shown

as the blue arrows. The magnitude
of the curl conveys the strength of
the circulation. The direction of the
curl is the axis of the circulation.
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Curl of a Vector Field (2D)

Vector Field 𝐴⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦 Curl ∇ 𝐴⃗ 𝑥, 𝑦
y

x
z

x
z

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Curl
The curl of a vector function is a vector function that quantifies the tendency of the vector
field to circulate around an axis. The magnitude of the curl conveys the strength of the
circulation. The direction of the curl is the axis of the circulation.

Coordinate
Curl Operation
System
  A Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 
 A   z   aˆ x     aˆ y     aˆ z
Cartesian  y z   z x   x y 

  1 Az A   A Az  1     A  A 

Cylindrical  A     aˆ      aˆ     aˆ z

   z   z       

 1    A sin   A  1  1 Ar   rA   1    rA  Ar 

Spherical  A     aˆr     aˆ     aˆ
r sin      r  sin   r  r  r  

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Algebra Rules for Curl

   
 
 A B   A  B Distributive Rule

         
        
  A B  A   B  B   A  B   A  A   B 
Triple Product

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Properties of Curl
1. The curl of a vector function is a vector function.
2. The curl of a scalar field does not make sense.

3. Curl follows the right‐hand rule.
4. The divergence of the curl of a vector field is
 A
always zero. ∇ · ∇ 𝐴⃗ 0
5. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field is
always zero. ∇ ∇𝑉 0
6. Note that ∇ · 𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗ · ∇. ∇ · 𝐴⃗ calculates the
derivative of 𝐴⃗, whereas 𝐴⃗ · ∇ sets up 
a derivative operation that is scaled by 𝐴⃗.
A

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Laplacian Operation

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Scalar Laplacian ∇ 𝑉
The scalar Laplacian is defined as the divergence of the gradient. It is
sort of a measure of the tendency of the scalar function to form bowls.  2V     V 

Coordinate
Scalar Laplacian Operation
System
 2V  2V  2V
Cartesian  2V   
x 2 y 2 z 2

1   V  1  2V  2V
Cylindrical  2V    2  2
      
2
z

1   2 V  1   V  1  2V
Spherical  2V   r    sin   
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2

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Visualization of Scalar Laplacian ∇ 𝑉

 2V  x, y  V  x, y 

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Vector Laplacian ∇ 𝐴⃗
  
The vector Laplacian is defined as the
gradient of the divergence minus the curl.  
2 A     A      A

Coordinate
Scalar Laplacian Operation
System

Cartesian  2 A   2 Ax aˆ x   2 Ay aˆ y   2 Az aˆ z


Cylindrical  2 A   2 A aˆ    2 A aˆ   2 Az aˆ z


Spherical  2 A   2 Ar aˆr   2 A aˆ   2 A aˆ

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Visualization of Vector Laplacian ∇ 𝐴⃗


A  x, y 

 2 A  x, y 

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Properties of the Laplacian

1. The Laplacian of a scalar function is a scalar function.
2. The scalar Laplacian arises when dealing with electric potential.
3. The Laplacian of a vector function is a vector function.
4. The vector Laplacian arises in the wave equation.

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Classification of
Vector Fields

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Irrotational

A vector field is irrotational if  A  0

Examples of Irrotational Fields

Gravity
Electric potential

Irrotational Rotational

Consequences:
1. Irrotational fields must flow in essentially straight lines.
  
2. If   A  0 , then  A  d   0 and the field is said to be conservative.
L

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Solenoidal (Divergenceless)

A vector field is solenoidal if  A  0

Examples of Solenoidal Fields

Fluid flows
Magnetic fields

Consequences:
1. If the vector function does not diverge from any points, it must
form loops.
  
2. If   A  0 , then   ds  0 and the field will have zero net flux.
S
A

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Laplacian Vector Fields

A vector field is Laplacian if it is both irrotational and solenoidal
 
 A  0  A  0

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