MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

The knowledge about the process and nature on motivation on the part of the teacher is
important because it enables him/her to control the behavior of pupils. This understanding is
necessary because a human organism is a complex system and this understanding will enable
us to understand complexities of behavior in a better fashion. Changes in human behavior can
be easily brought if mechanisms of motivation are fully understood.
A study of motivation, therefore, is crucial for a teacher. Without knowledge of ways and
means of encouraging children’s learning, knowing about their appetites’ in the widest sense of
the word, being sensitive to their interests, the teacher would find it impossible to achieve
learning objectives. For this purpose, teachers should place an understanding of motivation
very high on their list of priorities.
MEANING OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is central to the understanding of why people do what they do or why learners
participate in certain activities.
The term motivation is derived from the word motive. Motive simply means a desire, a want, a
need etc. motivation consists of internal processes and external incentives which inspire us on
to satisfy some need.
Motivation can be regarded as something which prompt, compels and energizes an individual
to act or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time for attaining some specific goal or
purpose.
We can also say that motivation is anything which moves an individual to action.
Motivation is quite an elusive concept. It has been studied at great length by psychologists and
they have arrived at different definitions on it. Psychologists have attempted to narrow the
definition of motivation by singling out one aspect or another of the complex process of
determination. The two most important aspects are regulation and direction. Therefore we may
define the study of motivation broadly as research for determinants, all determinants for
human and animal activity.
What is responsible for the motivation of an individual? Or what are the activating forces that
push and pull an individual to move or act for obtaining a specific goal? Psychologists have tried
to name these activating forces as needs, drives, incentives and motives.
NEEDS: These are wants or desires. Every human being has to strive for the satisfaction of
his/her needs in this world.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 1

NATURAL AND AQUIRED NEEDS
Human needs can be categorized into two, namely natural and acquired needs.
Natural needs: these are biological, they are body organic needs which can further be
categorized as:-
(i) Fundamental needs for our survival e.g. oxygen, water and food.
Other category of biological needs include needs like (a) need for rest (b) need for active (c)
need for sleep (d) need for having an even internal body temperature (e) need for
protection from the threats or physical environment like hazards of weather, natural
calamities, wild animals etc.
(ii) Social and Emotional needs.
Needs for satisfaction of sex urge or desire to seek sex-experiences. Though not
essential for survival of an individual, it is the strongest human urge in the
satisfaction of which lies his proper growth, development, adjustment and
wellbeing. Moreover, the satisfaction of this need and normal sex behavior is most
essential for a happy family life and the continuity and survival of human species.
Acquired needs: These are socio-psychological needs; they are associated with socio-
cultural environment of an individual. They are acquired though such needs are not linked
with the survival of the organisms or species, yet their deprivation may lead to a
psychological state seriously affecting his/her survival and welfare. These needs for the sake
of clarity may be classified as follows:-
(1) The need for freedom or gaining independence.
(2) The need for security.
(3) The need for love and affection.
(4) The need to achieve.
(5) The need for recognition or social approval.
(6) The need for social company.
(7) The need for self-assertion.
(8) The need for self-expression or self-actualization.
MOTIVES: Motives are usually categorized into two major systems:-
(a) PRIMARY MOTIVES: There are directly related to one’s survival. This is how come they
are usually regarded as physiological motives. Some of these motives are hunger, thirst,
sleep, relaxation etc.
(b) SECONDARY MOTIVES: These are indirectly or even not at all related to one’s survival. At
times they are known as non-physiological motives e.g. affection, affiliation,
appreciation etc.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 2

Motivations or motives cause behavior. Since behavior in this case is a measure of learning, the
concept of motivation therefore is very important to us as teachers. And behavior in other
words must mean any observable act or action taken by an individual because of a felt need.
The act or action taken will always reveal the type of motive an individual has.
HOW IS BEHAVIOR CAUSED?
The illustration below is a direct answer to the question, let us now examine it.

MOTIVES TARGETS/GOAL BEHAVIOR

(1) Hunger Food Cooking food

(2) Thirst Water Fetching water
(3) Sex man/woman Having sex
(4) Affection Relative/friend Giving or being given gifts

This illustration shows motives as a pushing factor while goals or targets as pulling factors in
order that an observable behavior may take place.
Primary and secondary motives are usually cyclical. This is to say that once behavior in terms of
an action takes place the motive tends to be reduced. The action taken will only reduce the
motive and not to wipe it out completely e.g having had some sexual intercourse, it does not
mean one will not feel the urge of having sex again.
Since teaching means being able to influence a learner’s behavior for a positive change, it is
therefore has quite a lot in common with motivation.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motives can either be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is the term used to refer to the motivation for any behavior that is
dependent on factors that are internal in nature. Intrinsic motivation usually derives from
feelings of satisfaction and fulfillment, not from external rewards. Researchers have found that
enjoyment in life is correlated with experiencing activities as intrinsically motivated.
A person is said to extrinsically motivated if what he does is in expectation of approval, praise, a
certificate, a reward, etc. a person who is intrinsically motivated engages in a given behavior
because he/she drives personal satisfaction from that behavior or because it satisfies his/her
curiosity or need for achievement or competence, or assists him/her in maintaining a state of
equilibrium. While extrinsic motivation is more commonly used in school. A teacher’s objective
is to see to it that his pupils become intrinsically reinforced instead of being dependent on
external motivation.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 3

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES.
INSTINCTIVE THEORY
This theory held that humans exercised complete control over their actions. It was asserted
that human being are rational creatures that had power to direct, redirect or inhibit their
passions at will. Animals on the other hand were believed to be activated by instinctive
mechanisms that gave ways of satisfying their needs and that humans were seen as pleasure
seeking, pain avoiding (hedonistic) creatures.
The instinct theory postulated that the actions of humans were related to the outcomes of
inborn instincts. The theory also asserted that instincts have survival value for both the
individual and the race. The theory in its original form has very little support nowadays.
FREUD’S VIEW POINT-INSTINCTIVE THEORY
Freud’s theory of motivation was based on instincts. He asserted that Eros (life or erotic
instinct) and the death instinct (desire to destroy even to the extent of destroying one’s self)
are the ultimate cause of the motivation in behavior. In fact life instinct, the urge for self-
preservation dominates the earlier scenes of one’s life. When life instinct stops death instinct
comes into operation. For example, the lover who has failed in his love affairs may think of
committing suicide. However, what moves or energizes the activities of the life instinct is the
need for sexual gratification-a media to provide intense pleasure, satisfaction and meaning to
one’s life. Freud maintained that from birth on wards human beings experience sex gratification
and sex motive, therefore, is the ultimate that works in energizing the human behavior.
DRIVE AND NEED
W.B cannon introduced the concept of homeostasis to represent the process by which the body
attempts to regulate and protect the balance of physio chemistry in the tissue (food, water,
oxygen, temperature of the body). Thus the body is driven into action to correct any imbalance
between the internal and external environment.
The drive is seen as the source of motivation resulting from homeostatic disequilibrium. Hull
developed the notion of psychological drives arising from basic physiological needs and
equated these to the process of homeostasis. The drives are classified as primary and
secondary. Primary drives are those immediately necessary for bodily survival e.g. hunger,
thirst, sexual behavior. Secondary (or acquired) drives appear as by-products of the satisfaction
of primary needs e.g. fear money or tokens.
Hull suggested that as drives are reduced when a goal is reached, the consequent drive
reduction is said to be ‘rewarding’ and habits are established. The appeal of drive theory is its
obvious correlation with physiological functions of the body. They hypothalamus and the limbic
system for example have a crucial role in controlling the body’s early warning system of
chemical shortages normally found in food and water.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 4

BEHAIOURIST’S VIEW POINT (need and drive reduction theory).
Behaviorists like Watson, Clark hull and skinner emphasized that needs and drives work as
stimuli to evoke responses in the form of motivational behavior. Explaining the mechanism,
they say that a need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn
sees the motivational behavior in motion. The reduction of the need and the associate drive,
then works as reinforce for maintaining behavior. This need or drive reduction hypothesis
propagated by the behaviorists has been strongly posed by psychologists who came later.
However, the importance of needs and drives in controlling and guiding the motivational
behavior of humans is beyond questionable.
EMOTION AND MOTIVATION
Young, McClelland and Helen peak are psychologists who have given hedonistic interpretation
to emotions. Hedonistic theories of motivation underline the role of emotions and feelings as
sources that organize, direct and energize behavior.
Emotion is considered to affect behavior of a person and motivate him in a variety of ways.
Bodily structures, glands and a nervous system to a certain extent determine emotional
behavior however, tendencies like timidity, fear, aggressiveness or excitability can also be
fostered by environmental conditions. Reactions of fear, love and energy can motivate behavior
in many ways. Learning to be afraid; fearful or happy can be acquired and these reactions can
be transferable to other situations. Functionally acquired fear can inhibit or retard behavior and
may give various complexes to a person by way of generating worries and anxieties in him.
Sources of frustrations and conflicts can serve as strong drives in persons as well.
SOCIAL MOTIVES IN MOTIVATIONAL THEORY
Social values in human life also play a big role in arousing and directing a person to behave in a
particular way. Social motives in human beings are treated as sources of activity in human
beings. The values and incentives in this context may be formed in terms of rewards or praise
or it may be administered in terms of praise. Knowledge of results and overall performance
may also release motivational state in a person.
Type and nature of motives may also set up level of social aspiration in a person. Varieties of
motives may influence the behavior of persons. Motives are determined by the quality of home
and the culture in which a person lives. Vocational needs, cultural aspirations and religious
inclinations may also constitute essential ingredients of social motives. Beliefs can also
determine a person’s attitudes which can consequently influence his/her behavior. There are
however, certain general motives which can influence people’s behavior irrespective of class,
culture and society in which that person lives, among such motives, acquisitiveness is one of
them. A person strives to acquire more and more wealth or more and more property. Another
social motive which dominates the life of a person is the love for his country, patriotism, or it
may be associated with such feelings like national security, dedication and love for the country.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 5

Religious, cultural and social motives can equally be strong factors in motiving a person as is the
case with patriotism.
ADLER’S VIEW POINT- SOCIAL URGES THEORY
Alfred Adler, a student of Freud advocated that human beings are motivated primarily by social
urges and therefore, human motivation can be explained only in terms of a single drive or
motive named as security motive. For example to maintain one’s social self, one requires a
margin of safety besides the simple security in terms of protection from danger. He/she
achieves this margin of safety through domination and superiority. In order not to feel inferior
or small the struggle for achievement and status or the will to dominate are really an outgrowth
of the fundamental need for security.
Maslow’s view point- self- actualization theory.
Abraham Maslow put forward a hierarchical structure of needs for explaining human
motivation. The gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the
higher order needs. On the top of the hierarchy lies the need for self-actualization.in fact it is
the satisfaction of this master need that guides and controls the motivation behavior of the
humans.

Self
Actualization an
Esteem needs Individual
Belonging and love needs and his/her needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs

Maslow’s hierarchical structure of needs.

COGNITIVE VIEW POINT-GOAL-ORIENTED THEORY

Cognitive theorists hold that the intervention of human thinking has a substantial influence on
our motivations. A person’s awareness of what is happening to him or her has an important
effect on future behavior.
The cognitive view of motivation was first brought into focus by a philosopher-psychologist
William James (1842-1910) who emphasized that the concept of motivation was necessary to

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 6

bridge the “psychomotor gap” between ideal and actions. According to this view, human
behavior is purposeful with a certain end or goal in view. An individual, who aspires to reach a
goal, is helped by his cognitive abilities for the development of a desirable drive or motive
(tendency to move toward that goal). The achievement of the goal satisfies the individual which
in term reinforces the maintained behavior.
LEARNING THEORY
This theory argues that the formation of behavior is greatly influenced by rewards and
punishments, so that the two ways of controlling behavior serve as motivator’s. Rewarding and
punishing are associated with human drives, which are categorized as primary and secondary.
PSYCHOANLYTIC THEORY
According to Freud, the motivation underlying human behavior is a function of man’s state of
unconscious displayed by the ID, which is the libido or sex urge reflected in aggressive drives.
However, both the sex urge and aggressive behavior are controlled by the EGO and SUPER EGO,
and for this reason, the expression of sex urges and display of aggression may be sublimated
and manifested in a form considered to be socially acceptable e.g. creative activities, watching
television or football matches, participating in dances, engaging in competitive activities or
exciting in various school activities. Thus according to Freud’s concept of motivation people are
loaded with sexual energy and aggression which can be channeled into educationally
productive activities instead of the instructive behavior that is socially unacceptable.
A critical view of the theories of motivation
The aforementioned theories on motivation have their own merits and they may be valid in
their own respective ways but they are not adequate all by themselves. Each of the
motivational theory has made contributions of its own but it would be unjustified to overlook
the contributions made by other theories .Concepts like drive, needs, motives, emotion, etc.,
have their own use in explaining motivational behavior but they cannot explain everything
about human motivation.Similary, social motives and unconscious process may have explained
about motivational behaviour among human beings but those explanations are not the last
words on motivational process. This position has to be fully realized so that one does not take a
partisan view on any one of the theory given above.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

Some of the motivational factors that play a part in normal classroom learning activities will be
discussed below. Desirable behavior in learners can be promoted in many ways including the
following:-
(a) SELF-ESTEEM: children share with adults a concern of their self-esteem. A child may
therefore wish to preserve his/her sense of worth to maintain his self-respect.
MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 7
 (b) ACHIEVEMENT: This can only come about if one earns high level of achievement. This
means the child will try to engage and repeat behaviors which will win him/her respect
and high social status.
(c) AFFILIATION: A child identifies strongly with his/her parents and parent figures in
society e.g. the teacher is the most prominent among parent figures. The reason for this
identification is to seek the parent’s approval and be accepted by them. The withdrawal
of approval is usually painful as such it becomes a possibility to stimulate or motivate
him/her to avoid behavior leading to withdrawal of approval. Since the teacher shares in
the parental status, his approval can also exert a positive influence on the behavior of
the child.
(d) CURIOSITY: The drive to learn seems natural in humans. For instance, knowledge seems
to be rewarding for its own sake. The desire to know motivates learners most positively.
(e) INVOLVEMENT: A child will work hard at a task when he feels the result is important to
him and when he feels that the task in the same way measures his worth as a person. It
is wise to allow pupils to make suggestions and contributions of ideas so that they have
some feeling that the outcome is dependent on their efforts. There is less learning
where the authoritarian teacher pours forth everything that the pupils should learn.
(f) STANDARDS: If a standard is set a learner senses an increase in self-esteem if he/she
reaches or exceeds it and a decrease if he/she cannot attain it. It is therefore important
that the standards set by the teacher are within the pupils’ capacities. It is important
that the learners are allowed to set their own levels of aspiration, which will be raised
when reached and lowered when not reached.
(g) STIMULATING CURIOSITY: The teacher must make every effort to develop curiosity and
interest in his learners. He does so through the use of novelty, surprise etc. curiosity is
aroused whenever a learner is in a situation which is not what he expected.
(h) REWARD AND PUNISHMENT: These words are used in their widest sense to include
praise and blame, success and failure, incentive and deterrent etc. In general it is more
desirable that a learning situation be controlled by rewards rather than punishment. A
reward produces a feeling of satisfaction and pleasure.
(i) ATTENTION: Draw the attention of your pupils in your lesson using teaching aids and
making a certain amount of repetition. Attention can be drawn to some material which
is strange, novel, surprising, etc.
(j) COMMUNICATION: In all that he/she does, the teacher should try to see things from the
pupils’ point of view. The concern to see the whole learning process from the pupils’
point of view will enable the teacher to communicate more effectively with all his
pupils, it will also increase the pupils’ respect for the teacher. This increased respect will
lend powerful authority to the teacher so that his/her approval will be of great
importance to the pupil.
(k) ANXIETY: Anything which is seen as potentially damaging to one’s self-concept involves
anxiety e.g. the threat of failure etc. Any such venture could lead to potential damage to
one’s self-esteem. But there are variations in the level of anxiety generated in people. In
MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 8
 some, it will be very mild in others it may be quite severe; with physical disturbances
such as shivering, perspiring, bowel disturbances and a general sense of uneasiness.
Generally speaking, research has shown that learning is not helped by a level of anxiety
that is too low, neither is it helped by a level of anxiety that is too high.
TEACHER AND MOTIVATION
Besides the factors that have been mentioned in motivation, a teacher’s attitude and
personality play a role in motivation in the classroom. Teachers who have a positive attitude
towards their subjects and pupils are more motivating than those who have a less positive
attitude and personality.
Teacher personality characteristics which are motivating and which a teacher should bear in
mind as he interacts with pupils are democratic attitudes, wide interest, pleasant personal
appearance, pleasant manners, flexibility, patience, interest in pupils’ wellbeing, consistent
behavior, efficiency, kindness and use of recognition and praise.
The teacher can also motivate his pupils by showing interest and enthusiasm for the subject
matter he is presenting. This will make the pupil sit up and pay attention. As far as possible, the
subject matter should be related to the pupils’ concerns, needs and life experience and where
feasible, practical activities based on the lesson and involving as many pupils as possible should
be organized. Another way of motivating pupils is by telling them why what they are studying is
important, even if it is because there will be a test on the material covered later on.
Other factors that a teacher can use to motivate are curiosity, threats of failure, the desire to
know, and change of voice, mastery of subject matter, goal presentation, jokes, visual aids and
field trips.
IMPORTANCE OFMOTIVATION

Erik and Andrew are in the same first grade class. Erik loves any activity that involves colouring,
drawing or illustrating. He spends all of his free time engaged in these sorts of activities,
sometimes oblivious to other things going on in the classroom. Andrew, on the other hand,
dislikes drawing and art and will avoid it at all costs. Both students are high achievers and good
listeners, but they are motivated by completely different interests and activities. In the
classroom, motivation drives many behaviors and it is important to understand the importance
of motivation in an educational environment.
Motivation is described as a state that energizes, directs and sustains behavior. Motivation
involves goals and requires activity. Goals provide the impetus for and the direction of action.
While action entails effort and persistence in order to sustain activity for a long period of time.
There are recognized indexes of motivation that are important to be aware of. Indexes typically
place a value or quantity on an idea; in this case, we can understand the value or quantity of
motivation for an individual by these four indexes.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 9

The selection of a task under free-choice conditions indicates motivation to perform the task. In
our earlier example, Erik chose to engage in art activities during his free time. This is indicative
of being motivated by art and art-type activities.
High effort levels, especially when working on different tasks and assignments, are also
indicative of motivation. For example, if a student diligently works on a difficult algebra
problem again and again, this would indicate a higher level of motivation towards math
activities.

Working for a longer period of time, especially after encountering numerous obstacles, is also
associated with higher motivation. For example, John, a student in PE class, was unable to
master jumping rope, but he chose to continue trying to jump rope during recess; this time on
task indicates a high level of motivation toward that mastering the activity of jumping rope.
The indexes of motivation
Finally, level of achievement is affected by choice, effort and persistence. The higher these
indexes, the higher the motivation and the more likely task achievement will occur.
In the classroom, educators should be aware of these indexes in an effort to reinforce activities
and interests that students already show an existing partiality for. There is an actual term for
this - it's called situational motivation.
Situational motivation is a phenomenon in which aspects of the immediate environment
enhance motivation to learn particular things or behave in particular ways. Educators can do
many things to create a classroom environment that motivates students to learn and behave in
ways that promote their long-term success.
How Motivation Affects Learning & Behavior
Motivation has several effects on students' learning and behavior.
First, motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. Motivation determines the specific
goals toward which people strive; thus, it affects the choices students make. For example,
whether to enroll in an art class or physics, whether to attend a school basketball game during
the week or complete an assignment that's due the next day.
Motivation also leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation determines whether a student
will pursue a task (even a difficult one) with enthusiasm or a lackluster attitude
Motivation increases the initiation and persistence of activities. In our first example, Erik
continued with art-type activities in his free time and he also tried to perform these types of
activities in relation to his other assignments. Motivation will increase students' time on task
and is also an important factor affecting their learning and achievement.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 10

Motivation enhances cognitive processing. Motivation actually affects what and how
information is processed because motivated students are more likely to pay attention and try
to understand the material instead of simply going through the motions of learning in a
superficial manner.
Motivation determines what consequences are reinforcing and punishing. For example,
students with a high level of motivation for classroom achievement are reinforced by receiving
a grade of 'A' and they'll feel punished if they receive a grade of 'F.'
Finally, motivation leads to improved performance. Everything that we have just discussed -
effort, initiation, persistence, cognitive processing and the impact of consequences - lead to
improved performance.

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Page 11