Applied

Thermodynamics 3
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MACHINES

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Compressors
Compressors are used to take a certain quantity of fluid at a given pressure and delivered at a
different desired pressure

Work needs to be done on the working fluid so that the state can be changed (pressure)

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Reciprocating Compressor

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Reciprocating compressor with perfect

gas as working fluid
d-a induction stroke - gas drawn into cylinder
through suction valve at constant temperature
- adiabatic
a-b gas compressed adiabatically with both
valves closed- reversible polytropic process
b-c gas expelled through discharge valve
constant T, constant P, no heat exchange
cycle repeats

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Compressor work
net work in cycle is area of p-V diagram and it represents the work
done on gas
Indicated work done on gas per cycle = area abcd = area abef +
area bc0e - area ad0f
𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 −𝑝1 𝑉𝑎
area 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑛−1

Work done on gas per cycle=

𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 −𝑝1 𝑉𝑎
= 𝑛−1
+ 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎

1
= 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 𝑛−1
+1
𝑛
= (𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 )
𝑛−1

𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 = mR𝑇1; 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2

(𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)

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Compressor work
𝑛
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
= ×
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑝2 𝑛−1 𝑛
delivery temperature (𝑇2 ) = 𝑇1
𝑝1
𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛−1 𝑛
= 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 −1
𝑛−1 𝑝1

𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛−1 𝑛
= 𝑝 𝑉 −1
𝑛−1 1 𝑝1

𝑚 rate of mass flow, 𝑉 the vol induced per unit

time

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 Shaft power and compressor efficiency
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒

Cylinder clearance volume is the volume of gas left in the cylinder at the discharge end of the stroke. It includes the
space between the piston and cylinder head, the volume of the valves, valve pockets and any added clearance.
Clearance volume is generally expressed as a percentage of the swept volume of a given cylinder end.

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Class Example
A single stage reciprocating compressor takes 1m3 of air per minute at 1.013bar and 15°C and delivers it at
7bar. Assuming that the law of compression is pV1.35 = constant, and that the clearance is negligible,
calculate the indicated power.

If the compressor above is to be driven at 300rev/min and it is a single acting , single cylinder machine,
calculate the cylinder bore required assuming a stroke to bore ratio of 1.5/1. calculate the power of the
motor required to drive the compressor if the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 85% and that of the
motor transmission is 90%

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Condition for minimum work
• Work done is given by the area of the
indicator diagram.
• Work done will be minimum when area of
indicator diagram is minimum
• The area of the diagram can be affected by
either the height(pressure axis) or length
(volume axis) but these are fixed
• The processes that can influence the work
are those taken place on the Line ab

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Compression processes on a p-v diagram

Isothermal compression has the minimum work
Indicated work per cycle = area ab1cd
= area ab1ef + area b1c0e - area ad0f

𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝑝2
= 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏1 − 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎
𝑝1

𝑝2 𝑉𝑏1 = 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 (𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝2
= 𝑝2 𝑉𝑏1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝1

𝑝2 𝑝2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑝1 𝑝1

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Isothermal Efficiency
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

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Class Example
Compare the work per kg of air compressed from 100 kPa, 40oC to 600 kPa
according to three processes: reversible adiabatic, reversible isothermal and
reversible pv1.3 = constant.
Find the heat transferred from air in the adiabatic and isothermal processes

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 Clearance
In compressors, the working parts should not be competing for space hence there is need to
make some allowance to allow mechanical parts have some freedom. The space (volume) meant
for this purpose is known as clearance.

𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑙 = × 100
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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Reciprocating compressors with

clearance
when delivery stroke (bc) is completed ,
clearance volume Vc contains gas at p2,T2,
at induction stroke the gas expands to p1,
suction valve opens, fresh gas enters at d to a
and compressed till b, outlet valve opens and
delivery begins
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑏 and 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑚𝑑 are the masses of gas
in compression and re-expansion strokes
mass delivered per unit time (𝑚) is 𝑚𝑏 − 𝑚𝑐
is equal to the mass taken in 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚𝑑

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Compressor work with clearance
Indicated work = area abcd = area abef - area cefd
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 − 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑐
𝑛
= 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚𝑐 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1
𝑛
= 𝑅𝑚 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1

this is the same as for zero clearance

also 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑛 𝑝2
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝 𝑉 −1
𝑛−1 1 𝑝1

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Indicated power
for f cycles per unit time
𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑑 and

𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑛 𝑝2
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝 𝑓 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑑 −1
𝑛−1 1 𝑎 𝑝1

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Class example
An air compressor cylinder has 15 cm bore and 15 cm stroke. The machine operates between 100 kPa,
27oC and 500 kPa. The polytropic exponent is 1.3. Clearance 5%
find :
(i) cylinder volume at each corner of the diagram
(ii) mass flow of air,
(iii)flow capacity in m3/min at 720 rev. per minute.
(iv)work done per kg of air.

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Double acting compressors

The mass discharges can be increased by
building a double acting compressor such that
the induction stroke for one side is the
compression stroke for the other.

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉 = 2𝑓 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑑

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Volumetric Efficiency 𝜂𝑣
Clearance ensures that the reduced volume is less than the swept volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝜂𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜂𝑣 =
𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑏 −𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑎 −𝑉𝑑
𝜂𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑚 𝑉
𝜂𝑣 = =
𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑠

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Volumetric efficiency on p-V diagram

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Free air delivery
Free air delivery is the volume of air that is handled by an air compressor per unit time , measured at atmospheric
temperature and pressure of the environment where the compressor is located.

Standard conditions -1 atm or 1.01325 bar and 15°C or 288 K

1 𝑛 1 𝑛 Consistent with previous 𝜂𝑣 only if the P and T in

𝑉𝑐 𝑝2 𝑝2
𝜂𝑣 = 1 − − 1 = 1 − 𝑐𝑙 −1 cylinder during induction stroke are identical
𝑉𝑠 𝑝1 𝑝1
to that of free air

IF FAD per cycle is denoted by V at P and T;

𝑃𝑉 𝑃1 (𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 )
𝑚= =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇1
𝐹𝐴𝐷 𝑇 𝑃1
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑇1 𝑃 , 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

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Take Home Task

An air compressor running in an atmosphere of 1.013 bar and 15 oC has a free
air delivery of 2.83 m3/min. Determine the mass of air delivered

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Class example
An air compressor operates with the discharge state being 500 kPa, 150oC and the inlet state 100 kPa,
15oC. If the clearance is 4%, determine the volumetric efficiency

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Multistage compression
 Minimum work is achieved if the compression is isothermal
𝑛−1
𝑃2 𝑛
 Generally𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ; 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃1
𝑉𝑐 𝑝2 1 𝑛
 𝜂𝑣 = 1 − − 1 ; volumetric efficiency decrease with increase in pressure ratio
𝑉𝑠 𝑝1

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Volumetric efficiency and pressure
Compression P1 to P2, abcd ,FAD = Va-Vd
Compression P1 to P3 ab’c’d’ FAD=Va-Vd’
Compression P1 to P4 ab’’c’’d’’ FAD = Va-Vd’’

For the same FAD/cycle, as pressure ratio

increases, cyclinder size will have to increase.

Volumetric efficiency can be increased by doing

compression in stages such that after first stage,
a smaller cyclinder can be used to further
compress.. There could be more than two
cylindes.

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Pressure- volume diagram for two stage

compression
Fluid is passed into a smaller cylinder after the
first stage of compression.
Cylinders of successive stages are
proportioned to take the volume of gas
delivered from previous stage
Assumption, delivery process from LP stage
and induction at the HP stage are same.

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Effect of intercooling on multi stage
compression
Intercooling difficult to achieve during
compression can be achieved in between
stages.

𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑖 2 = 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝑃𝑖 𝑃2
=
𝑃1 𝑃𝑖

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Ideal Intermediate pressure

for minimum work (2 stage compression)
𝑝 𝑝
same pressure ratio for each stage 𝑝 𝑖 = 𝑝2
1 𝑖
total min power = 2 x (power requiredd for one stage)
𝑛𝑚𝑅𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑛−1 2𝑛
=2× −1
𝑛−1 𝑝1

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Multistage compression

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Example
A two stage air compressor is to be designed to compress 6 m3/min of free air (air at ambient conditions) at
100 kPa, 27oC to 900 kPa. An intercooler provided in between the two stages.
The following data may be assumed
(i) index of compression is 1.3; (ii) volumetric efficiency of each cylinder is 80%; (iii) temperature of the
air leaving intercooler is 37oC and (iv) overall compressor efficiency is 85%.
Determine the piston displacement volume (swept volume) for each of the compressors and required size of
the electric motor to drive the compressors

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Steady flow analyses
Assume a compression that is in a steady flow
Change from state 1 to state 2 is achieved by a
𝑄 non flow polytropic compression
𝑝1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑇1 𝑝2 , 𝑣2 , 𝑇2

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Steady Flow Analyses

𝑏𝑢𝑡 ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣
ℎ1 + 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ℎ2
𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 + 𝑑𝑊
(𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸
𝑎𝑛𝑑 . 𝑃. 𝐸 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∴ vdp = dW
2
∴ 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑊= 1
𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 12𝑏𝑎1 … 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒
1 2 𝑑𝑝
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑑𝑄 + 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑ℎ……..1 𝑊=𝐶 𝑛
1 1
𝑁𝐵: 𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝐶
𝑝𝑛
𝑛−1 2
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 =𝐶
1
𝑛
𝑛
𝑝 𝑛
𝑛−1
Induction or delivery ; heat transfer only during 1
2
Polytropic non flow compression =
𝑛
𝑝
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝
1
𝑛 𝑣
𝑛−1 1
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 … . . 2 𝑛 2 𝑛
= 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑛−1 𝑝2 𝑣2 − 𝑝1 𝑣1
𝑛−1 1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2, 𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 + 𝑑𝑊 𝑛𝑅
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

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Class example
A two stage air compressor is used to compress 10 m3/min of air from 100 kPa to
1400 kPa. What will be the pressure in the intercooler for the special case of
minimum work of compression? If n = 1.3, find the percentage saving in work by
compressing in two stages compared to single stage compression.

YUSUF ISA MAKAFI 2015

Energy balance for two stage

compressors with intercooling

steady flow energy eqn for LP stage

ℎ1 + 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑊𝐿 = ℎ𝑖
Heat rejected in LP stage = 𝑊𝐿 − 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1
Heat rejected in intercooler = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1
Heat rejected in HP stage = 𝑊𝐻 − 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

YUSUF ISA MAKAFI 2015

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Rotary Machines
ROOTS BLOWER VANE TYPE

YUSUF ISA MAKAFI 2015

Vacuum pump

YUSUF ISA MAKAFI 2015

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Air Motors
Cycle is the revers of a reciprocating pump
Air is supplied from an air receiver
Pressure drop in line between motor and
receiver
Air expands in motor polytropically and is
internally reversible 𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

1-2…air expansion
2-3 air blown down
3-4 exhausted air
4-5 air compression
5-6 air taken to supply pressure

YUSUF ISA MAKAFI 2015

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