Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151

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Physics and Chemistry of the Earth

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Rainwater harvesting and management in rainfed agricultural systems

in sub-Saharan Africa – A review
Birhanu Biazin a,b,⇑, Geert Sterk c, Melesse Temesgen d, Abdu Abdulkedir a, Leo Stroosnijder b
a
Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia
b
Wageningen University, Land Degradation and Development Group, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
c
Utrecht University, Department of Physical Geography, P.O. Box 80115, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
d
Addis Ababa University, Department of Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 385, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Agricultural water scarcity in the predominantly rainfed agricultural system of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
Available online 3 September 2011 is more related to the variability of rainfall and excessive non-productive losses, than the total annual
precipitation in the growing season. Less than 15% of the terrestrial precipitation takes the form of pro-
Keywords: ductive ‘green’ transpiration. Hence, rainwater harvesting and management (RWHM) technologies hold a
Sub-Saharan Africa significant potential for improving rainwater-use efficiency and sustaining rainfed agriculture in the
Water scarcity region. This paper outlines the various RWHM techniques being practiced in SSA, and reviews recent
Rainfed agriculture
research results on the performance of selected practices. So far, micro-catchment and in situ rainwater
Rainwater harvesting
Supplemental irrigation
harvesting techniques are more common than rainwater irrigation techniques from macro-catchment
systems. Depending on rainfall patterns and local soil characteristics, appropriate application of in situ
and micro-catchment techniques could improve the soil water content of the rooting zone by up to
30%. Up to sixfold crop yields have been obtained through combinations of rainwater harvesting and fer-
tiliser use, as compared to traditional practices. Supplemental irrigation of rainfed agriculture through
rainwater harvesting not only reduces the risk of total crop failure due to dry spells, but also substantially
improves water and crop productivity. Depending on the type of crop and the seasonal rainfall pattern,
the application of RWHM techniques makes net profits more possible, compared to the meagre profit or
net loss of existing systems. Implementation of rainwater harvesting may allow cereal-based smallholder
farmers to shift to diversified crops, hence improving household food security, dietary status, and eco-
nomic return. The much needed green revolution and adaptations to climate change in SSA should blend
rainwater harvesting ideals with agronomic principles. More efforts are needed to improve the indige-
nous practices, and to disseminate best practices on a wider scale.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction can reach US$ 8300 ha 1 (FAO, 1992), and increase to US$
18,000 ha 1 when indirect infrastructural costs are included
Subsistence rainfed agriculture is the mainstay of most African (Rosegrant, 1997). Hence, for the near future, rainfed agriculture
economies, and contributes 10–70% to their GDP. African agricul- will be the dominant source of food for the region’s burgeoning
ture, however, has the lowest rate of productivity increase in the population.
world. Africa was the only major region with a decline in food pro- However, water supplies in Africa are shrinking and highly var-
duction per capita in the years 1980–2000 (Sachs et al., 2004). In iable. Concurrent with a huge population increase during 1970–
sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 95% of the cultivated land is under rain- 1994, a 180% reduction in human water supply took place in Africa
fed agriculture, and an estimated 41% of the region’s population while the reduction in Europe was 16% (Shiklomanov, 2000). Year-
(ca. 260 million) lives in drought-prone dry lands (Svendsen to-year variability of renewable water resources is also high in arid
et al., 2009; UNCCD, 2009). SSA has less than 2% of the world’s total and semi-arid regions where actual availability is limited. It has
irrigated land (Field, 1990). Apart from the physical water scarcity, been estimated that in dryland regions, there could be 150–200%
irrigation is unaffordable in SSA, as direct investment costs alone less renewable water resources in individual years than the long-
term average, whereas in wet regions this difference is in the range
of just 15–25% (Shiklomanov, 1998).
⇑ Corresponding author at: Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry
In addition to the scarcity and unreliability of annual rainfall,
and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia. Tel.: +251 461109900;
fax: +251 461109983. the loss of rainwater through non-productive pathways also seri-
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Biazin). ously limits rainfed agriculture in SSA. Soil evaporation may reach

1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2011.08.015
140 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151

50% of the rainfall (Daamen et al., 1995; Rockstrom et al., 1998; Africa, but no such review exists for SSA. Therefore, the aim of this
Stroosnijder and Hoogmoed, 1984). As much as 10–30% of the rain- paper is to present a review of commonly applied RWHM practices
fall can be lost to surface runoff (Araya and Stroosnijder, 2010; in SSA, and report the current research findings concerning their
Welderufael et al., 2008). Depending on the rainfall pattern, drain- biophysical and socioeconomic performance.
age can claim 10–30% of the rainfall (Klaij and Vachaud, 1992).
Accordingly, more than 50% of the rainfall in dryland cropping sys-
2. Scope and overview of rainwater harvesting and
tems may be lost non-productively. Stroosnijder (2009) argued
management techniques in SSA
that the fraction of rain used for plant transpiration can be as
low as 15% of the terrestrial rainfall in SSA. In a worst case scenario,
In the past, the broad term ‘water harvesting’ has been used
as in the Sahel region of Niger, only 4–9% of the rainfall takes the
more frequently than ‘rainwater harvesting’ (Boers, 1994; Myers,
productive water-flow path as ‘green’ transpiration under a non-
1975). Many authors have defined water harvesting and rainwater
fertilised crop (Rockstrom et al., 1998).
harvesting interchangeably, as ‘the collection and storage of any
Africa’s dependence on rainfed agriculture means that it is sus-
form of water either from runoff or creek flow for irrigation use’
ceptible to climatic variability which can severely affect food pro-
(Boers and Ben-Asher, 1982; Critchley and Siegert, 1991; Falken-
duction and, therefore, human security and export revenues. Based
mark et al., 2001; Nasr, 1999; Oweis et al., 1999; Siegert, 1994).
on the assessment of vulnerabilities and risks of climate change in
Although the ancient practices were primarily designed to meet
Kenya, Malawi and Ethiopia, climate-change emission scenarios re-
domestic water needs, gradually the technologies also came to be
vealed more extreme events in the future that could destabilise
used for agricultural purposes. In recent decades, scientists in
development activities (UNDP, 2007). River catchments are also
SSA, the Middle East and Southeast Asia have made efforts to de-
sensitive to changes in regional climate which can be exacerbated
velop and test a wide variety of techniques for collecting, storing,
by anthropogenic influences. For instance, with a 2 °C climate
and using natural precipitation for agricultural purposes
warming and a 10% reduction in precipitation, a 150–200% de-
(Humphreys and Bayot, 2009; Oweis et al., 2004; Rockstrom
crease in water resources is possible for regions located in the arid
et al., 2002). Agricultural uses include the supplemental irrigation
climate zones (Shiklomanov, 1998).
of crops, the provision of water for livestock, fodder and tree
In eastern Africa, grain yields and growth in the overall agricul-
production and, less frequently, water supply for fish and duck
tural gross domestic product depend heavily on the annual precip-
ponds. Recently, the concept has been extended to encompass
itation (UNDP, 2007). Farmers in semi-arid East Africa prioritise
in situ techniques and appropriate land management practices
drought as their major productivity-reducing problem, while sci-
which enhance infiltration and reduce surface runoff and soil evap-
entists identify soil degradation as a major threat (Slegers, 2008).
oration (Rockstrom et al., 2002; Temesgen, 2007).
In north-eastern Ethiopia, for example, drought-induced losses in
In the present paper, the more comprehensive and contempo-
crops and livestock between 1998 and 2000 were estimated at
rary term ‘rainwater harvesting and management’ (RWHM) is used
US$ 266 per household – greater than the annual average cash in-
to encompass all practices of rainwater collection, storage and effi-
come for more than 75% of households in the region (Carter et al.,
cient utilisation for crop production (Ngigi et al., 2005; Rockstrom
2004). In drylands, where water is even more limiting than land,
et al., 2002). RWHM practices being employed in SSA are discussed
improvement of agricultural water productivity (‘more yield per
in four categories: (I) collection of surface runoff from micro-catch-
drop’) has been identified as a vital strategy. Satisfaction of the in-
ment systems with water storage in the soil for dry-spell mitiga-
creased demand for food, water and material goods by a growing
tion, (II) collection of surface runoff from macro-catchment
population, while at the same time protecting the ecological ser-
systems with water storage for supplementary irrigation, (III) tech-
vices of water, requires increased efforts towards doubling water
niques for maximising infiltration, reducing surface runoff and soil
productivity (Postel, 2000; Rockstrom, 2003).
evaporation, and improving soil water availability, (IV) techniques
Three-quarters of the additional food that the global population
for maximising plant water uptake and response farming.
needs over the next several decades could be met by bringing the
production level of the world’s low-yield farmers up to 80% of that
which high-yield farmers obtain from comparable lands (CAWMA, 2.1. Micro-catchment systems with water storage in the soil for dry
2007). The greatest potential increases in yield are in rainfed areas, spell mitigation
where many of the world’s poorest rural people live, and where the
management of water is the key to such increases (CAWMA, 2007). Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems are designed to
In SSA, there is no hydrological limitation to doubling the staple collect runoff from a relatively small catchment area, mostly 10–
food production of the smallholder-based rainfed agriculture 500 m2, within the farm boundary. The runoff water is usually
through better soil and water management techniques (Rockstrom guided into a type of infiltration enhancement structure and used
et al., 2002). Rainwater harvesting is a growing technique to signif- to grow plants (Fig. 1). The ratio of the collection catchment to the
icantly increase water productivity, thus mitigating agricultural cultivated target area can vary between 2:1 and 10:1 (Desta, 2007;
water scarcity and allowing increases in crop production levels. FAO, 1991; Liniger et al., 2011). Unlike the macro-catchment sys-
Multitudes of indigenous and recently developed rainwater har- tems, the catchment area can be easily controlled by the farmer
vesting techniques are used in different parts of SSA. Some of these which makes the systems easy to adapt and replicate.
indigenous techniques have been introduced and are being widely The most commonly applied micro-catchment rainwater har-
applied in the drylands of western Asia (Oweis et al., 2004). The vesting techniques in SSA include pitting, contouring, terracing
techniques and modes of application, however, differ regionally. and micro-basins (Table 1). Some of the techniques may have dif-
The best experiences in one country have the potential to be ferent names in different regions, and minor differences in design
adapted in another country which has similar problems of water and use. Zai pits have been used in Burkina Faso for many years
scarcity. To convince and attract more development partners and (Reij et al., 1996; Slingerland and Stork, 2000). Pits are dug
avoid scepticism about the significance of the technology in SSA, 60  60 cm apart; and three to four grains of sorghum are planted
an overview of the contemporary research findings on the best in each pit (WOCAT, 2007). A similar type of pitting, the ngoro sys-
experiences with rainwater harvesting is essential. Oweis and tem, is used in steep (20–50%) sloping areas of Tanzania (Malley
Hachum (2006) outlined the most important water-harvesting et al., 2004). In Niger, the traditional tassa system of cropping is
practices and their field performance for Western Asia and North employed by digging small planting holes of 20–30 cm diameter
 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151 141

technique used in South Africa to reduce total runoff to zero and

soil evaporation considerably, thus improving crop yields (Bennie
and Hensley, 2001; Botha et al., 2007). The teras system in Sudan,
consisting of a field surrounded on three sides by low earth bunds,
while the upstream side functions as an inlet for surface runoff, has
been practiced for centuries (Niemeijer, 1998). Runoff harvesting
on clay soils by constructing earth bunds (trus cultivation) was first
used in 1964 and has also become common in the Darfur area of
Sudan (Osman-Elasha et al., 2006). As rain-fed farming on sandy
soils has become increasingly risky, indigenous trus cultivation
has proved important in recent years. Soil and stone bunds,
micro-basins, different types of terrace and trenches are some of
the soil and water conservation practices in arid and semi-arid
Ethiopia that are also used as micro-catchment rainwater
harvesting systems (WOCAT, 2010). These techniques are com-
Fig. 1. Typical designation of the micro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems. monly applied in areas characterised by low and erratic rainfall,
and farming systems dominated by seasonal cereal crops such as
maize (Zea mays), beans (Vicia faba L), pepper (Capsicum annuum)
and 20–25 cm depth about 1 m apart in each direction, to hold and tef (Eragrostis tef). The semi-circular terraces, which are mostly
pockets of rainwater and moisten the soil (Baidu-Forson, 1999; constructed at the foot of cultivated hill slopes, are used for mois-
Kaboré and Reij, 2004). The combination of planting pits (tassa) ture conservation in the drought-stricken Tigray region of Ethiopia
with stone lines is used to rehabilitate degraded and crusted lands (Annen, 2006). They have also recently been used to grow fodder
and bring them into cultivation (WOCAT, 2007). In response to plants and perennials such as fruit crops. Alley cropping and
sand encroachment on top of fertile soils, the planting of seedlings hedgerows have been used for soil and water conservation in east-
in shallow pits (5–15 cm deep and 10–30 cm wide) at intervals of ern and western Africa (Kiepe, 1995a; Spaan, 2003).
40–70 cm (Magun cultivation) has recently been adopted in semi- In general, development of traditional practices has been more
arid regions of Sudan (Osman-Elasha et al., 2006). effective than introduction of new practices (Reij et al., 2009). A
Micro-catchment water harvesting techniques that are being range of indigenous soil and water conservation practices has
promoted throughout southern Zimbabwe include dead-level con- evolved in SSA (Critchley et al., 1994). In Kenya, fanya juu (Swahili
tours with or without infiltration pits, graded contour ridges (<5% for ‘throw uphill’) terraces have been developed and widely used to
slope) and fanya juu terraces (Kahinda et al., 2007; Mupangwa conserve soil and water (Kiome and Stocking, 1995). They are con-
et al., 2006). In the field, the dead-level contours harness water structed by digging a trench and throwing soil up-slope to form an
originating from the area upslope. Planting pits (15  15  15 cm embankment. The broad bed and furrow system and chat ridge
dimensions) are dug in September or October in the same positions systems were developed in the degraded eastern drylands of
annually, to collect rainwater in October and November before Ethiopia (FAO, 2009). In the drought-affected and degraded lands
planting takes place in December (Mupangwa et al., 2006). Contour of northern Ethiopia, stone bunds are constructed along the con-
ridges vary in size, the smallest having cross-sectional dimensions tour, 30 cm wide and average height of 0.74 m (Nyssen et al.,
of 1.5 m width and 0.5 m depth (Mupangwa et al., 2006). The basin 2007; WOCAT, 2010). They have been effectively used to reduce
and mulch technique is an innovative water-conservation soil erosion, to shorten slope length and to retain soil moisture.

Table 1
Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting – Overview of the most commonly practised systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

Type of the micro- Description Countries of wider References

catchment systems application
Pitting (Zai pits, Ngoro pits, Zai pits: A grid of planting pits is dug across plots that could be less West Africa (Burkina Malley et al. (2004), Mupangwa
trenches, tassa pits, etc.) permeable or rock-hard; organic matter is sometimes added to the Faso, Mali, Niger) et al. (2006), Reij et al. (1996),
bottom of the pits; Ngoro pits: A series of regular traditional pits, 1.5 m East Africa (Tanzania, WOCAT (2010)
square by 0.1–0.5 m deep with the crops grown on the ridges around the Kenya, Somalia,
pits; Trenches: pits are made along the contour sometimes with a bund Uganda, Ethiopia)
downslope either staggered or continuous to check the velocity of runoff, Southern Africa
conserve moisture and increase ground water recharge (Zimbabwe, South
Africa)
Contouring (stone/soil Stone and soil bunds: A stone or sometimes earthen bank of 0.50–0.75 cm East Africa (Kenya, Kiepe (1995a), Spaan (2003),
bunds, hedge-rows, height is piled on a foundation along the contour in a cultivated hill-slope, Ethiopia, Tanzania) WOCAT (2010)
vegetation barriers) sometimes stabilised with grasses or other fodder plant species; Hedge West Africa (Burkina
rows: Within individual cropland plots, strips of land are marked out on Faso)
the contour and left unploughed in order to form permanent, cross-slope South Africa
barriers of naturally established grasses and herbs. Alternatively, Shrubs
are planted along the contour
Terracing (Fanya Juu, Semi- Bunds in association with a ditch, along the contour or on a gentle lateral East Africa (Kenya, Tengberg et al. (1998), WOCAT
circular and hillside gradient are constructed in different forms. The Fanya Juu terraces are Ethiopia, Tanzania) (2010)
terraces) different from many other terrace types in that the embankment is put in
the upslope position
Micro-basins (Negarims, Different shapes of small basins, surrounded by low earth bunds are East Africa (Ethiopia, Abdulkadir and Schultz (2005),
half-moons, and eye- formed to enable the runoff to infiltrate at the lowest point, where the Kenya, Tanzania, FAO (1991), Spaan (2003)
brows) plants are grown. The differences between the different structures is Uganda)
basically in their shapes, Negarims (diamond), Halfmoons (semi-circular), West Africa (Burkina
etc. Faso, Mali, Niger)
142 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151

In southern Ethiopia, the farmers of Konso are well known for their eastern Somali region of Ethiopia, ellas (deep wells) in the southern
own traditional terraces, the best locally available technique for Borena area of Ethiopia and hafir (low earth dams) in eastern
soil and water conservation. About 80% of the cultivated land is Ethiopia, have been traditionally used for livestock and domestic
well terraced in Konso (EPA, 2004). Vegetation barriers, using local water supply (Habtamu, 1999). In the Hiraan region of Somalia,
grasses, woody species and succulents, can reduce soil erosion by the caag system is used where considerable overland flow, or flow
70–90% in an alley-cropping system in central Burkina Faso (Spaan from a small toog (gully), is captured behind bunds (Reij et al.,
et al., 2005). Hedgerows of Cassia siamea, grown in a maize/cowpea 1996). However, the commonly used traditional open rainwater
rotation on 14% slopes in the Machakos district of Kenya, enable an ponds do have a short lifespan after the rainy seasons, as the water
average increase in infiltration of 30% in the dry season and 94% in is lost via seepage (except for rock catchment dams) and
the wet season (Kiepe, 1995b). Different modifications have been evaporation. Seepage is a major problem in water storage in earth-
made to some of these practices to improve their performance. en reservoirs, accounting for losses up to 69% of the harvested
For example, farmers in Burkina Faso adapted the zai pits by water (Fox and Rockstrom, 2003).
increasing their depth and applying compost and manure. Applica- Unlike the traditional open ponds, the recently developed cis-
tion of compost and manure in the pits conserves water and sup- terns in different parts of SSA are covered to reduce evaporation
plies nutrients, hence enabling sorghum plants to establish losses, and their walls are plastered to avoid seepage losses. The
better, grow faster and reach maturity before the rains cease. most important materials for construction and covering of these
Hence, improvement of water availability and fertility in the types of rainwater storage tank include cement, clay, clay–cement,
crusted desert soils restored productivity to the area (Reij et al., lime–clay or lime–cement and polythene sheets. The cost of these
2009; Spaan, 2003). materials makes macro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems
expensive and poor farmers are discouraged from investing in
them (Ngigi et al., 2005). However, in Ethiopia, locally available
2.2. Macro-catchment systems with water storage for supplementary materials, such as termite-mound earth (either in blocks or as
irrigation mud) are used to construct cisterns (Mills, 2004). Inspired by suc-
cessful Chinese experiences, the Ethiopian government has given
The macro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems usually much attention to developing and promoting different designs of
consist of three components: the rainwater collection catchment, underground rainwater storage tanks—cisterns—in moisture-
the storage structure, and the target area (Fig. 2). In macro-catch- stressed, rainfed agro-ecosystems. Hence, in the four main admin-
ment systems, the runoff is usually collected from external catch- istrative regions of Amhara, Oromia, Southern Region and Tigray,
ments and diverted into well designed storage structures. more than 340,000 cisterns were constructed in the years 2003–
Although most of the macro-catchment rainwater harvesting tech- 2004, mainly through government initiatives (Bekele et al., 2006).
niques have a catchment area of less than 2 ha, in some cases run- Within the Kitui district of Kenya, about 500 sand dams have
off is being collected from catchments as large as 50 km2 (Makurira been developed over 10 years to store water for the dry season
et al., 2007). The water is used either for supplemental irrigation (Aerts et al., 2007). These sand dams are used for domestic water
during dry-spell occurrences or for domestic consumption. The ra- supply and irrigation, also enhancing groundwater recharge (Hut
tio of the collection catchment to the cultivated target area can et al., 2008). The percentage of storage by sand dams relative to to-
vary between 10:1 and 1000:1 (Liniger et al., 2011). Rainwater is tal seasonal runoff amounts to 3.8% for the April–October season
collected from existing paved surfaces and natural slopes, and and 1.8% for the November–March season (Aerts et al., 2007). In
rarely from purpose-built structures. Runoff collection from ups- Tanzania, dugout ponds, which are found on roadsides where con-
lope rock outcrops was found to be effective in Botswana (Carter tractors have excavated soil for road construction, collect water,
and Miller, 1991). The system components and the storage volume, and villagers exploit this for domestic, livestock and vegetable pro-
catchment type and area, and water applications, depend on the lo- duction (Hatibu and Mahoo, 1999). In South Africa, jojo tanks of
cal rainfall pattern and soil types (WOCAT, 2010). 0.75–20 m3 have been popularised for collecting rainwater from
The most commonly applied macro-catchment rainwater rooftops, when it is used mainly for domestic purposes (Mokgope
harvesting techniques in SSA encompass traditional open ponds, and Butterworth, 2001). Similar tanks of various designs have been
cisterns, micro-dams, sand dams and spate-irrigation systems promoted by non-governmental organisations in many African
(Table 2). Several of the widely applied macro-catchment rainwa- countries (Gould and Nissen-Petersen, 1999).
ter harvesting techniques are indigenous or modified from indige- Spate irrigation is an indigenous technique of diverting and
nous practices. The birkas (runoff-fed underground tanks) in the spreading seasonal heavy floods of short duration (Tesfai and
Stroosnijder, 2001). It is commonly applied in SSA, in particular
in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Senegal, Somalia and Sudan. Farmers
in Eritrea have used spate irrigation systems for more than
100 years, although modifications have recently been made
through improved engineering skills (Tesfai and Stroosnijder,
2001). Similarly, a floodwater farming system known as korbe is
practised in Ethiopia, which involves the diversion of water from
various sources to grow vegetables, fruit trees and high-value
crops on prepared land (WOCAT, 2010).
In addition to the simple diversion of storm flows from gullies
and ephemeral streams into crop or pasture land, rainwater har-
vesting irrigation (RWI) from macro-catchment systems have
eventually achieved recognition, as an alternative to conventional
irrigation schemes (Rosegrant, 1997). There is a potential for reach-
ing more than 30 million rural poor by applying supplemental irri-
gation to 15.2 million ha in SSA (Chartres, 2009). Supplemental
Fig. 2. A typical designation of the macro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems irrigation, with about 100 mm of water provided during crucial
(modified from Oweis et al. (2001)). dry spells, can double rainfed cereal yields from about 1 to
 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151 143

Table 2
Macro-catchment rainwater harvesting – Overview of the most commonly practised systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

Type of macro- Description Storage capacity Countries of References

catchment (m3) wider application
systems
Traditional open Runoff collected from cultivated hill slopes, natural watercourses, 30–50 Mainly in East Africa Habtamu (1999),
ponds footpaths or cattle tracks is stored in un-plastered and open ponds. The (Kenya, Ethiopia, Ngigi (2003),
stored water usually suffers from losses due to seepage and Tanzania, Somalia) Reij et al. (1996)
evaporation
Cisterns Runoff collected from bare lands, cultivated hill slopes or road 30–200 East Africa (Kenya, Wondimkun and
catchments is guided and stored in underground storage tanks. The Ethiopia, Tanzania, Tefera (2006)
cisterns have plastered walls and covered surfaces. In most cases, Uganda)
settling basins are attached in front of the inlet to reduce South Africa (Zimbabwe,
sedimentation and otherwise, regular cleaning is required Botswana)
Earthen dams (micro- Larger sized rainwater storage systems such as ndivas in Tanzania and (0.02–0.2)104 in East Africa (Tanzania, Haregeweyn et al.
dams) micro-dams in Ethiopia are communally constructed around foots of Tanzania, and Ethiopia) (2006), Makurira
hill slopes to store the runoff from ephemeral or perennial rivers. The (0.1–3.1)106 in Southern Africa et al. (2007)
reservoirs are neither plastered at their walls nor covered on their Ethiopia (Botswana)
surfaces. The water is mostly used for supplemental irrigation West Africa (Burkina
communally and for cattle Faso)
Sand dams Dams constructed to store part of the natural flow in seasonal rivers. – East Africa (Kenya, Aerts et al. (2007),
The sand carried by the river will settle upstream of the dam and Ethiopia) Hut et al. (2008)
gradually fill the streambed. Hence, the sand will reduce evaporation
and contamination of the water in the sand body behind the dam
Ephemeral stream Ephemeral streams from uplands are diverted from their beds (Wadis) – Mainly in East Africa Hatibu and Mahoo
diversions and at the agim (temporary diversion structure) to irrigate adjacent crop (Eriteria, Ethiopia, (1999),
spate irrigation fields downstream usually before planting Tanzania) Tesfai and
Stroosnijder (2001),
WOCAT (2010)

2 Mg ha 1, increasing water productivity to 0.5 kg m 3 of water 2010). Stone mulching has been promoted in Burkina Faso to check
consumed (Araya and Stroosnijder, 2011; Rijsberman and Man- soil erosion and conserve moisture (Zougmore et al., 2000). Conser-
ning, 2006). Accordingly, the 50 m3 rainwater tank commonly vation tillage (CT) in SSA encompasses a wide range of tillage tech-
found in many parts of SSA could be used to apply supplemental niques that have been tested and developed in many different
irrigation for a farm plot of more than 500 m2. places (Biamah et al., 1993; Fowler and Rockstrom, 2001; Temes-
gen, 2007). It covers a spectrum of non-inversion practices, from
2.3. Techniques for maximising infiltration, reducing surface runoff zero-tillage to reduced tillage, aiming at maximising infiltration
and evaporation, and improving soil water availability and soil productivity, and minimising water losses while simulta-
neously conserving energy and labour. Recently, researchers have
Techniques for enhancing infiltration, reducing runoff and evap- paid increasing attention to the development of appropriate con-
oration or for improving soil moisture storage in the crop rooting servation tillage practices suitable for dryland farming systems in
zone, are known as in situ rainwater harvesting (Ngigi, 2003). These SSA (ATNESA, 2010; Rockstrom et al., 2009).
techniques generally do not need a runoff-inducing catchment Farmers in the northern drylands of Ethiopia make contour fur-
area; rather, they are aimed at enhancing rainfall infiltration and rows at 2–4 m intervals – locally called terwah – for tef (Eragrostis
reducing soil evaporation. The central idea behind these tech- tef) production (Gebregziabhere et al., 2009). These furrows trap
niques is to turn blue water into green water to reduce direct soil water in the ridges in such a way that, after a storm, the fields will
evaporation, thereby causing it to be transpired through the plants have elongated pools of retained water for later use by crops, in-
(Falkenmark and Rockstrom, 2004). Better utilisation of rainfall to stead of losing it as runoff. The traditional ridging and weed control
capitalise on green water requires appropriate land and crop man- practice known as shilshalo, is practised four weeks after planting
agement systems. Two distinct management periods are involved of maize in Ethiopia (Birhane et al., 2006). In the central Rift Valley
in maximising the use of precipitation for dryland crop production: areas of Ethiopia, where sandy loam soils are sensitive to crusting,
the first period of rain storage, lasting from harvesting of the pre- shilshalo is a means of breaking the surface crusts thereby enhanc-
vious crop until planting of the next crop; and the second period, ing infiltration (Biazin et al., 2011). The promotion of animal- and
lasting from planting until harvesting of the crop (Bennie and tractor-drawn conservation tillage among smallholder farmers in
Hensley, 2001). the semi-arid Babati district, Tanzania, using rippers and sub-soil-
The most commonly applied in situ rainwater harvesting and ers, has resulted in significant increases in water productivity in re-
management practices in SSA include ridging, mulching, various cent decades (Rockstrom et al., 2002). Similarly, in the semi-arid
types of furrowing and hoeing, and conservation tillage (Table 3). Laikipia district of Kenya small-scale conservation tillage, involving
Ridging – also known as furrow dikes, furrow damming, basin list- the use of ox-drawn rippers, was used to minimise soil disturbance
ing, basin tillage and micro-basins in different areas (Jones and and conserve soil moisture, while at the same time controlling
Stewart, 1990) – can be designed as open or closed (tied) for hold- costs and developing fodder (Liniger et al., 2011; WOCAT, 2007).
ing water and facilitating infiltration in areas of low, erratic rain- In the semi-arid regions of the Sahel, where the soils are character-
fall. In tied-ridging, sometimes also called ‘tied-furrows’, ridge ised by sealing, crusting, hard-setting and low organic-matter con-
furrows are blocked with earth ties spaced at fixed distances to tent, appropriate tillage techniques play a crucial part in improved
form a series of micro-catchment basins in the field (Nyamudeza infiltration and moisture conservation (Hoogmoed, 1999).
and Jones, 1994; Wiyo et al., 1999). Surface mulching, using both In Kenya farmers traditionally form trash lines from crop resi-
crop residue and material such as stones from non-cultivated dues in surface strips along the contour, to mitigate erosion and ex-
areas, has long been used in SSA (Tengberg et al., 1998; WOCAT, ploit the trapped soil and moisture (Tengberg et al., 1998). This
144 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151

Table 3
In situ rainwater harvesting – Overview of the most commonly practised and emerging systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

Type of Description Regions of current References

structure application
Ridging Basins that are wider than the traditional furrows are created either by manual Many parts of the SSA Hulugalle (1990), Lal (1990), Wiyo
hoeing or during tillage using a modified ploughing instrument. They can be et al. (1999)
designed to be tied every 3–6 m distance for holding water and facilitating
infiltration in low and erratic rainfall areas
Mulching The use of both crop residues and material from non-cultivated areas, including Western and Eastern Africa Tengberg et al. (1998), WOCAT
stones, aimed at covering the soil. This improves infiltration of water into the soil (2010)
and prevents evaporation out of the soil
Furrowing Different furrowing techniques are used before and after planting to conserve soil Eastern and Western Africa Birhane et al. (2006),
and pot- moisture in areas where oxen ploughing and hand-hoeing practices are common. Gebregziabhere et al. (2009),
hoeing In the Sahel, small shallow holes are dug manually at correct intervals and the Nyssen et al. (2011)
seeds are covered with soil; Two weeks after the emergence of the crop they add
fertiliser about 10 cm from the plant
Conservation It encompasses a wide range of tillage techniques ranging from non-inversion Many parts of SSA (South Rockstrom et al. (2002, 2009),
tillage ploughing and reduced tillage to ripping and sub-soiling in SSA. Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Temesgen (2007)
Ethiopia)

technique has also been promoted in the Kabale area of Uganda water-uptake capacity of grasses in the open grazing systems
(WOCAT, 2007). In Uganda, dry vegetation is used to mulch bana- of Ethiopia (Taddesse et al., 2003). Managing optimum density
nas, pineapples and coffee in areas where soil moisture is a major that accord with a given crop requirements, different patterns
constraint (WOCAT, 2010). Although appropriate application of of precipitation, and soil fertility can be valuable for improved
crop residue mulch is essential to the rehabilitation of the desert water productivity.
soils in the Sahel (Mando and Stroosnijder, 1999), crop residues Response farming is the system of predicting the seasonal rain-
are often needed for income generation, or fed to livestock during fall at the start of each rainy season, and modifying the cropping
the dry season, which limits the availability of mulch material in systems accordingly (Stewart, 1988). The five key factors, which
drylands (Sterk et al., 2001). Loglines, formed by logs unsuitable characterise a rainfall season for crop production, are: the onset
for charcoal production, are also used on recently cleared land as and final rain dates, rainfall amount and distribution, duration,
a soil and water conservation measure in Kenya (Okoba et al., and intensity. The date of onset is of particular interest for two rea-
1998). sons (Stewart, 1988): (I) It occurs at the start of the season, before
on-farm decisions are made, (II) It is highly variable and often a
2.4. Techniques for improving plant water uptake and response predictor of other rainfall attributes which occur later. On the basis
farming of an analysis of long-term rainfall data, and knowing the crop re-
sponse to different planting dates, it is possible to optimise the
The experience of the past five decades has shown that genet- yield and water productivity of a given cropping system (Stewart,
ic enhancements and appropriate agronomic management are 1991). Analysis of long-term rainfall in the southern Sahelian and
important for increasing agricultural water productivity (Kassam Sudanian zones revealed that delayed onset results in a consider-
et al., 2007). Genetic approaches to increasing the water produc- ably shorter growing season (Sivakumar, 1988). Hence, if the onset
tivity of crops encompass four traits (characters) of plants: (I) of the rains is delayed by 10 days beyond the calculated mean date
Traits that reduce the non-transpiration uses of water in agricul- of onset, short-duration cultivars or even alternative crops that will
ture, (II) Traits that reduce the transpiration of water without mature early, have a greater chance of being more productive
affecting productivity, (III) Traits that increase production (Sivakumar, 1988). Delaying the planting of maize generally in-
without increasing transpiration and (IV) Traits that enhance creased days to flowering hence reduced dry-matter production
tolerance of water stress (Bennet, 2003). As an example, early- and yield components (Kamara et al., 2009). Another study in
maturing cultivars can escape droughts and provide yield even Zimbabwe and South Africa showed that the late onset of rainfall
during years with below-average precipitation. A study con- during the maize growing season is associated with heavier
ducted to determine the performance of late (120 days), early rainfall, which could have negative consequences for crop yield if
(90 days), and extra-early maturing (80 days) maize (Zea mays it leads to waterlogging (Tadross and Hewitson, 2005).
L.) cultivars, showed that extra-early maturing cultivars produced Apart from the onset, the distribution of rainfall throughout the
the highest dry matter yield, harvest index and grain yield in the growing season vitally affects crop productivity. For instance, agri-
Sudan Savannas of northeast Nigeria (Kamara et al., 2009). In an- cultural dry-spell analyses from long-term rainfall data in two
other study, traits related to the ability of trees to extract and semi-arid regions of eastern Africa revealed that maize was ex-
efficiently transport water, are suggested as the explanation for posed to at least one dry-spell of 10 days or longer in 70–84% of
differences in drought resistance among species, and tree distri- growing seasons (Barron et al., 2003). For many smallholder farm-
bution in an arid savannah (Otieno et al., 2005). ers in the semi-arid tropics, the risk of crop failure remains a reality
Agronomic management for improved water productivity in- every fifth year, with a risk of yield reductions every second year
cludes, but is not limited to, planting density and soil fertility (Rockstrom et al., 2002). Farmers in semi-arid West Africa have
management. Management of planting density according to the tried to cope with low and erratic rainfall by, amongst other mea-
rainfall pattern has shown improved water and crop productivity sures, decreasing planting density, replanting with early-maturing
in dryland rainfed systems (Tsubo and Walker, 2007). Too little varieties or changing the crop type, and delaying fertiliser use
plant density could lead to low utilisation of available soil water. (Matlon and Kristjanson, 1988). Recent advances in understanding
The rapid establishment of a full ground cover due to a higher and modelling of the oceanic atmospheric system at global and re-
planting density can minimise the loss of water by evaporation gional scales are important developments, which have enabled
from wet soil surfaces (Stewart and Steiner, 1990). The use of or- seasonal weather forecasting to assist farmers in optimising their
ganic and inorganic fertilisers can also improve the water uptake immediate decisions and tactical planning with regard to the
capacity of crops. For example, farmyard manure improved the approaching season (Cooper et al., 2008). Response farming could
 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151 145

be another potential research and development area for the future difficulty of controlling floods and the loss of water via percolation,
of green water capitalisation in SSA. seepage and evaporation (Tesfai and Stroosnijder, 2001).
The crop and water productivity performance of in situ rainwa-
ter harvesting techniques has also been examined in a number of
3. Research results on the performances of RWHM in SSA on-farm studies. A 3-year experiment conducted in the drought-
stricken areas of Wollo region, Ethiopia, revealed that tied-ridging,
3.1. Biophysical performances open-ridging and sub-soiling improved soil water content in the
root zone by 24%, 15% and 3%, respectively, as compared to tradi-
Promising crop and water productivity performance has been tional tillage during the cropping season (McHugh et al., 2007).
observed from field evaluations of micro-catchment RWHM tech- In the semi-arid region of northern Ethiopia, where a significant
niques in SSA. In the eastern drylands of Ethiopia, a field exper- proportion of the rainfall is lost as runoff, tied-ridges reduced sur-
iment was conducted to study the growth of four multipurpose face runoff by about 60%, improving the soil–water content in the
tree species intercropped with grass (Panicum maximum) grown rooting zone by at least 13% (Araya and Stroosnijder, 2010).
in plots with 25 m2 and 100 m2 micro-catchments (Abdulkadir Accordingly, the grain yield of barley (Hordeum vulgare) could be
and Schultz, 2005). The overall mean moisture content in the improved by at least 44%. The moisture-retention capacity of
plots with micro-catchments was 31% higher in the wet season tied-ridges was significantly higher than that of conventional till-
and 24% higher during the dry season, compared to that for plots age under sandy soils in Zimbabwe (Motsi et al., 2004). Thus the
without micro-catchments. The dry-matter content showed yield of maize under tied-ridges was twice that under conventional
strong dependence on the area of the micro-catchments; the tillage without ridges. The tied-furrow system maintained signifi-
grass dry-matter yield was 32% greater on 100 m2 plots, than cantly larger amounts of water in the soil, compared with flat cul-
on 25 m2 plots. In Burkina Faso after the development of the tivation, throughout the sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)
zai pits, the farmers could rehabilitate their land and expand growing season in Zimbabwe (Nyamudeza and Jones, 1994). Earlier
the size of their farms where nothing grew before (Kaboré and experiments in the West African Savannah also showed that runoff
Reij, 2004). Thus, crop yield was 0 Mg ha 1 without them, 0.3– ranged from 0% to 15% with tied-ridging, whereas with either open
0.4 Mg ha 1 in a year of low rainfall, and up to 1.5 Mg ha 1 in ridging or flat planting, 20–40% of seasonal rainfall was lost as run-
a year of good rainfall. Similar studies on ngoro pits in Tanzania off (Hulugalle, 1990).
revealed that 2-m wide pits had the highest maize grain yield An on-farm experiment by Hensley et al. (2000) and simulation
(1.85 Mg ha 1) compared to 1-m wide (1.44 Mg ha 1) and 1.5 m of crop yields with model combinations by Walker et al. (2005) in a
wide pits (1.66 Mg ha 1) (Malley et al., 2004). A maximum level clay soil of semi-arid South Africa showed that rainwater harvest-
of soil moisture around the introduced trenches and bunds in ing with basin tillage and mulching increased maize yields by 30–
semi-arid Tanzania confirmed their effectiveness in concentrating 50%, depending on the initial soil water conditions. A field experi-
the little available rainfall into green water-flow paths (Makurira ment conducted to examine the effect of stone mulching in Burkina
et al., 2009). Faso revealed that sorghum straw and grain yield were doubled on
The use of macro-catchment systems for rainwater irrigation plots with stone lines, compared to that on plots without stone
has shown positive crop and water productivity responses in lines (Zougmore et al., 2000). The soil water content decreased
semi-arid areas of SSA as well. A survey and modelling study in with increasing distance from the stone lines. The use of improved
semi-arid Zimbabwe implied that RWI from macro-catchment sys- tillage through adaptation of the existing traditional maresha
tems increases water productivity, from 1.75 kg m 3 up to ploughing practices in semi-arid Ethiopia increased the yield of
2.3 kg m 3, by mitigating intra-seasonal dry-spells (Kahinda tef (Eragrostis tef) by 13–19% as compared to traditional tillage
et al., 2007). RWI from hand-dug earth dams, in combination with (Temesgen, 2007). A study in South Africa also revealed that better
fertilisation, increased the rainwater use efficiency of maize from maize yields were obtained from no-tillage farming as compared to
2.1 kg m 3 (non-irrigated and without fertilisation) to 4.1 kg m 3 conventional tillage (Kosgei et al., 2007). However, because the ef-
(supplemental irrigation and 30 kg N ha 1) during seasons with fect of no-tillage farming on improving soil water status and crop
poor rainfall (<300 mm) in Kenya (Barron and Okwatch, 2005). yields depends on climate and soil type, local tests are required be-
However, further studies are needed to bring about system fore the method is more widely applied.
improvements and to optimise RWI techniques. An on-farm study The combined application of rainwater harvesting and soil fer-
of rainwater harvesting irrigation by means of hand-dug earth tility improvements has shown promising performances. Some
dams in Burkina Faso showed that seepage losses accounted for rainwater management techniques, such as the teras system in
75%, and evaporation for about 5%, of the harvested dam water Sudan, contribute directly and significantly to soil fertility through
(Fox and Rockstrom, 2003). Similar studies in semi-arid Kenya re- the deposition of sediment and organic matter (Niemeijer, 1998).
vealed that seepage accounted for an average of 57%, and evapora- In other cases, it is the addition of compost, manure or processed
tion for an average of 12%, of the dam water (Barron and Okwatch, fertiliser to a system where RWHM is being employed that pro-
2005). The irrigation efficiency of microdams (ndivas) in Tanzania vides the increased benefit. In a semi-arid area of Burkina Faso,
was found to be very low; more than 80% of the water was lost where sorghum production without water conservation tech-
during conveyance from the dams to individual fields (Makurira niques is very difficult, combining compost or animal manure with
et al., 2007). Simple drip-irrigation kits have been widely regarded half-moon structures allowed yields between 0.9 and 1.6 Mg ha 1
as the most promising technique, and have been successfully i.e. 20–39 times that obtained in the half-moon without any com-
implemented in vegetable gardens in several countries of SSA post or manure (Zougmore et al., 2003a). A combination of manure
(Karlberg et al., 2007). An on-farm study in a semi-arid area of Zim- application with zai pits in Burkina Faso also resulted in a more
babwe revealed that water savings of more than 50% were than twofold grain yield, compared with that obtained without
achieved in low-cost drip systems, compared to the conventional manure (Fatondji et al., 2006). More than 5000 households have
surface irrigation system (Maisiri et al., 2005). With this increase adopted composting in association with planting pits in the
in water-use efficiency, a vegetable yield of 8.5 Mg ha 1 was ob- Boulgou province of Burkina Faso (WOCAT, 2007). In another
tained for drip irrigation, compared to 7.8 Mg ha 1 for surface irri- on-farm study carried out in Burkina Faso, supplemental irrigation
gation. The overall irrigation efficiency of the traditional spate increased sorghum harvests by only 56%, but in combination with
irrigation schemes in Eritrea is only about 20%, because of the added fertiliser, by 208% (Fox and Rockstrom, 2003). As shown by a
146 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151

3-year experiment in semi-arid Tanzania, tied-ridging in combina- onion productions was profitable in the long term, as long as farm-
tion with inputs of mineral fertiliser could increase maize grain ers could afford the initial investment (Senkondo et al., 2004). Fox
yield from 1 Mg ha 1 (under flat planting with no mineral fertilis- et al. (2005) made a cost-benefit analysis of rainwater harvesting
ers) to 6 Mg ha 1, and hence, the rainfall productivity (grain yield for supplemental irrigation under maize (Zea mays L. var. Katumani
per unit of annual rainfall) could be tripled in near-normal rainfall B) in Kenya, and for sorghum (Sorghum bi-color, IRAT 204) in Burk-
years (Jensen et al., 2003). In the mixed crop–livestock systems of ina Faso, by setting the labour cost equivalent to the income for-
SSA, Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM), combining dif- gone (income generated during an equivalent time spent in
ferent methods of soil fertility amendment with soil and water alternative production). Thus in Burkina Faso, from an earthen
conservation, is found to be suitable (Liniger et al., 2011). ISFM in- dam of volume 300 m3, a net profit of US$ 151–626 ha 1 year 1
volves maximising the use of organic sources of fertiliser, minimis- was obtained, compared to a loss of US$ 83 to a meagre profit of
ing the loss of nutrients, and judicious use of inorganic fertiliser just US$ 15 ha 1 year 1 for current farming practices, depending
according to need and economic availability. Many of these studies on the labour opportunity cost. The net profit in Kenya was US$
indicated that fertiliser application could substantially improve 109–477 ha 1 year 1 as compared to US$ 40–130 ha 1 year 1 for
crop yields only in the presence of ample soil moisture. This im- current farming practices (Fox et al., 2005). The use of farm ponds
plies that RWI is essential for encouraging fertiliser use by farmers for supplemental irrigation of maize, based on the two rainy sea-
who may not otherwise be willing to apply it, owing to the risk of sons in Kenya, also provided net seasonal revenue of US$ 150,
crop failure caused by dry spells and drought. which could increase the annual return by 150% (Ngigi et al.,
The effect of the various RWHM practices on water and crop 2005). This would give net revenue of US$ 300 per annum, based
productivity depends on the rainfall pattern (Stroosnijder, 2007, on the two yields from the two rainy seasons, and hence would re-
2009). In rainfed lowland rice fields of south-eastern Tanzania, soil quire a payback period of four seasons. Rainwater harvesting
bunds can give a minimum yield increase of 30% in normal years, linked to road catchments for production of paddy rice in Tanzania
whereas in wet years and when the soil hardly drains (drainage gave a gross margin of return of more than US$ 12 per person-day
class 0–5 mm day 1), the yield may even double (Raes et al., invested (Hatibu et al., 2006). These benefits are very high, because
2007). Hatibu et al. (2006) indicated that investments in rainwater without rainwater harvesting, it is not possible to produce paddy
harvesting for paddy rice production in Tanzania give more bene- in the study area, and a rainfed sorghum crop realises a return
fits during above-average seasons compared to below-average on labour of only US$ 3.7 per person-day during above-average
ones. During years with well-distributed rainfall in the Sahel, seasons. However, the same study implied that investment to im-
water-conservation measures without addition of nutrients had prove the rainwater harvesting systems by including storage ponds
little influence on crop yields (Zougmore et al., 2003b). Hence, in is not beneficial, owing to a higher labour requirement. Moreover,
years with well-distributed rainfall, application of nutrients alone farmers in Ethiopia who have adopted rainwater harvesting irriga-
resulted in much higher grain yields than did water-conservation tion properly have improved their dietary status (Desta, 2004).
measures without nutrient inputs. Mugabe (2004) reported that The economic costs and benefits of the various RWHM tech-
the difference in soil water content between access tubes at differ- niques are highly influenced by nutrient inputs. Owing to the high
ent distances from the zai pits was higher during dry spells, when cost of labour, transport and material inputs for the installation of
tubes situated closer to the pits showed better soil–water status. stone rows or grass strips in Burkina Faso, these measures were not
Despite the beneficial effect of tied-ridges in years of near-normal cost-effective without the addition of nutrients, although they gave
(500–600 mm) rainfall, in wet years (700–900 mm) waterlogging a sorghum yield increase of 12–58%, particularly under poor rain-
effects were observed on maize in Tanzania (Jensen et al., 2003). fall conditions (Zougmore et al., 2004). In Burkina Faso, a field
Hence, larger applications of fertiliser were recommended for alle- experiment was performed to assess the impact of organic and
viating excessive wetness by increasing water loss via transpira- mineral sources of nutrients and combinations thereof in optimis-
tion. It is also imperative to consider the time of ridging, to ing crop production in tillage and no-tillage systems, and to assess
obtain the best performance of the crop from it. Birhane et al. the economic benefits of these options (Ouédraogo et al., 2007).
(2006) confirmed that tied-ridging before or at planting in arid Hence, organic or combined organic and mineral-derived nutrient
areas of Tigray, Ethiopia resulted in a better soil–water status applications were recommended, in combination with water-con-
and the best crop performance, compared with tied-ridging after servation techniques, for improved economic benefits under semi-
planting, especially when planting was in the furrow. Accordingly, arid conditions. A study in Tanzania implied that those farmers
pre-planting rain storage efficiencies could be improved by 2–37% who adopted macro-catchment rainwater harvesting (ndiva) sys-
by increasing the fallow period. On the other hand, Temesgen tems tended to have better land management techniques (nutrient
(2007) revealed that in the semi-arid Rift Valley of Ethiopia, the management and soil conservation) than non-users (Enfors and
longer the interval between tied-ridging and sowing, the less were Gordon, 2008). A similar study in Ethiopia also indicated that the
the water-conservation efficiency and the maize yield, provided users of agricultural water-management techniques used more
that there was minimum rainfall in the interval. farm inputs (fertiliser and better seeds) than non-users (Awula-
chew et al., 2008). Analysis of over 10 years of agro-hydrological
3.2. Economic costs and benefits of RWHM and agro-economic studies in southern Africa implied that imple-
mentation of the Millennium Development food security goals
A number of studies have been undertaken to investigate the can be achieved through the combined use of fertiliser, better
economic costs and benefits of rainwater harvesting and manage- seeds and agricultural water-management techniques (Love
ment in SSA. A detailed socioeconomic assessment was under- et al., 2006).
taken, with 1517 households in the four main administrative The types of crop grown substantially influence the economic
regions of Ethiopia, to examine the impact of micro-catchment benefits obtained from supplemental irrigation through rainwater
and macro-catchment agricultural water-management techniques harvesting as well. Short-term economic profitability of supple-
(Awulachew et al., 2008). The agricultural income (from both crops mental irrigation in SSA could be made possible by shifting the cur-
and livestock) was significantly (p < 0.0001) higher for users than rent cereal-based farming into high-value cropping systems
for non-users of the techniques. An economic performance evalua- (Chartres, 2009). For instance, the net income of supplemental irri-
tion of rainwater harvesting techniques at field scale in Tanzania gation was 76% higher for onion than for green maize, through sup-
also indicated that investment in RWH for maize, paddy rice and plemental irrigation in the semi-arid Ethiopian Rift Valley (Bekele
 B. Biazin et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48 (2012) 139–151 147

et al., 2006). The crops cultivated through rainwater harvesting content in the rooting zone by up to 30%, hence substantially
irrigation in the predominantly cereal-based northern regions of reducing non-productive losses. However, in heavy rainfall sea-
Ethiopia were mainly root crops and vegetables (Wondimkun sons, some of the techniques, such as tied-ridging and stone lines,
and Tefera, 2006). Using macro-catchment rainwater harvesting could cause waterlogging on maize and sorghum. Strategies to ad-
systems, many farmers in semi-arid areas of Tanzania have chan- dress this are needed. Although initial investments on macro-
ged from the cultivation of sorghum and millet to paddy rice on catchment rainwater harvesting systems may be beyond the
the seasonally flooded black-cotton soils (Hatibu et al., 2006). In capacity of the poor, long-term economic analyses confirmed the
Uganda, contour bunds in pasture fields increased the availability substantial net profits achievable, compared to meagre profits or
of fodder, hence the farmers could decide when and at what price even losses from existing smallholder-based farming systems. As
to sell their livestock, rather than being forced to sell them at long as dry spells during the growing season are a vital cause of
throwaway prices to avoid death due to frequent droughts (Ngigi, crop failure or severe productivity decline in drylands, more has
2003). to be done to further promote adoption of RWHM techniques. This
For investments in rainwater harvesting to have an impact on is especially needed in the case of supplemental irrigation through
poverty reduction, increased linkage to profitable markets is criti- macro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems.
cal, as the results show that increased cash income is a leading pri- Genetic enhancements, response farming and appropriate agro-
ority of farmers (Hatibu et al., 2006). When a market is not nomic management techniques are also vital to increasing agricul-
available for vegetables produced through rainwater-harvesting tural water productivity. Based on the study of long-term rainfall
investments, storage and transportation could be a risk. Invest- characteristics and seasonal weather forecasts, it could be impor-
ments in agricultural water, and other priorities, can contribute tant to provide early-warning systems and to plan appropriate
to poverty reduction and provide returns through several path- crop-management tactics in response to the rainfall pattern during
ways, including: higher productivity; higher employment; higher the approaching season. Integration of rainwater harvesting with
income and consumption; better nutrition and health; better edu- soil amendments has shown spectacular performances. Depending
cation; lower variability in output, income, and employment; im- on the rainfall pattern and types of crop, twofold to sixfold increase
proved equity; multiple uses of water; and multiplier effects on in crop yields – sometimes far more – may be possible from com-
non-farm sectors (Hanjra et al., 2009). binations of RWHM and nutrient inputs, as compared to the tradi-
Despite the promising socioeconomic potential of RWHM, mea- tional practices. Without rainwater management, for many small-
gre success has been achieved in the wider dissemination of exter- holder farmers in the semi-arid tropics, it is simply not worth
nally introduced techniques in SSA. Complexity, establishment investing in fertilisation (and other external inputs) as long as
costs and lack of fit with local practices are some key reasons. In the risk for crop failure remains a reality every fifth year with risk
many countries, the types of technique and the way they are of yield reductions every second year, due to periodic water scar-
implemented vary, due more to the preference of the donors and city during the growing season (Rockstrom et al., 2002). In semi-
projects than to any physical, socioeconomic and agronomic differ- arid western Africa, the use of N fertiliser alone was risky and a
ences (Spaan, 2003). For instance, the introduced soil and water higher yield, with the accompanying economic benefit, was scar-
conservation technologies in the western highlands of Ethiopia cely achieved under the prevailing rainfall conditions (Ouédraogo
were characterised by a majority of the sample farmers as highly et al., 2007). The use of organic amendments, however, even with-
labour-intensive, with difficult designs to construct, conflicting out rainwater harvesting practices can contribute to increased
with the free-roaming livestock grazing system and inapt for the water productivity and is affordable by the smallholder farmers.
existing land-tenure system (Bewket, 2007). A study on the role Continued research and development effort towards integrated
of socioeconomic factors on the performance and effectiveness of RWHM, crop selection, and fertility management practices is
dead-level contours in semi-arid Zimbabwe revealed that resource needed in SSA.
ownership was a key factor in affecting their performance and Appropriate development of RWHM techniques is also irre-
farmers’ ability to scale out the techniques (Munamati and placeably vital as a practical and sustainable solution to the chal-
Nyagumbo, 2010). In Ethiopia, although properly designed and lenges of climate change and environmental degradation in this
implemented cisterns showed promising performances, they could fragile region. Given the negative implications of climate change
not easily be adopted by smallholder farmers, mainly due to their for the production of major agricultural crops in SSA (Schlenker
unaffordable establishment cost (Shiferaw, 2006). and Lobell, 2010), rainwater harvesting will continue to be a viable
adaptive strategy for people living with high rainfall variability, for
countering droughts and mitigating flooding (UNEP, 2009). The
4. Discussion and conclusion Fourth Assessment Report of the International Panel for Climate
Change (IPCC) has indicated that the expanded use of rainwater
Owing to physical and economic water scarcity, subsistence harvesting and other ‘bottom-up’ technologies, has the potential
rainfed agriculture will continue to be the predominant source of to reduce emissions by about 6 Gigatonne CO2 equivalent year 1
food for the rapidly increasing population in SSA. The grave agri- by 2030 (IPCC, 2007). Investigation of catchment hydrology in re-
cultural water scarcity in this region is more associated with the sponse to agricultural water use innovations indicated that rain-
variability of rainfall and the large non-productive water flows, water harvesting through conservation tillage practices has
than with the total annual precipitation. In drought-prone SSA, less influenced the partitioning of rainfall, by significantly reducing
than 15% of terrestrial precipitation takes the form of productive surface runoff over agricultural lands by up to 100%, as compared
green transpiration. Hence, rainwater harvesting and management to conventional tillage (Kongo and Jewitt, 2006).
techniques have a significant potential for improving and sustain- Three decades ago, rainwater harvesting and management tech-
ing the rainfed agriculture in the region. A wide variety of micro- nologies had limited attention by research and development actors
catchment, macro-catchment and in situ RWHM techniques is (Tabor, 1995). Recently, there have been research and development
available in SSA. The indigenous techniques, or those modified efforts by a number of regional or international organizations
from the indigenous RWHM practices, are more common and working in SSA (Humphreys and Bayot, 2009; Liniger et al., 2011;
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