UNIT 6 SURFACE DRAINAGE

Structure
6.1 Introduction
Object~ves
6.2 Surface Drainage System
6.3 Classification of Surface Drainage System '

6.3.1 Random Field Drain System

6.3.2 Bedding System
6.3.3 Parallel Field Drain System
6.3.4 Open Ditch System
6.4 Conslruction and Maintenance
6.4.1 Construction
6.4.2 Maintenance
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Answers to SAQs

-
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation and drainage are two faces of the same coin. The same water which is for
saving the life of a plant as "irrigation water" inay destroy the plant if allowed to
stagnate beyond a certain period of time. Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess
water, lcllowil as free water or gravitational water from the surface or below the surface
of farm land so as to create favourable soil-physical-environment for plant growth.
When removal of this excess water takes place on surface only, the drainage system is
known as surface drainage. The excess water, that is drained, is gravitational water
which is not available for plant growth. A natural question may come in your mind; "Is
there any possibility of overlexcess drainage? The answer is 'No'." As drainage does
not remove the capillary water hence, there is no danger of over drainage or excess
drainage. Drainage provides a better environment for plant growth. The excess water
impedes the root respiration and directly attacks the root tissue of most crops. Through
proper drainage following other benefits are realised. They .are

a) The depth of the plant rooting zone is increased and thus, plant develops large
root system. This means plant has a larger volume of soil from which
nutrients and water can be extracted.

b) Relnoval of free water, allows the space so occupied by water to be filled with
air which is essential for the growth of beneficial soil bacteria which converts
the soil organic matter and fertilizer into available plant food.

c) Drainage improves the soil structures and increases infiltration capacity of

soil. Higher infiltriation capacity reduces runoff and controls soil erosion. The
process enhances ground water recharge as well.

d) Optimum condition for tillage operation is provided. Drainage facilitates

other farm operations like inter-culture more effectively.

e) Drainage hastens the warming of soils. Sand maintains desirable soil

- L temperature. Proper soil temperature accelerates plant growlh and bacterial
activity.

f) In many parts of northern India, in rice-wheat cropping system, water-logging

causes delay in timely sowing of wheat crop after rainy season. Drainage
provides condition for timely planting and better growth.
Drainage of Agricultural Lands
g) Drainage not only improves the productivity of soil but provides a more
healthy environment for public and livestock and thus, contributes to general
prosperity of the region.
Lack of proper drainage many times, gives rise to soil salinity problem. Soil salinity
and water-logging are the common menaces in all the major irrigation pqjects in the
country. We shall discuss it in detail in the last unit of this block. Worst affected areas
lie in parts of the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, the arid desertic regions of Rajastha1 and the black soil regions of western and
soutbern India. Total area affected by salinity and water-logging in India has crossed
10 Mha mark which is a dangerous situation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
define drainage and classify the surface drainage system,
list the'advantage of providing drainage,
Calculate discharge kom surface drainages,
distinguish amongst different surface drains,
give reasons as why do land requires drainage, and
design, construct and maintain drainage ditches.

6.2 SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Surface drainage uses the potential energy that exists due to land elevation to provide a
hydraulic gradient for the movement of water. Surface drainage system is combination
of three functional parts;
i) Collection System,
ii) Conveyance or disposal system, and
iii) Outlet.
Water from the individual field is collected through the collection system and moves
through the disposal system to the outlet. In an irrigated area, the collection system
consists of the field drains and conveyance system consist of intermediate and the main
drains. The location and elevation of the outlet determines whether the disposal of
drainage water will be by surface flow or by pumping. The location of the outlet should
provide enough depth for the surface drains so that they can be utilized as outlets for
subsurface drainage system which may be installed later.
Types of Land Requiring Drainage
Land under the following conditions requires drainage in order to make it productive
and useful. 1)

a) High Water Table

Land having water table within or near the root zone needs drainage. Usually, a water
table within 1.5 m depth from surface is not desirable.
b) Stagnant Water Areas
When water stands for long period on the land surface, it causes damages to many
crops. Tolerance level of crops to standing water varies, however, it should not increase
more than 4 hours, unless water tolerant crops are grown. Certain examples of
tolerance limits are; 2-4 hours for sensitive vegetables such as potato at tube settmg
stage, 1 day for maize and small grains.
$1 c) Salt Affected Areas Surface Drainage

In the regions where the annual evaporation exceeds annual rainfall, problem of soil
salinity, alkalinity and rise of water table due to excess irrigation crop up. Drainage
helps in leaching of salts, reduces the chance for salt accumulation and lower down the
water table.
d) Moisture Surplus Areas
Soil moisture content above field capacity for a longer period is harmful to crop.
Drainage can help removing excess water. This is a common problem in humid areas.
Flat land with fine textured soil also experiences stagnation of water demanding
drainage system.

6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE DRAINAGE

SYSTEM
The selection of surface drainage facilities for individual field areas depends largely on
the topography, soil characteristics, crops and availability of.outlet. Surface drainage
L
systems must be suitable for mechanised operations on various types of topography
such as flat areas and gully sloping land. On flat land, water may accumulate because
of excess rainfall, flooding from uplands, or overflow from streams. Flat land is defined
as land with slopes less than 2 per cent, the major portion of which has less than 1 per
cent slope. On such an area following possible types of drainage systems are possible
(Figure 6.1).

+
Surface Droinoge Systm
I

Land Grading

I Own Ditches
1
PomUeL Field
Drains

1 ?

1 Ditch System 1 I D i t c h System )

Figure 6.1: Clasdflcatlon d Surface M S

Excess water may get lost through different physical action like infiltration, and
transpiration in addition to surface drainage methods mentioned above.

6.3.1 Random Field Drain System

The random drain system is'used where small scattered depressions, s&ad over an
area, are to be drained. Drainage system is designed to connect one depression to
another and water is conveyed to an outlet (Figure 6.2). The drains connecting the
depressions could be surface drains or underground pipelines or subsurface drains.
Open drains may be avoided to keep away their likely interference in farming practices.
Random field drains are recommended for connecting depressions where the depth of
cut is not over one metre.

Design of Field Drains

Design of field drains is sirnilat to the design of grass waterways. You have already
studied their design in previous Bolck. Following are the important factors to be taken
care of while designing a random field drain:
Drainage of Agricultural Lands

Figure 6.2: Random Field Drain System - A Schematic

1) Cross-section of drains is flat, V-shape or parabolic slope.

2) Where fanning operations cross the channel the side slopes should be flat i.e.
8: 1 for depths of 0.3 m or less and 10:1 or greater for depth over 0.6 m. A
minimum side slopes of 4: 1 aredesigned if the f a d machineries or
implements are run parallel to the ditch and thus, crossing the ditches is not
required.

3) The depth of the channel is decided primarily by topography of the area,

outlet conditions, and capacity of the channel.

4) The grade in the channel should not produce non-erosive velocities. The
maximum allowable velocities for various soil conditions are given in
Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Limiting Velocities in Different Soil Types in Field Drainsfopen Ditches
Soil Type of Soil Velocity in mls
1) Sand and sandy loam
2) Silt loam
3) Sandy clay loam
4) Clay loam
5) Stiff clay

5) Maximum grade for sandy soil is about 0.2 per cent and for clay soils, 0.5 per
cent. The minimum grade is 0.05 per cent.

6) Hydrological design of drains is not considered for an area less than 2 ha but
for an area larger than 2 ha capacity should be designed based on 10 year
return period storm.

7) The capacity is also based on time availab1~;o drain excess water. It is

desirable to remove excess surface water within 12 to 24 hours.

8) Where field ditches are not practical, the water may be drained with
underground pipeline.

9) The layout of a random field channel should follow a route that provides
minimum cut and least interference with fanning operations.
Z

10) As far as possible, several potholes should be drained with a single ditch and
outlet for such a system may be natural stream or constructed drainage ditches.
 6.3.2 Bedding System Surface Drainage

The bedding system for surface drainage is essentially a land forming process. The land
is ploughed into beds, separated by dead furrows. These dead furrows run parallel to
the prevailing land slopes. Ploughing is to be done parallel to the furrow and all other
farming operations can be done either across the beds or parallel to the furrow. A bed is
the area between two adjacent dead furrows.
Bedding 1s most practicable on fiat slopes of less than 1.5 per cent where the soils are
slowly permeable and pipe drainage is not econonical. A layout of such a drainage
system is shown in Figure 6.3 wherein excess surface water drains laterally from bed
inlo dead furrows, then into collection ditches, and finally into an outlet.

A,. i I

---------.-
Collection ditch -q( +

-* - ------- Y

( Dead f urrow

I'C----0ed width --ef

Cross-section A-A
BI
Figure 6.3: Bedding System of Surface Dnlnage

Design of Bedding System

'The design and layout of a bedding system involves the proper spacing of dead
furrows, depth of bed. and grade in the channel. The following points are important:

1) The bed width and depth depends upon the land use, slope of the field, soil
permeability and other drainage characteristics of the soil, and cropping
system.

2) The bed widths vary from 7 to 11 m for soils with very slow internal
drainage, 13 to 16 m for slow internal drainage, and 18 to 28 m for fair
internal drainage (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2: Recommended Bed Widths for Bedding System

i
i-- - - -
Permeability Bed Width (m)

Very low (K = 5 cmlday) 7-11

I

II Low ( K = 5 to 10 cmlday) 13-16 I

Fair ( K = 10 to 20 cdday) 18-28

3) The depths of bed vary from 15 to 45 cm allowing one half of this depth for
the dead furrows.

4) 'rl~elength of the bed varies from 90 to 300 m.

5) For the bedding system to function properly all dead furrows must have a
continuous s l o ~ with
e no obstruction or low points.
 Laids
raina age of ~gricult~lral
6) In the bedded areas, the direction of ploughing operations should be parallel
to the dead furrows but other farming operations like planting ,and cultivating
are normally perpendicular to thern.
7) The collector drains are placed at regular intervals across the slope of the
land, the spacing may be decided based on slope and degree of intend
drainage of the soil. Spacing of collector drains vary from 90 m for nearly flat
lands having soil with very slow permeability to 300 m for more sloping
lands of fair permeability as mentioned above: In Figure 6.3, the turn strip
serves as collector ditch wherefrom collected water finally drains out to outlet
ditch as shown.
8) The beds are developed by back furrowing with a mould board plough to the
centre of the bed. This will leave a dead furrow between beds which acts as
drains. To obtain a proper bed several ploughings are required
Limitations
The bedding system though successful has some disadvant.ages. They .are
1) The dead furrow requires regular maintenance,
2) Due to shift of top soil, some reduction in yields near the dead furrows could
occur, and
3) The slope of the furrows not be enough to drain excess water completely.
6.3.3 Par.tlle1Field Drain System
i'-.railel !'iebf !rains are similar to bedding except that the channels are spaced farther
I - . - ;:. have a @eater capacity than the dead furrows. This system is adopted for
. .,:,. .!. ,: ,: uained soils in which there are numerous small depressions. It is very
i7.., i

, effective measure of surface drainage and is well suited both for irrigated and rainfed
areas.
Designs of Field Drain System
The design and layout are similar lo those for bedding except that drains need not be
equally spaced and the water may move only in one direction. As a matter of fact, in
this system individual fields are properly graded such that they discharge into field
drains. The field drains may discharge into field laterals bordering the fields and the
laterals, in turn, lead to the mains. Such a layout is shown in Figure 6.4 where field
drain functions as collection ditch and turn strips lateral, keeping the similar
terminology as in bedding system. Turn strip is provided along the fence line. The
outlet ditch shown functions as main. ?he laterals and mains should be deeper than
field ditches (collection ditch) to enable free outfall. ?'he following are iniportant points:
C

.-.-.

. . , . A .
Turnstrip
-c- I-R-x-I
Outlet ditch-

Side s l o w 8:l

Cross- section A-A

Figure 64: Parollel Surface Field Drainage System

I) Ilie size of ditch may be varied, depending on grade. soil and drainage area.
Tlie depth of ditch should be minimum of 0.2 in and have a cross-sectional
area of 0.5 in2,

2 ) For trapezoidal cross-sections the bottom width should be 2.4 m.

3) The side slopes should be 8:1 or even more flat to facilitate crossing with
farm machinery.

4) Cultural practices are siinilar to as in Bedding System, ploughing operations

must be parallel to the channels, but planting, cultivating and harvesting are
normally perpendicular to the channels.

5 ) A maximum of 180 m row length with contiiiuous slope in one direction is

recommeiided. Where the rows drain in both direction a maximum toedl
allowable width, thus, would be 360 m. On highly erosive soil this row width
(slope length) should bc reduced to 90 m or less.

6 ) A non-erosive gentle continuous slope is required in a row width which can

be created by little excavation in very flat land with little or no slope.

7) The cross-section for field ditches may be V-shaped, trapezoidal or parabolic.

The single ditch of this slope is used where the placement of spoil does not
obstruct surface flow into the ditch.

8) Generally, two parallel single ditches with a narrow space, called W-drain
(due to its shape), are used in which all the spoils is placed between the
chimels giving a road type of appearance (Figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5: W-Drnillfor Surface Drainage

9) There are certain advantages of W-drain, they are

a) It allows better row drainage beGduse spoil does not have to be spread.

b) It may be used as turn row when operating implements.

c) It may serve as field road.

d) It rnay be constructed and nuintdined by ordinary farm equipment e.g. MB

plough.

e) It is possible to seed row crops or grasses.

With above said advantages, there are certain &sadvsmtagesassociated with

W-drains
Drainage of Agricultural Lands i) A greater quantity of soil must be moved. 1
ii) A larger area is occupied by drain.
iii) Spoil does not remain available for filling depkssions
10) The minimum width of W-drains varies from about 5 to 30 m (as shown in
Figure 6.5) depending on the size. The W-drains is best suited to relatively
flat land where the rows drain from both directions.

6.3.4 Open Ditch System

Open ditches are most commonly used for surface drainage because of their
convenience of construction. These are, at times, used to collect discharge from
sub-surface drains to take it to outlet. These open ditches are used as surface drainage
channels of individual fields as well as conveyance of the drainage water to the outlet.
In construction and layout, these are similar to the field drains system except that the
ditches are deeper. Another main Mference is that these cannot be crossed with farm
machinery.
Design Capacity
For a given watershed area the required capacity of an open dtch is considerably
different than the design capacity of a grassed waterway explained to you in previous
Block. Open ditches generally have flatter bed slopes, lower velocities, steeper side
slopes and a geiter depth of channel flow than do grassed waterways. Although
grassed waterways are designed to c q peak runoff, open ditches are designated to
remove water much more slowly but still rapidly enough to prevent serious daniage to
crops on adjacent land. Thus, it becomes important to determine the discharge capacity
of drainage ditches.
The rate of conveyance of water by open ditches is influenced by soil and hydrologic.
factor. apart from drainage area hydraulical considerations become important
factor to determine discharge formula. The capacity of drainage ditches depends on
1) Rainfall rate,
2) Size of drainage area,
3) Run-off producing characteristics of watershed e.g. soil physical conditions
including texture and structure, slope and vegetative cover,
4) Potential productivity of the soil,
5) Evapotranspiration rate,
6) Cropping system,

7) Degree of protection required to the crop sown, and

8) Frequency and height of flood waters from rivers.
1
A number of stuhes have been conductnd to determine the discharge from hydrologic
procedures. It consists of analyzing the ral all data and estimating the number of hours
required to remove the excess water using the information about crop tolerance or
degree of protection required. Although the degree of protection is very important
factor in design, it is one of the most difficult factors to evaluate because costs must be
calculated and compared with anticipated flood damage. But, in a region where food
production is a prime target, the protection degree must be kept high. High value crops
like vegetable and specially those which are flood sensitive may require special
consideration. Based oh the crop grown in a season, rainfall-frequencydurationdata is
analyzed. The rainfall excess is calculated giving scope to all possible losses including
channel storage.
 Surface Dr;lia~ge

The runoff for open ditch design may be expressed as a drainage coefficient. The
drainage coefficient is defined as "the depth of water that is to be removed in a %-hour
period from the entire drainage area." The other option of expressing runoff for open
ditch design are rates of flow per unit are in acrelhectare.
Knowing the drainage coefficient, the capacity of the drainage system needed can be
calculated.
Example 6.1
A drainage channel discharge 0.50 cubic metres of water per second and drains
300 hectares. What is drainage coefficient of this land?
Solution
Drainage coefficient is depth of water intended to be removed from drainage area
in a 24 hour period.
Total water discharged from channel in 24 hours.

Total area = 200 hectares = 300 x 10 = 300 x 106 m2

Example 6.2
Drainage coefficient of a land is 8 mm. Calculate the capacity required at the
outlet end of the drainage ditch draining a watershed of 250 hectare.
Solution

'
Total quantity of water to be drained in 24 hours = -x 250 x 10,000
loo0

So, the capacity required = 20*000 = 0.2315 m3/s

60 x 60 x 24
Another method of determining required rate of water removal is given by the
following empirical formula (ASAE, 1988)

where, Q = runoff in m3/s

C = a constant depending upon degree of drainage required and
location, and
A = watershed area in krn2.

A general procedure for computing the constant C from rainfall excess has been
evolved. Runoff volume is determined for 2 to 5 years return period storm for a 48-h
period. Rainfall excess is taken as one half of this volume for the 24-h depth which
gives the drainage coefficient.
C values for different l o c in~United States is given in nomograph (Figure 6.6). The
values of C for similar location in India may be compared. The value C ranged from 10
to 45 in 9 steps.
Drainage of Agricultural Lands

Watershed area (kin2)

Figure 6.6: Drainage Design Discharge Curves for Humid Area (Source ASAE, 1988) ,

Similar methods are also available for our country. You may refer to course on
Hydrology where you will find formulas for Indian conditions.

Example 6.3
Determine the runoff rate required to be carried away by an open ditch (using
I
ASAE formula) from a drainage area of 5 krn '. Assume a C = 15.

Solution
The ASAE formula for runoff rate from drainage area is
Q = 0.013 C A ~ ' ~ ~ ~

= 0.013 x 15 x 5' 83" 0.745 m3/s

The following modifications in discharge rate are suggested in special situations:

a) Hilly Track
I:
In hilly track, watershed with upper tributaries having rather steep slopes and high
runoff producing characteristics drain into an alluvial valley. Open ditches are then
often required to carry water across the flood plain from hilly area to the natural outlet.
Based on experience and judgment the discharge equation has to be modified.

b) Junction of Two Ditches

The design discharge below the junction of TWO ditches depends on the size of
respective drainage areas. An empirical procedure called 20-40 rule can be applied to
arrive at design flow rate. Procedure is as follows:

i) When the watershed of one of the ditches is 40 to 50 per cent of the total
watershed, the design flow below the junction should be the same of the
design discharges of the two ditches using their appropriate watershed areas.

ii) When the watershed area of one lateral is below 20 per cent of the total
watershed area, the design flow rate is for the total watershed treated as a unit.
For example, if two ditches at their junction have drair~ageareas of 1000 and
200 ha, respectively, the design flow Eate should be based on watershed area
of 1200 ha.

iii) When watershed of a lateral is in the range of 20 to 40 per cent of the total
watershed, the proper design flow rate should be some where between the
discharges from cases i and ii above.
t
c) Arid Regions
For arid regions, drainage and seepage discharge froin imgated lands may be estimated
as a percentage of the irrigation water, expressed as

where, Dc = drainage coefficient in mm/&dy;

P = deep percolation from irrigation and leaching based on the maximum area to be
irrigated at the same time in per cent of irrigation application;
S = field canal seepage loss in per cent as above;
I = irrigation depth of application, mm;and

T = time between irrigations in days.

v
The drainage coefficient for collection ditches varies from 3 to 6 mmfday.
I11 Indian condition, where se4asonalhigh rainfall occurs during the monsoon, design
I
9 discharge tnay be based on 24-h rainfall.
Grades for Open Ditches
The choice of selection of grades for open ditches is largely determined by the outlet
elevation, elevation and distance to the lowest point to be drained, and depth of ditches.
Following points may serves as guidelines:

i) Where open ditches drain flat land the grade should be as steep as possible,
keeping maximum velocity within non-erosive limit.

ii) Another criteria should be depth which at all points along the channel should
be sufficient to adequately drain the area.

SAQ 1
a) Distinguish between field drains and open ditches.
b) Define drainage coefficient.

Cross-section of Open Ditches

The cross-section of an open ditch must be designed to carry drainage flow as
determined by the runoff characteristics of the area. Any of the available method can be
used depending upon availability of information. Design peak runoff rate may be
predicted by Rational formula (see Example 6.3). Open ditches are usually designed
with trapezoidal cross-sections. The size of the ditch will vary with velocity and
quantity of water to be removed. The Manning's Formula is used for design. The
maximum allowable velocities are given in Table 6.1 for different soil conditions. The
following considerations are important in this regard.
1) For ditches with a bottom width of 1.2 m or less Manning's n is 0.04 and for
larger &tches the usually assumed value is 0.035.
Drainage cP Agricultural Lands 2) For the channels serving as outlet of tile drains, the depth must be 1.2 m or
more. A minimum of 30 cm depth between the tile flow line and the normal
water flow in the ditch should be provided.
.
3) Channel side slopes are determined by the soil texture and stability.
Recommended side slopes are 1:I for clay, 1.5:1 for silt loam, 2:l for sandy
loam and 3:l for loose sandy soils.
After the channel grade, depth and side slopes are.selected, the bottoin width can be
computed for a given discharge. For the most efficient cross-section and minimum
volume of excavation the bottom width is determined by the following formula.

where,
b = bottom width,

d = depth, and

0 = side slope angle.

While designing an open ditch, proper consideration of spoil and berms are taken. The
spoil is usually spread up the slope. This permits cultivation near the edge of ditch
(berms). This befm is also desirable to facilitate access alongside the ditch for cleaning,
removal of vegetation etc.
Example 6.4
Calculate the most efficient bottom width for a drainage channel to carry a flow 2
m deep in clay soil. Compute the velocity and discharge capacity of the channel if
the channel gradient is 0.04 per cent.
Solution

Figuxv 6.7: Clianliel Cross-sectlo11(Example 6.4)

Since the soil is clay, the recommended side slope = 1 :1

Therefore 0 = 45'

8 45
Hence, bottom width = 2 d tan (-) = 2 x 2 x tan (-) = 1.657 m
2 2

From Table 6.1, the permissible velocity of flow = 1.2 m/s

Top width of channel = b + 2d for side slope 1:1

Cross-sectional area of channel ( A ) =

Length of side slope = -4 = 2.828 m

 Therefore, wetted perimeter (P)= 2.828 + 1.3657 + 2.828 = 7.314 m
7.314
Hydraulic Radius (R) = --
7.314 -
Using Manniilg's equation of flow n = 0.b35 as channel width in inore than 1.2 m

A check for velocity is also needed. In this case v = 0.57 d s , which is within
permissible limits (Table 6.1).
Example 6.5
Design a drainage dikh to drain 500 ha of land having drainage coefficient of 25
mm.The soil is silt loam. The permissible bed slope of channel is 0.1 per cent.
Solution

Figure 6.8: Chailnel Cross-section (Exa111l)le6.5)

25 500 x 10,000
Drainage capacity of ditch = - = 1.45 m3/s
1000 24 x 60 x60

Selecting a side slope of 1 3 1 for silt loam

1
tan 8 = -= 1.666
1.5

9
Therefore, tan (-) = 0.3027
2

Let, thedepth of flow (6) be 1.2 m,

8
We know b = 2 d tan (-) = 2 x 1.2 x 0.3027 = 0.726 m (say 0.75 m)
2

Length of side slope = 4(1.5 dl2 + d2 = 4(1.5 x 1.2)' + (1.2)~= 2.16 m

Cross-sectional area of channel (A) =
i0.75 + 3 ~ 1 . 2 + 0 . 7 5

Welted perimeter (P) = 2.1 6 + 2.16 + 0.75 = 5.07 m

Drainage of Ayric~rltutalLands Substitutin the values, in Manning's equation with rl = 0.04, v = 0.575 d s . hence
e,
Q = 1.76 m 1s.
'Ihis indicates over capacity of channel. Let us reduce the capacity by selecting
width of tlie channel (b) as 50 cm for the reason that we can reduce depth of the
channel which is already the irunimum required depth. Recalculating, we get
A =2.76in2,P=4.82rn,R=0.573in, v=0.545 rnls m d e = 1.50in3/s.

Recalculating all the values with b = 0.45 In, we get v = 0.541 m/s and
Q = 1.46 m31s

Hence, the charmel is rrow suitably designed.

6.4 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

Equipment for construction of open channels by excavating can he used depending
upon field requirements. Open channels need to be maintained efficiently.

6.4.1 Construction
After rrcsperly designing an open ditch, location for its construction in the field is
marked with centre line and slope stakes. The slope stakes must be properly set to
establish the desired side slope ratio. Open ditches may be constructed with plough,
V-ditches scrapers, elevating graders, bulldozers, etc. Vie shape and design diincnsions
of the channel are intluenced by the type at'equipment available. The three major
operations in earthwork construction are digging, hauling and placing. A machine that
c-mperform all three operations is deskable but where labour is available manual
method inay also be adopted. But a combined machine is economical. The selection of
equipmcnt depends on such Fdctors as soil water conditions, type of soil, degree of
accuracy required, shape and dimension of the channels and the spoil bank, inoving
requirements, volume of work, and finally financial considerations.

6.4.2 Maintenance
Mainte~lar~ce is most important aspect of any construction for its effective use and long
life. In cage of drainage ditches it is important to know causes of deterioration for better
understanding of steps to be taken up in maintenancc. The ma.jor causes for
deterioration of open channel are:

i) sedimentation in Ule channel,

ii) excessive growth of vegetation,
iii) high sediment load in the water,
iv) poor location da: alignment,
v) improper depth or width, and
vi) inadequate culvert and bridges capacity.
Apart from above, lack of awareness of importance of maintenance both in terms of
economy and effectiveness of structure also leads to poor show. All care should be
taken to offset above factors.
Maintenance may be further sub-divided into two phases:

a) preventive maintenance before failure, and

b) corrective mainteirance after partial or complete failure.

Preventive Maintenance
*
1111:followirig are important steps in this regard:
 1) Control excessive growth of trees, grass, brush *mdweed along the channel.
Chemical or mechanical methods are recom~unended.
2) Avoid cattle grazing.
3) To check sedimentations, control bank erosion. This can be achieved by
spreading seeding the spoil bank.

4) Take all precaution in properly designing the draii~agedftch.

5) Make proper use of land along wit11 good conservation practice in hilly terratrl.
6) Often clean channel to remove scdimenwliori and other matcnals.
7) Remember " Carc is belter than cure".
Corrective Maintenance

1) As and when necessary, incorporate changes in cross-section, grade, or

alignment of t k channel.

2) Change the outlet, if required.

3) Reshape side s l o p s to give more stdbility, if the same has cdved in.
4) Widen the channel and enlarge the culverts, if i t is required.
5 ) If serious scouring has taken place, reduce the grade. if necessary, corlsVuct
drop spilIway.

i ? c ~ t g u;I dr.;ii~~agecailal to dr:11-!1

500 1it:clacs Of l a l ~ t di i ; ~ v i ~a~~l:aii!;i.g::
g
c.oeIl'~i~cri~ of 2 7 5 i:mwfday. The soil is siit loam, iv2:2xnnui*i?~?cnr~isi~bi? sl:)pc
):: ci~:~lincl bed IS 0.1 per ce~a~.

6.5 SUMMARY
Agricultural drainage is Ule removal of excess water, known as free water or
gravitational water from the surface or below the surface of farm land so as lo c~eate
favowable soil-physical-environment for plant gr~wth.'I'he process of renluvmg excess
water from land surface only is known as surface clrah~age.There are many advantages
oT drainage e.g. better root growth, better aeration 01soil hence better growth oi sol1
bacteria, improvement in soil structure, and above all creation of more healthy
environinellt for publlc and livestock. There are two main approaches of surtace
clrainage; land grading and making fielid ditches. l.md grading includes inakin~gI d~dorn
field drains. Under fieId ditches the options are; bedding system, parallel field drains
and open ditches. These methods have their own advantages and disadvantages and hhzt
is why they are applicable in specific situations. The bedding system for surface
drainage is essentially a land forming process by creating beds .and dead furrows.
Dr:~iaageof ~gricultllralLa~lcls pafallel field &dins are similar to bedding except that the channels are spaced farther
apart and may have a greater capacity. It is well suited both for irrigated and rainfed
axreas. Open ditches are most commonly used for surface drainage because of their
convenience of construction. In co~xtructionand layout, these are simi1.x to the field
drains system except that the ditches are deeper. The important design aspect of open
ditches are bottom w~dth,depth, side slope and design discharge capacity. Open ditches
may be constructed with plough, V-ditchers, scrapers, elevating graders and bulldozers
etc. Maintenance of drainage ditches may he divided into two phases; preventive
maintenance before failure and corrective maintenance after partial or complete failure.
Under preventive maintenance the important steps *arecontrol of excessive growth of
vegetation in channel, check sedimentation and avoid cattle grazing etc, while under
corrective maintenance imporkant steps are chemges in cross-section, grade or
alignment, chan~ein outlet, reshaping of side slopes or widenlng the channel.

6.6 KEY WORDS

Surface Drainage : The process of removing the excess water from the land
surface is known as surface drainage.
Random Field Drains : The random drain system is used where small scattered
depressions spread over an area are to be drained.
Bedding System : Bedding is a method of surface drainage consisting of
narrow-widtli ploughed lands in which the dead furrows
run parallel to lhe prevailing land slope.
Parallel Field Drain : Parallel field drains are similar to bedding except that
System the channels are spaced farther apart and may have a
greater capacily than the dead furrows.
Open Ditch : Open ditch axre most commonly used for surface
drainage because of their convenience of construction.
These are similar to the field drains system except that
the open ditches are deeper and c m not be crossed with
farm machinery.
Drainage Coefficient The drainage coefficient is defined as the depth of water
that is to be removed in a 24-hour period from the entire
drainage area.
Preventive Maintenance : It is the maintenance of open drains before failure and
of Open Drains includes control of excessive growth of vegetation in
channel, checking of sedimentation, etc.
Corrective Maintenance : It is rnaiiltel~ance
of open drains after partial or complete
of Open Drains Failure and includes changes in cross-section, pader
alignment, change in outlet, reshaping of side slopes and
widening the channel.

6.7 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1

a) Open ditches are similar to field drains in construction and layout except that
the former is deeper and can not be crossed with farm machinery.

b) It is the depth of water thiat is to be drained in a 24-hours period from the

entire drainage area. It is generally expressed in mmlday.

SAQ 2

a) 0.347 cumec (m3/s)

t$1 slope 1.5:1, design capacity = 1.65 m3/s

d) Preventive maintenance is done before failure and includes control of

excessive growth of vegetation in chamlel and checking of sedimentation etc.
whereas corrective inaintenance is done after partial or complete failure and
includes chaangesin cross-section, grade or alignment, change in outlet,
reshaping of side slopes or widening the channel.