• Please mute all your

microphones upon
admission in class.
• Please do not take
screenshots of our class
Reminder and post it on your
social media.
• If you have questions,
please raise your hand. It
would be appreciated if
your questions will be
asked after the
discussion.
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Permutation and Combination)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Differentiate the permutation and combination.
• We are going to solve problems involving the fundamental
principles of counting, permutation, and combination.
Introduction
• We will develop some techniques for determining without
direct enumeration the number of possible outcomes of a
particular experiment or the number of elements in a
particular set. Such techniques are referred to as
combinational analysis.
Fundamental Principle of Counting
• If some procedure can be performed in 𝑛1 different ways, and
if, following this procedure, a second procedure can be
performed in 𝑛2 different ways, and if following this second
procedure, a third procedure can be performed in 𝑛3 different
ways, and so forth; then the number of ways the procedures
can be performed in the other indicated is the product 𝑛1 ∙ 𝑛2 ∙
𝑛3….
Example:
• Suppose a license plate contains two distinct letters followed by three digits
with the first digit not zero. How many different license plates can be printed?

• The first letter can be printed in 26 different ways, the second letter in 25
different ways (since the letter printed first cannot be chosen for the second
letter), the first digit in 9 ways and each of the other two digits in 10 ways.
Hence,
𝟐𝟔 × 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟖𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
different plates can be printed.
Example:
• Suppose a car number plate contains three distinct English letters
followed by three non-repeated digits. How many different car number
plates can be printed?

• Note that there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and there are 10 digits in
out number system, so the first box could be filled in 26 different ways, and
since the 3 letters used are distinct, hence the succeeding 2 boxes could be
filled in 25 and 24 different ways, respectively. Then the 4th box could be filled
in 10 different ways and again, sine the digits should not be repeated, then the
succeeding boxes could be filled in 9and 8 different ways, respectively.
Therefore, the total number of car number plates that could be printed in this
set-up is, (according to the Fundamental Principle of Counting)

𝟐𝟔 × 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟗 × 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔

Factorial Notation
• The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive occurs very often in
mathematics and hence is denoted by the special symbol n! (read “n factorial”):
𝒏! = 𝒏 × 𝒏 − 𝟏 × 𝒏 − 𝟐 × ⋯ × 𝟑 × 𝟐 × 𝟏
• It is also convenient to define 0! = 1.

Examples:
𝟐! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟓! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 ∙ 𝟒 ∙ 𝟓 = 𝟒! ∙ 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎

𝟑! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 = 𝟔 𝟔! = 𝟔 ∙ 𝟓! = 𝟔 ∙ 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎

𝟒! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 ∙ 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟒 𝟖! 𝟖 ∙ 𝟕 ∙ 𝟔!
= = 𝟖 ∙ 𝟕 = 𝟓𝟔
𝟔! 𝟔!
𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 ∙ 𝟗! 𝟏𝟐!
𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 = =
𝟗! 𝟗!
Permutation
• An arrangement of a set of 𝑛 objects in a given order is called a
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of the objects (taken all at a time). An arrangement of any 𝒓 ≤
𝒏 of these objects in a given order is called an 𝑟 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 or a
permutation of the n objects taken 𝒓 at a 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆.
Examples: Consider the set of letters a, b, c, and d. Then:
a. bdca, dcba, and acdb are permutation of the 4 letters (taken all
at a time);
b. bad, adb, cbd, and bca are permutations of the 4 letters taken 3
at a time;
c. ad, cb, da, and bd ate permutations of the 4 letters taken 2 at
a time.
• The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time will be denoted
by

𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝑃 𝑛 𝑛!
𝑟 = 𝑛−𝑟 !
Example:
• Find the number of permutations of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken
three at a time.
Example:
• How many permutations are there of 3 objects, say, a, b, and c?
Permutations with Repetitions
• The number of permutations of n objects of which n1, are alike, n2 are
alike,…, nr are alike is
𝑛!
𝑛 1! × 𝑛 2! × ⋯ × 𝑛 𝑟 !

Circular or Cyclical Permutation

• The number of permutations is of n objects in circular permutation is
𝑛 − 1 !.
Example:
• How many ways could you arrange the letters of the word
P R O B A B I L I T Y? Note that some of the letters of the word
PROBABILITY are repeated.
Combination
• An arrangement of a set of 𝑛 objects where order does not count. This
means the arrangement of the three (3) letters (a, b, c) is the same
arrangement as (b, c, a) or (c, a, b) or (a, c, b) or (b, a, c) or (c, b,
a). So, as long as the elements in the arrangement are the same, then
with respect to combination this will mean one arrangement only, however,
with respect to permutation this will mean 6 different arrangements since
the order will matter.

𝑛 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) 𝑛!
𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝐶 =
= 𝑟! 𝑟! 𝑛 − 𝑟 !
𝑟
Example:
• Find the number of combination of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken
three at a time.
1. If 15 people won prizes in a lottery 2. How many ways are there to select 3
(assuming that there are no ties), how candidates from 8 equally qualified
many ways can these 15 people win first, recent graduates for opening in an
second, third, fourth, and fifth place? accounting firm?
3. A teacher forms a committee whose 4. A developer of a new subdivision offers
members come from her class consisting of a prospective home buyer a choice of 5
18 boys and 15 girls. How many committees designs, 3 different air conditioning
are formed consisting of 5 members of systems, a garage or a carport, and a patio
which 3 members are girls and 2 members or screened porch. How many plans are
are boys? available to this buyer?
 Reminder

Thank You
• Please media.
mute all • If you have questions,
your please raise your hand. It
microphone would be appreciated if
s upon your questions will be
admission asked after the
in class. discussion.
• Please do
not take
screenshot
s of our
class and
post it on
your
social
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Probability)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Define probability, sample space, and events.
• Applying the additive laws of probability.
Introduction
• Probability describes the likelihood of an event to happen.
When probabilities are used to describe the occurrence on a
particular event, then you are projecting the likelihood of
that event to happen. For example, when a classmate states “I
think the probability of a seatwork tomorrow is about 40%”
they are describing what they think is the chance of a
seatwork tomorrow.
• Probability is also a measure of certainty of a certain
outcome. For instance, if we toss a coin, we expect it to end
up heads half the time. When we roll a die with 6 numbers, we
expect to get a 6 one times out of six throws. The
probability of a coin coming up heads is 0.5 and
the
probability of a die coming up 3
certain has a probability of 1, is 1/6. Something that is
impossible has a probability of whereas something that is
0.
Sample Space
• The set S of all possible outcomes of a statistical
experiment is called a sample space, (designated by the
symbol S). Each outcomes in a sample space is called an
element or a member of the sample space S, simply a

sample point or a sample.

• Example: Consider an experiment of tossing a dice. If we

are interested in the number that shows on the top face of
the dice, then the sample space would be
𝑺 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}.
Event
• An event A is a subset of a sample space S.

• Example: If event A is the outcome when a dice is tossed and

the result is divisible by 3, then event A will be the set,

𝑨 = {𝟑, 𝟔}.
Probability
• If an experiment can result in any one of N different equally
likely outcomes, and if exactly n of these outcomes
correspond to event A, then the probability of event A is

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓, 𝒏

𝑷 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝑵

𝒏
𝑷 𝑨 =
𝑵
Example:
• Calculate the probability of getting a Jack from 1 draw of a
well shuffled deck of cards.
Properties of Probability
• P(A) = the probability of the event A
• P(S) = the probability of the sample space

1. Positiveness. For every event A, 0 ≤ 𝑃 𝐴 ≤ 1.

This means that the probability of an event to happen is
always positive.

2. Probability of a sure event, 𝑃(𝑆) = 1

3. If ϕ is the empty set, the 𝑃(𝜙) = 0

Additive Laws of Probability
1. If A and B are any two events, then

𝑃 A ∪ B = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Example: The probability that Albert passes Mathematics is 2/3, and the
probability that he passes English is 4/9. if the probability of passing
both courses is 1/4, what is the probability that Albert will pass at least
one of these courses.
Additive Laws of Probability
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive (disjoint)
event, then
𝑃 A∪B =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵
Example: What is the probability of drawing a 4 or a 7 from a shuffled deck
of
cards?
Additive Laws of Probability
3. If Ac is the complement of an event A (not
an element of A), then
𝑃 Ac = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴
Example: If the probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, or 8, or more cars on any given workday are, respectively,
0.12, 0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10 and 0.07, what is the probability that he will
service at least 5 cars on his next day at work?
Additive Laws of Probability
4. If A1, A2, . is a sequence of mutually exclusive
events, then
𝑃 𝐴 1 ∪ 𝐴 2 ∪ ⋯ = 𝑃 𝐴 1 + 𝑃 𝐴2 + ⋯
Example: If the probabilities are, respectively, 0.09, 0.15, 0.21, and 0.23
that a person purchasing a new automobile will choose the color green,
white, red, or blue, what is the probability that a given buyer will
purchase a new automobile that comes in one of those colors?
Conditional Probability
• Conditional probabilities are calculated when we need to know the
likelihood of event A happening given that event B has already happened.
• We say that event A is conditional on event B.
• Conditional probabilities don't have a keyword, they have a key-symbol
(|).
• Conditional probabilities are written p(A|B), which can be read "The
probability of A given B".
• Let A be an arbitrary event in a sample space S with P (E) > 0. The
probability that, an event A occurs once E has occurred or, in other
words, the conditional probability of A given E, written P(A|E), is
defined as follows:

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟

𝑃 𝐴|𝐸 = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐸) 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴 ∩ 𝐸 =
= 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝐸 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑃(𝐸) 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐸
Conditional Probability
Example: Find the probability of drawing a 4 from a shuffled deck of cards
given that you have already drawn a 7 from the deck.
Multiplication Theorem for Conditional Probability
• If events A and B can both occur, then 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴|𝐵 ∙ 𝑃 𝐵 since
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴 , then 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 B|𝐴 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴 .
• Similarly,
𝑃 𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐴1 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴2|𝐴1 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴3|𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 … 𝑃(𝐴𝑛|𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴3 ∩ ⋯ 𝐴𝑛−1)

Independent Events
• Two events A and B are independent if and only if 𝑃 A|𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 and 𝑃 B|𝐴 =
𝑃 𝐵 .
• So that,
𝑃 A ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 ∙ 𝑃(𝐵)
Examples:
Two cards are drawn at random from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. Find the
probability that:
a. Both are spades.
b. One is a spade and one is a heart.
Examples:
Three light bulbs are
chosen at random from a box
containing 15 bulbs of
which 5 are defective. Find • Please mute all your
the probability if: microphones upon
a. None is defective. admission in class.
b. Exactly one is defective.
c. At least one is defective. • Please do not take
screenshots of our class
and post it on your
social media.
• If you have questions,
please raise your hand. It
would be appreciated if
your questions will be
asked after
the
discussion.
 ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(SamplingMethods and Descriptive Statistics for
Samples)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Tackle and familiarize examples to at least three (3) methods
of sampling used in conducting a research.
• Enumerate and solve for the descriptive statistics of a given
example.
Introduction
• When you've established your research problem, one thing you
may ask is where you might get your data.
• You now need to define your target demographic in detail.
• Every potential data that you might require for your
investigation can be found in the population.
• The population's statistics will, however, provide a more
precise response to your investigation.
• You may use data from a sample of your target population if,
in some investigations, it is impractical or prohibitively
expensive to collect all the data necessary for your study.
Methods
• There are several methods of determining the sample size of
the study. To simplify, we use a sample size of about 20%
of the entire population or may use the Slovin’s formula.

𝑵
𝒏=
𝟏 + 𝑵𝒆 𝟐

Where: 𝒏 = sample size

𝑵 = total of population
𝒆 = tolerance error, can use 𝑒 = 0.01 or 𝑒 = 0.05
Several Samples Taken From the Target Population

Sample

Population
Sample

Sample
 Sampling Methods
SAMPLING METHODS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

(SAMPLES ARE RANDOMLY SELECTED) (SAMPLES ARE NOT RANDOMLY SELECTED)

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING QUOTA SAMPLING

STRATIFIED SAMPLING JUDGMENT SAMPLING

CLUSTER SAMPLING SNOWBALL SAMPLING

MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
Example: Probability Sampling – Simple Random
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING. A simple random sample is one in which each

element of the population has an equal and independent chance of being
included in the sample.
• Each of the 150 members of the population is assigned to a number from 1
to 150. Then, to choose the 30 samples, you may generate 30 random
numbers from 1 to 150, and the number being generated is matched to the
numbers assigned to each member of the population, and the matched
members are considered your sample.
Example: Probability Sampling - Systematic
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING. Again, you assign a number to every member of the

population then sort them according to their assigned number.
• The samples in your study will be every ( 𝑁/𝑛 = 150 /30 ) 5 in the sorted
members of your population.
Example: Probability Sampling - Stratified
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• STRATIFIED SAMPLING. Here, the population is grouped according to strata

(grouping according to similarities) and from each strata, a total of 30
samples are randomly chosen.
• In our problem above, you may group your population according to male or
female or you may group the population according to similarity of
courses. Note that the criteria in grouping the population according to
strata should be relevant to your study. Then from the grouping, you may
choose randomly and proportionately a total of 30 students as your
sample.
Example: Probability Sampling - Cluster
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• CLUSTER SAMPLING. In cluster sampling, you will group the population.

The grouping may be according to geographical location.
• For example, if there are 2 campuses of your school and the distance
between these campuses is remarkable, then, your grouping is according
each of the campus. Then, from the 2nd year engineering students from
each of the campuses, the 30 samples are chosen at random and
proportionately.
Example: Probability Sampling - Multistage
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• MULTISTAGE SAMPLING. This is a complex form of cluster sampling.

• Here, the population is grouped, the first grouping is similar to the to
that of the cluster sampling, and out from this group are subgroups, and
so forth, then, the samples are taken randomly and proportionately from
the final stage of the grouping process.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Convenience
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• CONVENIENCE SAMPLING. Samples are not selected at random.

• The 30 samples are selected based from the convenience or based from who
are favourable to the researcher.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Quota
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• QUOTA SAMPLING. The population is grouped similar to the stratified

sampling but the samples taken from each group is not randomly selected.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Judgment
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• JUDGMENT SAMPLING. The sample is selected in selected which depends

entirely on judgment of the researcher.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Snowball
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of the
second year engineering students of your school, and you know that the
total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 . Considering that you
are to conduct the data collection in one day only, so you may represent
the average weight from samples coming from the population, and then let
us say, your sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎. Then how will you choose your sample
using the different methods of sampling.

• SNOWBALL SAMPLING. This sampling method is usually used when the data
from your samples are rare to find. Here, you may request your existing
sample to provide with some referrals.
• Since the data collected are based from referrals, this sampling method
is also called chain - referral sampling.
Descriptive Statistics for Samples
The mean as well as the standard deviation of the sample is used also to
estimate the population mean (μ) and population standard deviation (σ).

 Measures of Location or Measures of Central Tendency

- Mean, 𝒙ഥ, 𝒙 σ 𝒙;
= 𝒏
where ഥ
- Median, the middle item in the data set after sorting;
- Mode, the most frequent item in the data set.

 Measures of Location or Measures of Central Tendency

- Range, the difference between the highest and lowest value in the data
set;
- Variance, 𝒔𝟐, the average on the difference between each value and the
mean of the data set;
- Standard Deviation, s, the square root of the variance.
• microphones please raise your hand. It
upon would be appreciated if
admission your questions will be
in class. asked after the
discussion.
• Please do
not take
screenshots
of our
class and
post it on
your social
media.
• If you have
questions,
 ENGINEERING DATA
ANALYSIS
(Data Collection)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• To define statistics and data.
• To define, give examples to the primary data and the secondary
data and apply data collection.
Introduction
• Data collection requires careful preparation.
• The first question is "Why am I doing this research?".
• Research is process of systematic inquiry that seeks answers to a
problem.
• In your specific engineering profession, you may be confronted
with several problems, problems which could readily be answered
through thorough research.
• Hence, to answer your inquiry through research, you will pose
first your research problem. Your research problem may be to
design electronic circuits to trace cybercrimes? Or, to improve
existing solar panel design?
• Once the research problem is being set - up, then you may now
outline or design on how to carry out your research, from here
which leads you to data collection.
Lesson
Statistics is a science which deals with data. It deals with the systematic
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
Hence, statistics is a very useful tool in fields of studies which deals
with intelligent decision-making processes.

• There are two categories of statistics, these are:

a) DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - refers to the collection and
presentation of data.
b) INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - refers to the analysis and
interpretation of data.
STATISTICS is a systematic…

COLLECTION OF PRESENTATION OF INTERPRETATION

ANALYSIS OF DATA
DATA DATA OF DATA

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Data are information, which are usually facts or numbers collected to
answer research problems or research investigations. There are two types of
data and these are:
a) PRIMARY DATA - these are collected by the researcher and used for the first
time in his investigation or research. This data is originally obtained by the
researcher through surveys, interviews, documents experimentation and direct
observation. Primary data is more costly to obtain than secondary data.

SURVEY THROUGH The interviewer asks questions to the interviewee or the respondent to collect data.
INTERVIEW The questions and responses during an interview may be oral or verbal.

SURVEY THROUGH Questions are typed or written down and sent to the respondents to give responses.
QUESTIONNAIRES After giving the required responses, the questionnaire is given back to the researcher.

EXPERIMENTS The researcher conducts an experiment to collect data.

OBSERVATIONS The researcher observes to be able to collect data.

DOCUMENTS The researcher collects document to extract some data. For example, if the registrar’s
office would like to tabulate the address of the students, then enrollment
forms(
docume
nts)
will
be
used
to
extrac
t the
data.
b) SECONDARY DATA - These data are collected by others and used by others.
Sources of secondary data includes books, personal sources, journal, newspapers,
websites, government records etc. Secondary data are known to be readily
available compared to that of primary data. While it is advisable to use primary
data, but in cases where primary data is so expensive to obtain, then we prefer
to use secondary data in our research.

BOOKS

Sources of
WEBSITES/ SECONDARY NEWSPAPER
INTERNET
DATA

RADIO/
TV REPORTS
Data may be qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative Data are non-numerical data and give qualitatively
description. For example if you your research alms to know the marital
status of the members of the faculty in the College of Engineering, then,

your description could be single, married, widow or widower.

Quantitative Data are numerical data in nature. Again, if your research
problem aims to know the age of the members of the Faculty in the College
of Engineering, then, the data will be expressed in numbers.

Data collection is one of the stages in conducting a research. It is the

process of collecting or gathering data or information to find answers to a
research problem.
Data may be coming from the population (which refers to all the data
required in an investigation or research) or coming from the sample (refers
to a part of the population).
Furthermore, the research problem will give Example: A tire manufacturer
tested the life, in months, of six (6) randomly chosen tire samples.
The test recorded below:
48 53 45 61 57 61
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Presentation of Data)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• List the many formats for presenting statistical data and provide
an example for each.
Introduction
• Once data are collected, they may be summarized, hence, they
should be presented in a meaningful manner.
• There are number of options available while presenting data.
• A basic understanding of the desired result/ form is helpful
to
choose the correct form of representation.
Lesson
Data may be presented in the following forms;
1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical
Lesson
Example: Currently, the management of a department store gets
comments that consumers must wait a long time to be served by
the salespeople. The manager recorded the following
observations after making some observations regarding the wait
times for 20 customers.

Customer Waiting Time (sec)

42 43 37 47 38
30 44 38 43 44
39 53 49 47 47
37 33 43 47 30
Lesson
Textual Presentation of Data
In textual presentation of data, the data is presented in the form of
words, sentences, and paragraphs. Textual presentations used by researchers
to present qualitative data which cannot be presented in graphical or
tabular form.

From the example, state in words how you describe the data. Here, you may
describe the data set as:
“The 20 observations give a minimum waiting time of 30 seconds and a
maximum waiting time of 53 seconds. The average (mean) waiting time is
41.55 seconds. Most of the customers wait for 47 seconds."
Lesson
Tabular Presentation of Data
Here, in tabular presentation, the data is arranged in columns and rows,
and position the data to facilitate comprehension and understanding. In
other words, the data will be presented in a meaningful table.
From the data in the example:
Table 1. Waiting Time of Twenty Department Store Customers
x, Frequency, f Percentage
Waiting Time (sec) (Number of customers)
30 – 35 3 15
36 – 40 5 25
41 – 45 6 30
46 – 50 5 25
51 - 54 1 5
We also call Table 1 as the frequency distribution table of the waiting
time of twenty department store customers. The table shows that most of the
customers wait for 41 to 45 minutes, since the waiting time gives the
highest percentage in this time range. Furthermore, the data shows that
only 5% wait for more than 51 seconds.
Lesson
Parts of a Statistical Table
1. The TABLE NUMBER is used for identification and easy cross referencing
in the future.
2. The TITLE indicated the nature of information that is included in the
table.
3. The STUBS represent specific issues and indicated at the left side of
the rows. The title of the horizontal rows
4. The CAPTIONS are placed at the top of the column/ columns.
5. The BODY comprises the numerical content.
6. The FOOTNOTE provides the scope for further explanation and helps in the
clarification of the data mentioned in a table.
7. The INFORMATION SOURCE is always placed at the bottom of a table. It
indicates the source where the information (data) is extracted.
Lesson
Graphical Presentation of Data
Graphic representation is another way of analyzing numerical data. A graph
is a sort of chart through which statistical data are represented in the
form of lines or curves.

Line graph
 The simplest method of graphical presentation.
 The data is represented in the form of straight lines.
 Each line and corresponding heights represent an observation and its and
height represents a magnitude.
 The distance between line is uniform.
Lesson
Bar graph
 Presents grouped data with rectangular bars whose height is proportional
to the size of each group.
 The width of the bars and the space between them are kept constant.
 The independent variable is shown on the x - axis and the dependent
variable is shown on the y-axis.

Pie Chart
 A circular statistical graph., which is divided into slices to illustrate
numerical proportion.
 In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice, is proportional to the
quantity it represents.
Lesson
Histogram
 A graphical representation that organizes a group of data points into
user-specified ranges.
 It is similar in appearance to a bar graph.
 The histogram summarizes the data set into an easy visual interpretation.
In a histogram, the y - axis represents the frequency (the number of
counts or percentage of occurrence of the data in the set).
 The x - axis represents the outcomes.
 The histogram shows the approximate distribution of a numerical data.
Construction of the Histogram
 Divide the entire range of values (outcomes), the BIN, into a series of
equal intervals.
 Count how many values (the frequency) fall in to each interval. Make sure
there is no overlapping of the intervals.
 Plot the frequency versus the equal interval using rectangles (height is
proportional to frequency) with no spaces between rectangles.
 Assignment:
A researcher is conducting an experiment to determine the life
of the car batteries that their company is producing. The
following 25 car battery life (in years), were observed.

2.2 4.1 3.5 4.5 3.2

3.4 1.6 3.1 3.3 3.8
2.5 4.3 3.4 3.6 2.9

3.3 3.1 3.7 4.4 3.2

4.7 3.8 3.2 2.6 3.9

a. Construct a frequency distribution table

b. Plot a histogram of the life of these car batteries.
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Random Variables)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Define a random variable.
• Give at least two examples for each type of random variables.
• Solve for the mean, the variance, and the standard deviation given
the probability distribution of the random variables.
Introduction
• Random experiment is an experiment whose outcome cannot be
predicted with certainty, before the experiment is run.

• Sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes

or results of that experiment.
• A sample space is usually denoted using set notation, and the
possible outcomes are the listed as the elements of the set.
Lesson Example: Tossing a coin twice is
a random experiment since you
• A random experiment is one whose cannot predict the
results or outcomes cannot be results/outcome with certainty.
anticipated beforehand with any
degree of certainty.
• A sample space (also called
possibility space) of an
experiment is the set of all
possible outcomes or results of
that experiment. A sample space
is usually denoted using set
notation, and the possible
outcomes are the listed as the
elements of the set.
• A random variable is a function
that assigns a real number to
each outcome in the sample space
of a random experiment.
Lesson

RANDOM VARIABLES

Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable

Lesson
1. Discrete Random Variables
• A discrete random variable has a countable number of possible
values.
Example: Tossing of coin, as in the experiment, has countable
outcomes. The random variable X is a discrete random variable.

2. Discrete Random Variables

• A continuous random variable takes all the values in an interval
of numbers.
• It has an uncountable list of outcomes.
• Random variables associated with measurements.
Example: If we let X be the height of students in the class, then X
may take uncountable outcomes, that is, X may be equal to 157.00cm
or 157.10cm or 157.11cm, … X is a continuous random variable.
Lesson
Probability Distribution of Random Variables
- Discrete Random Variable
If X as a discrete random variable, then the probability mass function,
f(x) is:
𝑃 𝑋=𝑥 ;𝑥∈𝑆
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ 0 ;𝑥 ∈𝑆
From example 1:
Experiment
Outcome HH HT TH TT
(Sample
Point)
Probability Distribution: • Graphical (histogram)
• Tabular

x 0 1 2
f(x) = 1/4 1/2 1/4
P(X=x)
Lesson
Probability Distribution of Random Variables
- Continuous Random Variable
Let X be a continuous random variable, the probability density function of
X is a function f(x) such that for any two number a and b, where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏; is
𝑃 𝑋=𝑥 ;𝑥∈𝑆
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ 0 ;𝑥 ∈𝑆
Lesson
The mean, variance, and standard deviation of Random Variables
and Samples
• The mean is the average of the values of the random variables. The mean
of a random variable is also called as the expected value, 𝑬(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝝁.
• The variance of a random variable X is denoted by 𝑽𝒂𝒓(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝝈𝟐.
• The standard deviation is denoted by 𝝈. It is the positive square root of
the variance. The standard deviation is measured in the same units as the
random variable and the variance is measured in squared units, the
standard deviation is often the preferred measure.
Example:
The discrete random variable X has the following probability
distribution.
𝒙 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟕 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟓
𝒇(𝒙) 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖

What is the expected value, the variance, and the standard

deviation of the random variable X?
Example:
What is the expected value of the continuous random variable X
given its probability distribution.
1
; 𝑥≥1
𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ𝑥4
0; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 Assignment:
• Let X be the number of chocolates inside a kilogram of chocolate box.
If in a randomly selected boxes, the number of chocolates has the
following distribution.
x 80 90 100
f(x) 0.04 0.81 0.3

What is the average number of chocolates in a kilogram of chocolate

box?
• Find the mean and the variance of the continuous random variable, x,
having the following distribution;
𝑓
 𝑥; 0≤𝑥≤1 𝑥
=ቊ 0; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠