Technical Report Writing on

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Submitted by
Name: Anushree Oraon
Department: EE
Semester: 4th
University Roll Number: 16901622011
Code:PC-EE403

Department of Electrical Engineering

Academy of Technology
Adeconagar, Hooghly-712121
West Bengal, India
 ABSTRACT

Electrical measurements are the methods devices and calculations

used to measure electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical
quantities may be do not measure electrical parameters of a system.
Using transducers, physical properties such as temperature,
pressure, flow, force, and many others can be converted into
electrical signals, which can then be conveniently measured and
recorded. High precision laboratory measurements of electrical
quantities are used in experiments to determine fundamental
physical properties such as the charge of the electron or the speed
of light, and in the definition of the units for electrical
measurements, with precision in some cases on the order of a few
parts per million. Less precise measurements are required every
day in industrial practice. Electrical measurements are a branch of
the science of metrology.
 INTRODUCTION

To understand the performance characteristics of a measurement

system is very critical to the process of selection. Characteristics
that show the performance of an instrument are accuracy,precision,
resolution, sensitivity etc. It allows users to select the most
suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.

There are two basic performance characteristics of measuring

instrument:
1.Static characteristics: value of the measured variable change
slowly.
2.Dynamic characteristics: value of the measured variable change
very fast.
 DISCUSSION

There are two basic performance characteristics of measuring

instrument:

Static Characteristics

The static characteristics and parameters of measuring instruments

describe the performance of the instruments related to the steady-
state input/output variables only. The various static characteristics
and parameters are destined for quantitative description of the
instrument’s perfections and they are well presented in the
manufacturer's manuals and data sheets.

TYPES OF STATIC CHARACTERISTIC:-

1)Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of

measurement compared to the true value. This term is used in the
manufacturer specifications for a measurement instrument or
device. Accuracy of an instrument is the quality which
characterizes the ability of a measuring instrument to give
indications approximating to the true value of the measured
variable. The specifications of the accuracy are given actually in
terms of error (in other words in terms of inaccuracy). Note, that
when the accuracy of some measurement device is presented with
percent error, we can estimate the error after measurement.

2) Resolution: The smallest change in a measurement variable to

which an instrument will respond.

3)Range: The input range of an measuring device is specified by

the minimum and maximum values of input variable (Xmin to
Xmax) , for example: from -10 to +150 oC (for the measurement
device with temperature input).
The output range of an measuring device is specified by the
minimum and maximum values of output variable (Ymin to
Ymax) , for example: from 4 to +20 mA (for the measurement
element with current output).

4)Span: The input span of a measuring devices is specified by the

difference between maximum Xmax and minimum Xmin values
of input variables: (Xmax - Xmin ). For example, for a measuring
devices with input range from -10 oC to +150 oC the input span is:
+150 oC - (-10 oC) = 160 oC.
The output span of a measuring devices is specified by the
difference between maximum Ymax and minimum Ymin values
of output variables: (Ymax - Ymin). For example, for a measuring
devices with output range from 4 to +20 mA span is: +20 mA - 4
mA = 16 mA.

5)Precision: It is a measure of consistency or repeatability, i.e

successive reading do not differ. Precision is defined as the
capability of an instrument to show the same reading when used
each time (reproducibility of the instrument). An instrument which
is precise may not be necessarily accurate. Difference between
accuracy and precision can be explained by example of a shooter
aiming at the target (Fig. 1). If all the shots are hit at the particular
point it is said to have high precision.
\

Fig. 1 Accuracy and precision

6)Bias: Constant error which occurs during the measurement of

an instrument. This error is usually rectified through calibration.

7)Linearity: Maximum deviation from linear relation between

input and output.The output of an instrument has to be linearly
proportionate to the measured quantity.Normally shown in the
form of full scale percentage (% fs).The graph shows the output
reading of an instrument when a few input readings are entered.

Fig.2 Linearity
8)Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in
output (response) towards the change in input at a steady state
condition.

Where,
∆θo = Change in output
∆θi = Change in input

Fig.3 Sensitivity

9)Threshold: When the input of a measuring instrument is

increased from zero value then I is found hat the output of the
instrument does not change until the input quantity eXceeds some
instrument value. These minimum value is called the threshold
instrument in other words we can say that threshold is the
measurable input quantity.

10) Expected value: It is the desired value or the most

probable value that is expected to obtain.
11)Error: It is the deviation of the true value from the desired
value. Also, Error (e) is the difference between the measured value
and the true value of a variable.
e = measured value - true value
Where,
True Value is the exact value of a variable.
Measured Value - value of variable as indicated by measurement
system
Accuracy - closeness of agreement between the measured value
and the true value.

12)Hysteresis: Careful observation of the output/input

relationship of a block will sometimes reveal different results as
the signals vary in direction of the movement.Mechanical systems
will often show a small difference in length as the direction of the
applied force is reversed.The same effect arises as a magnetic field
is reversed in a magnetic material.This characteristic is called
hysteresis.Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused
in the output for a given value of input, when this value is
approached from opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order &
then descending order.Causes are backlash, elastic deformations,
magnetic characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).Hysteresis can
be eliminated by taking readings in both direction and then taking
its arithmetic mean. Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.

Dynamic characteristics

Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the

case where the measured variable changes rapidly. As has been
discussed earlier the sensors in control system cannot react to a
sudden change in measured variable immediately. A certain
amount of time is required before the measuring instrument in
control system technology can indicate any output based on the
input received by the measuring instrument. The amount of time
depends on resistance, capacitance, mass and dead time of the
measuring instrument. Step response, ramp response, frequency
response of the measuring instrument determines the dynamic
characteristics of the measuring instrument in control system
technology.

TYPES OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC:-

1)Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which

an instrument or measurement system responds to changes in
measured quantity.

2)Response Time: It is the time required by instrument or

system to settle to its final steady position after the application of
the input. For a step input function, the response time may be
defined as the time taken by the instrument to settle to a specified
percentage of the quantity being measured, after the application of
the input. This percentage may be 90 to 99 percent depending
upon the instrument. For portable instruments it is the time taken
by the pointer to come to rest within +-0.3 percent of final scale
length and for switch board (panel) type of instruments it is the
time taken by the pointer to come to rest within 1 percent of its
final scale length.

3)Measuring Lag: An instrument does not react to a change in

input immediately. The delay in the response of an instrument to a
change in the measured quantity is known as measuring lag. Thus
it is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system
to changes in the measured quantity. This lag is usually quite
small, but this small lag becomes highly important when high
speed measurements are required. In the high speed measurement
systems, as in dynamic measurements, it becomes essential that
the time lag be reduced to minimum.
Measuring lag is of two types:-
i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response
begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has
occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the
measurement system begins after a dead zone after the application
of the input.

4)Fidelity: Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the

system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input. It is
the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error. Supposing if a
linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the output is
also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100
percent fidelity. thin the same form as that of input and there is no
distortion produced in the signal by the system. In the definition of
fidelity any time lag or phase difference between output and input
is not included.

5) Dynamic Error :The dynamic error is the difference between

the true value of the quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed. However,
the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its
fidelity and the time lag or phase difference between input and
output of the system.
 CONCLUSION
In this technical report we saw the different performance
characteristics of measuring instrument. We learned about Static
and Dynamic characteristics. We also understood their types like
accuracy, precision, hysteresis etc.Out of the four dynamic
characteristics the Speed of Response and the Fidelity are
desirable while Lag and Dynamic error are undesirable.
 REFERENCES

1. A course in Electrical & Electronic Measurements &

Instrumentation, A.K. Sawhney,

2. Dhanpat Rai & sons. Electrical Measurement & Measuring

Instruments, E.W. Golding & F.C. Wides, Wheeler Publishing

3. Sensors & Transducers, D. Patranabis, PHI, 2nd edition.