EE1102 PHYSICS FOUNDATION FOR ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Part 1: Electricity, Magnetism and EM Wave

 Review of Chapter 1: Electric field
1.1 Properties of Electric Charges
（Positive/Negative; Charge conservation; Charge quantization）
1.2 Insulators and Conductors
(Free charge movement or fixed charge)
1.3 Electric Force (Vector, principle of superposition)
 q1 q 2
F12 = k rˆ (1.3)
e r 2

1.4 Electric Field (Vector, principle of superposition)

 
Fe = q E (1.5)

1
1.5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

dq = ρ dV

1.6 Electric Field Lines

(E is tangential to the EFL, from positive charge to
negative charge, never cross, density of EFL reflect
magnitude of E)

2
EE1102 PHYSICS FOUNDATION FOR ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
Part 1: Electricity, Magnetism and EM Wave

Chapter 2: GAUSS’S LAW

2.1 Electric Flux

2.2 Gauss’s Law
2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ The electric field E at any point is proportional to the number of EFLs
per unit area flowing through that point.

◼ For a surface area A normal to an

electric field E, the product of E and A
is proportional to the number of EFLs
penetrating the surface area A.

◼ This product of E and A is defined as

the electric flux E .

ΦE = E A (2.1)
◼ It measures the number of EFLs penetrating through the surface A.
4
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ When A or E is increased, there are more EFLs flowing through the
surface. E = E A increases correspondingly.

◼ If the surface A is not normal to E, the number of EFLs is reduced.

5
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ We have the same number of EFLs crossing the tilted surface and its
projected surface which is normal to the electric field. Therefore E
through the tilted surface is the same as the E through the projected
surface. Since the projected area is given by A’ = A cos , we have:

ΦE = E A' A

= E A cos  (2.2)

A’ = A cos 
A
◼ By defining a surface vector A with a magnitude equals to the surface
area A and a direction normal to the surface, E can be expressed as:
 
ΦE = E A cos  = E  A (2.3) 6
Vector dot product will result in a scalar:

A
A  B = A B cos 

A B = B  A 
B

A
 
ΦE = E A cos  = E  A (2.3) E

5
 2.1 Electric Flux
 
◼ E is a scalar with a unit of Nm2/C. ΦE = E A cos  = E  A 
 
◼ The expression ΦE = E  A is only valid for a uniform E across a
flat surface.

◼ If the surface is not flat, or E is not uniform, the net electric flux E
is given by:
 
 E = lim  Ei  Ai
Ai →0
 
=  E  dA (2.4)
surface

8
 2.1 Electric Flux
▪ Very often, we are interested in finding E through a closed surface
(sphere, cube etc).
▪ In determining E through a closed surface, the surface vectors A
are by convention defined to be pointing out of the closed surface.
▪ With this convention,
▪ if the EFLs are flowing out of the closed surface, E > 0.
◼ If the EFLs are flowing into the closed surface, E < 0.
 
ΦE = E  A 
E E
 
A A
E < 0 ; E > 0 ;
measures EFLs measures EFLs that
that flow in flow out 9
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ For different surface elements, the flux E = E · Ai can be
positive, zero or negative.
E
◼ The net electric flux E through the
entire surface measures the number
of lines leaving the surface minus
those entering the surface.
• If more lines are leaving than
entering, net E > 0.

• If more lines are entering than  E = 0  E > 0

leaving, net E < 0.  E < 0
• If there are same number
of lines entering and leaving,
net E = 0. 10
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ A closed surface is often called a Gaussian surface.

◼ Gaussian surface can be of any shape and size. It is a mathematical

construction and need not be a physically real surface.

11
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ Example 2.1
What is the electric flux through a sphere with a radius of 1.00 m and
carries a charge of 1.00 C at its centre?

◼ Solution:
◼ The electric field at a distance r is given by: r̂
 q
E = ke 2 rˆ
r  
1
k
 e
= 
◼ The electric flux is:  4  o 
 
 E =  E  dA =  (E rˆ )  (dA rˆ) =  E dA = E  dA = ke 2 (4  r 2 )
q
r
q 1.00 10 −6 C
= = = 1 .13 10 5
Nm 2
/C
 o 8.8542  10 −12 2
C /Nm 2
12
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed by the closed
surface q5
q4
  qin

 E = E  dA =
o
(2.5) E
q1
q2
q3
Gaussian
where qin is the net charge surface
inside the surface and 0 is
  q1 + q2 + q3
the permittivity of free space.

 = E  dA =
E
o
◼ The circle in the integral symbol means that the integration is to be
performed across the entire closed surface.

◼ This law gives the general relationship between the net electric flux
E through any closed surface and the net charge qin enclosed by
the surface. 13
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 – 1855)
◼ Made contributions in:
• Electromagnetism
• Number theory
• Statistics
• Non-Euclidean geometry
• Cometary orbital mechanics
• A founder of the German
Magnetic Union
• Studies the Earth’s
magnetic field

14
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ Proof : Consider a spherical surface of radius r surrounding a point
charge q. (Fig. 24.6)

◼ The net flux through the Gaussian surface is: (see Example 2.1)
  q qin
 E =  E  dA = =
o o
◼ The above validates Gauss’s law.

Fig.24.6

15
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ To extend the proof to any general
Gaussian surfaces, consider several
other closed surfaces of various shapes
surrounding the point charge (Fig. 24.7).

◼ The number of EFLs crossing the

sphere S1 and the other closed
surfaces S2 and S3 are the same.
q qin
ΦE S1 = ΦE S2 = ΦE S3 = = Fig.24.7
o o
▪  The net electric flux E through these closed surfaces are the same.

◼ Therefore, the net flux through any closed surface is independent of the shape of
that surface, and is equal to qin /o . (Gauss’s law)

16
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ If a point charge is outside a closed surface of any shape, the net
flux is:
qin 0
ΦE = = =0
o o
◼ This is expected as the number
of EFLs entering the surface
equals those leaving the surface.

17
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ In Fig. 24.9, applying Gauss’s law:
• net E through surface S is q1/o
• net E through surface S’ is(q2 + q3)/o
• net E through surface S’’ is zero

Fig.24.9
18
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ More examples on application of Gauss’s law.

E = q/o E = q/o E = - q/o

19
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ It can be shown that Gauss’s law is also valid in a system of multiple
charges, or a continuous distribution of charge.

◼ Gauss’s law is useful in determining the electric field E of a system

of charges or a continuous distribution of charges, with a high
degree of symmetry.

Coulomb’s law Gauss’s law

 dq     qin 


E = k e  rˆ
2 
r 
 E  dA =


o 

20
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Example 2.2
◼ Calculate the electric field due to an isolated point charge using
Gauss’s law.  q 
 E = ke r 2 rˆ
◼ Solution:
◼ Choose a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius r centred on
the point charge. Apply Gauss’s
law to this spherical surface.
▪ Note that the electric field is
directed radially outward
from the point charge.
◼ The surface area vector dA of any small element of area,
which is normal to the surface, is also directed radially outward.
21
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Gauss’s law gives:
 
ΦE =  E  dA =  (E rˆ ) (dArˆ ) =  E dA =
q
o
◼ By spherical symmetry, E is constant everywhere on the spherical
surface; so it can be moved out of the integral.

 E dA = E  dA = E (4  r ) = 
2 q
o

q q
E = = ke 2
4  or 2
r r̂
◼ This is exactly the relationship
obtained from Coulomb’s law for
the electric field due to a point charge.
22
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ In general, to solve for E using Gauss’s law, we must be able to
construct a Gaussian surface such that:
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to
be constant over the portion of the surface.
2. The dot product can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product E dA because E and dA are parallel.
3. The dot product is zero because E and dA are
perpendicular.
4. The electric field is zero over the portion of the surface.
◼ If such a surface does not exist, then E cannot be solved using
Gauss’s law, though Gauss’s law is still valid. We will need to
apply Coulomb’s law instead.

23
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Example 2.3:
Calculate the electric field E at a point (a) outside and (b) inside an
insulating sphere of radius a and having a uniform volume charge
density  (C/m3) and a total positive charge Q.

◼ Solution:
Choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r concentric with the
sphere with r > a for (a) and r < a for (b). 24
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
(a) Outside the sphere, r > a
E
◼

  Q
 E  dA =  E dA = o
Q
E  dA =
o

(
E 4 r 2
)=  Q
o

Q Q
E = = ke 2
4  or 2
r

25
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
For a uniformly charged insulating sphere with a total charge Q, the
electric field E at a point r > a is equivalent to that of a point charge
Q located at the centre of the sphere.
E E

Q Q Q

Q Q
E = ke 2 E = ke 2
r
Same E ! r 24
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ b) Inside the sphere, r < a. The enclosed charge qin is less than Q.

  qin
 E  dA =  E dA = o
E

qin Q
E  dA =
o

(
E 4 r = 2
) qin
o
4 3
  r 
qin  3  r
E = = =
4   or 2
4  or 2
3 o
25
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators

Q
But  =
4 3
a
3
Q
Qr Q
E = = ke 3 r
4o a 3
a
Q
E = ke 3
r
a
◼ Inside the sphere, E varies
linearly with r. Outside the
sphere, E decreases inversely
with r 2.

◼ E is maximum at the surface and E → 0 as r → 0 or r → .

28
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Example 2.4:
Find the electric field E due to a non-conducting, infinite plane of
positive charge with uniform surface charge density  (C/m2).

29
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Solution:
◼ By symmetry, E is normal to the
plane and directed away from it.

◼ Choose a cylindrical Gaussian

surface whose axis is normal
to the plane and whose ends
have each an area A, parallel
and equidistant from the plane.

28
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ E is parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder and hence the flux
through the curved surface is zero.

◼ Contributions to the flux come only from the flat ends of the cylinder.
      qin A
ΦE =  E  dA = 2  E  dA = 2 E  A = 2EA = =
2 flat ends 1 flat end
o o

 A
E = E
2 o E
◼ Compare with the
example in Chap 1,
R >> x, Ex =  / 2 o .

31
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ A conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium when there is no net
motion of charges on it and inside it.

◼ There are four properties associated with a conductor in

electrostatic equilibrium.

◼ Property (i): The electric field is zero everywhere inside the

conductor.

▪ If E is non-zero, then free charges in the conductor will experience a

force and move. That implies it is not under electrostatic equilibrium.

▪ In other words, E must be zero in the conductor under electrostatic

equilibrium.
32
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ The result is true even if the conductor is subject to an external
electric field. Consider a conducting slab. Before applying an external
field E, free electrons are uniformly distributed in the conductor.

◼ When E is applied, electrons experience an electric force Fe= (-e) E and

are accelerated to the left, forming a plane of negative charges. This
leaves behind a plane of positive charges on the right arising from the
metal atoms. F = (-e) E
e

◼ These positive and negative charges

produce an internal electric field Eint
which opposes the external field E, Eint
resulting in an overall zero field
inside the conductor.

33
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (ii): Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must
reside entirely on the surface.

▪ Consider an arbitrarily shaped

conductor in which a Gaussian
surface is drawn just beneath
its surface.

34
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ When in electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field E everywhere
inside the conductor, including the Gaussian surface, is zero.

◼ Since E is zero, the net electric flux E through the Gaussian surface
is also zero.
+ +
  qin +

ΦE = E  dA =
o
=0
+
E=0 +
+

◼  the net charge qin inside the + +

qin = 0
Gaussian surface must be zero. E=0
+ +
E=0
◼ If there is any net charge on the +
+
conductor, it must reside on the surface. +
+ +
35
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (iii): The electric field just outside a charged conductor is
normal to the conductor surface and has a magnitude  /o , where 
is the surface charge density (C/m2) at that point.

1 E1 = 1 /o
E2 = 2 /o 2

36
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
▪ As the charges do not move along the surface, there is thus no
component of E parallel to the conductor surface.

▪  E immediately outside the conductor is normal to the conductor

surface.

▪ Consider a Gaussian surface in the

shape of a small cylinder whose axis is
normal to the conductor surface and the E=0
end surfaces are parallel and very close =0
to the conductor surface .

▪ As E = 0 inside the conductor under

electrostatic equilibrium, there is no
flux through the part of the Gaussian
cylinder embedded in the conductor. 35
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Outside the conductor, since E is normal to the conductor surface, it
is hence parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder outside the
conductor. Thus the flux through this curved surface is zero.

◼ The net flux E through the

cylinder arises only from the flat
face outside the conductor, which A
is normal to the electric field. E

  qin A
ΦE = E  A = E A = = E=0
o o 

E = (2.6)
o
38
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (iv): On an irregularly shaped conductor, the electric field E
just outside the conductor is greatest when the radius of curvature
of the surface is smallest (i.e. E is greatest at the sharpest point).

◼ The surface charge density  can be shown to be higher at sharper

points where the radius of curvature are smaller. Since E =  /o for a
charged conductor, the electric field is also larger at sharper points.

39
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ What if a cavity exists inside a conductor under electrostatic
equilibrium?
i. E = 0 inside a conductor. Is it zero inside the cavity?
ii. Any excess charge resides only on the outer surface. Do we
find excess charge on the surface of the cavity?

◼ Case 1: No charge inside the cavity.

Consider any Gaussian surface constructed
within the cavity. Since there is no net
charge enclosed, the net flux must be zero.
  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ For the electric flux to be always zero irrespective of the shape of
Gaussian surfaces constructed within the cavity, then E must be
zero inside the cavity. 40
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Consider any Gaussian surface constructed within the conductor
and encloses the cavity. The flux through the surface is zero since E
is zero in the conductor under electrostatic equilibrium.
  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ Thus the net charge enclosed is zero,
E=0
implying that there is no charge residing
on the inner surface of the conductor.

▪ Any excess charges reside only on the

outer surface of the conductor.

41
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Case 2: Net charge Q exists inside
the cavity. Consider any Gaussian
surface constructed within the cavity.
Since there is net charge enclosed,
the net flux is not zero.

  qin
 E  dA =  0o Q

▪ In general, E is not zero inside the cavity.

42
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
▪ Consider any Gaussian surface constructed within the conductor
and encloses the cavity. The flux through the surface is zero since E
is zero in the conductor. Thus the net charge enclosed is zero.

  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ This implies that an equal amount of E=0
opposite charge (-Q) must be
induced on the inner surface of the
conductor.

▪ Charges in general reside on the Q

inner and outer surfaces. −Q

43
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ What if a hollow conductor with no net charge inside the cavity is
subject to an external E field? Opposite charges are induced on the
outer surfaces. E is zero in the cavity. This is known as electrical
shielding.

Fe= (-e) E

44
 More Examples
◼ Example 2.4:
A point charge Q is placed at the center of a cube of side L.
(i) Determine the total electric flux through the entire surface of the
cube. (ii) Find the electric flux through each face of the cube.
(iii) Comment on whether your answers to parts (i) and (ii) would
change if the charge Q is still within the cube, but not at the center of
the cube.

45
 More Examples
Solution: qin Q
Applying Gauss’s law, =  E  dA =  o
=
o
Since the charge is at the center of the cube, the flux through each
face will be identical. Hence the flux through each face is:
1 1Q
=
6 6 o
◼ If Q is not at the center of the cube, the total flux through the cube
will remain the same as deduced from Gauss’s law.
qin Q
=  E  dA =  o
=
o
◼ However, the flux through each face will change depending on the
actual position of the charge in the cube.
46
 More Examples
◼ Example 2.5:
Find the electric field E in between the two infinite plates of an ideal
parallel plate capacitor. The surface charge density on the plates, i.e.
charge per unit area on the plates is .

Solution:
◼

◼ For an ideal parallel plate capacitor,
E is uniform in the region across the
two plates, and is directed normal to the
plates, from the positively charged
plate to the negatively charged plate.

◼ E is zero anywhere outside the

region between the plates.
47
 More Examples
◼ Choose a small cylindrical 
Gaussian surface C1 whose axis
is normal to the +ve charged plate, A
whose ends have each an area A,
parallel and equidistant from the
plane of +ve charge. The net C1
electric flux through C1 arises only
from the flat end located between
the plates.

  qin  A 
ΦE = E  A = E A = =  E=
o o o
48
 More Examples
◼ Apply Gauss’s law to a similar
C2 
cylindrical surface C2. The net flux
is zero since there is no charge
enclosed.

◼ Therefore, it can be deduced that

E = 0 outside the capacitor.

49
 More Examples
◼ Example 2.6:
Calculate the electric field E at a point (a) outside and (b) inside a
thin spherical shell of radius a and having a total charge Q
distributed uniformly over its surface. (Fig. 24.13)

Fig.24.13

◼ Solution:
◼ Choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r concentric with the
shell, where r > a for (a) and r < a for (b). 50
 More Examples
◼ (a) Outside the shell, r > a
 
( Q
 E  dA = E  dA = E 4  r = o
2
)
Q Q
E = = ke 2
4  o r 2
r
E
r
Q
Q

◼ The electric field E at a point outside the shell is the same as that
due to a point charge Q located at the centre.
51
 More Examples
▪ (b) Inside the shell, r < a, the net charge qin is zero.
  0
 E  dA = E  dA =  o E

E = 0
◼ The electric field E inside
the spherical shell is zero.
The electric field for a
spherical shell of
radius R.
Q
E = ke 2
r

52
 More Examples
◼ Example 2.7:
An insulating sphere of radius 20.0 mm has a uniform volume charge
density of 8.0x10-3 C/m3. Determine the electric flux through a
concentric spherical surface with radius R of (i) 10.0 mm,
(ii) 20.0 mm and (iii) 30.0 mm. Find the electric field at a radial
distance of 10.0 mm from the center of the insulating sphere.

◼ Solution:
◼ At R = 10.0 mm, the charge enclosed by the spherical surface is:

4 3
Q =   r   =  (10 10 ) (8 10−3 ) = 3.35 10−8 C
4 −3 3

3  3
−8
Q 3.35 10
= = = 3784.8 Nm 2
/C
 0 8.854 10 −12
53
 More Examples
◼ At R = 20.0 mm, the charge enclosed by the spherical surface is:

4 3
Q =   r   =  ( 20 10 ) (8 10−3 ) = 2.68 10−7 C
4 −3 3

3  3
Q 2.68 10−7
= = = 30268.8 Nm 2
/C
 0 8.854 10 −12

◼ For R = 30.0 mm, since the charge enclosed is the same as for
R = 20.0 mm, therefore the electric flux is also the same.

 =30268.8 Nm 2 /C

54
 More Examples
◼ Due to the uniform volume charge density, there is spherical
symmetry in the electric field distribution. The electric field is also
directed radially outward.

◼ At R = 10.0 mm,

=  E  dA =  E dA =E  dA = E ( 4  r 2
)

E=
4 r 2

3784.8
E = = 3.01  10 6
N/C
4  (10−2 )
2

55
 More Examples
◼ Example 2.8:
A charge of 50.0 nC is placed on a solid spherical conductor that has
a radius a = 4 cm. Determine:
(i) the charge density on the surface of the conductor
(ii) the electric field inside the conductor, and
(iii) the electric field immediately outside the conductor.

Derive an expression for the electric field E as a function of the radial

distance r, where r is measured from the center of the sphere and
r > a. State the direction of the electric field.

56
 More Examples
◼ Solution: Q = 50 nC

4 cm

Q 50 10−9
◼ (i) Charge density  = = = 2.49  10 −6
C/m 2

4 r 2 4 (4 10−2 ) 2
◼ (ii) Under electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field inside the
conductor is zero.

◼ (iii) Electric field immediately outside is:

 2.49 10−6
E= = = 0.28  10 6
N/C
 0 8.854 10 −12
57
 More Examples
Gaussian
◼ Solution:
Q = 50 nC surface
◼ Consider a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius r. Due to the 4 cm
spherical symmetry, E on the
surface is uniform and directed
radially outward and normal to the r E
Gaussian surface. Apply Gauss’s
law:

 E  dA = E  dA = E ( 4  r ) = 
Q Q Q
2
E = = ke 2
o 4 o r 2
r

E = ( 8.99 109 )
(50 10 ) = 449.5
−9

N/C
2 2
r r
(directed radially outward)
58