Physical Layer

- Physical layer is a layer of OSI network model which is used to connect one sender with
possibly more receivers.

- It is the actual transmission medium of bits.

- It is the only layer that deals with the physical connectivity of two different nodes.

- It defines hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies and pulses used to represent
binary signals.

- The data link layer provides data frames to physical layer which converts them to electrical
pulses that represent binary data.

Network Monitoring:

Bandwidth:

It is defined as the maximum amount of data that can be carried from one point to
another in a given time period.

For Digital Devices:

 Channel Capacity
 Bandwidth is expressed in bits per second (bps)

For Analog Devices:

 Refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range of frequencies that
a channel can pass.
 Bandwidth is Expressed in cycle per sec OR Hz

Throughput:

 The rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel.

 Throughput is usually measured in bits per second.
 system throughput or aggregate throughput
o sum of the data rates that are delivered to all terminals in a network

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Q. A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute
with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Solution:
12000 𝑥 10000
Throughput = = 2 Mbps
60

Bandwidth vs Throughput:

Bandwidth is the theoretical capability of the connection, the throughput is the actual data rate
of a specific application.

Delay and loss:

When a package is sent from one host (source) to another host (destination), it travels
through a series of nodes and routers. Travelling from one of these nodes/routers and on to a
subsequent node/router, the packet will suffer from different types of delay. The most notable
and important delays are the processing delay, queuing delay, transmission delay, and
propagation delay.

Processing delay:

The time used to examine the packet’s header and determine where to
direct it, and check for bit-level errors in the packet that occurred in transmission is called the
processing delay. There are also several other factors that affects this delay, for example: The
need to check for bit-level errors that has occurred during transmission to the router.

Queuing Delay:

The queuing delay is the time it takes for the packet to be transmitted
onto the link. Naturally; the length of this time is defined by the number of packets that was
added to the queue prior to this packet. It is also very important that the rate of incoming
packets does not exceed the rate of outgoing packets. If this happens, the delay will approach
infinity, and the transmission could suffer packet losses.

Transmission Delay :

Packets are commonly transmitted in a first-come-first-serve manner,

and it is realistic to assume that a packet will not be transmitted until all prior packets are
transmitted. The transmission delay is the amount of time used to transmit (push) all of the
packets bits from the queue and into the link.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Propagation delay:

As the packet does not magically appear straight away on router B after it
has been pushed into the link from router A, there is of course a propagation delay. This is the
time required to propagate from the beginning of the link and to router B. The speed of the
propagation heavily depends on the physical medium of the link (fiber optics, twisted pair,
copper wire, etc).

Latency:

Network Latency is the total delay that is introduced by the network.

i.e. latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay + Queuing delay + processing delay

 A network which experiences less overall delay is termed to have low latency while opposite
is termed as high latency.

Jitter:

• Jitter is the variation in the time between packets arriving, caused by network congestion,
timing drift, or route changes.

• causes of jitter are electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk with other signals.

Packet Loss:

Packet loss occurs when one or more packets of data travelling across a computer
network fail to reach their destination.

In our discussions above, we have assumed that the queue is capable of holding an
infinite number of packets. In reality a queue preceding a link has finite capacity, although the
queuing capacity greatly depends on the switch design and cost. Because the queue capacity is
a finite, packet delays do not really approach infinity as the traffic intensity approaches one.
Instead, a packet can arrive to find a full queue. With no place to store such a packet, a router
will drop that packet; that is, the packet will be lost. From an end-system viewpoint, this will
look like a packet having been transmitted into the network core, but never emerging from the
network at the destination. The fraction of lost packets increases as the traffic intensity
increases. Therefore, performance at a node is often measured not only in terms of delay, but
also in terms of the probability of packet loss.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Transmission Impairments:

Transmission impairment is defined as a condition in which the signal’s strength and

quality gets deteriorated (degraded) as it gets transmission. In any communication system, the
received signal is never identical to the transmitted one due to some transmission impairments.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Causes of impairment:

Attenuation

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a
wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy
in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal. Figure 3.26 shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Attenuation may be expressed in decibels(dB) as under:

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Where, P2 = power at receiving end

P1= power at sending end

Distortion:

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed
through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences
in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period
duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what
they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Noise:

Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion
of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the
effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the
receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that
comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Transmission Media:

A communication channel is called a medium. There are two types of media:

1. Guided Media : twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable

2. Unguided Media : radiowave, microwave, infrared and satellite.

Guided (Wired) Media: Guided Media is a communication medium which allows the data to get
guided along it i.e. physical connection is need.

Unguided (Wireless) Media: The wireless media is called unguided media. The signal propagates
in form of wireless electromagnetic waves.

GUIDED MEDIA

1. Twisted Pair Cable

 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.
 One of the wire is used to carry signals to receiver, and the other is used only as
a ground reference.
 A signal is usually carried as the difference in voltage between the two wires in
the pair. This provides better immunity to external noise because the noise tends
to affect both wire the same, leaving the differential voltage unchanged.
 Frequency range for twisted pair cable is 100Hz to 5MHz.
 RJ 45 or RJ 11 connector is used.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 • Two types :

– Unshielded twisted pair(UTP)

UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external noise but is the
most frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install. Eg. Cat5e, Cat6,
Cat6a and Cat7

– Shielded twisted pair(STP)

STP cable contains an outer conductive shield that is electrically grounded to

insulate the signals from external electrical noise. STP also uses inner foil shields to
protect each wire pair from noise generated by the other pairs. Expensive than
UTP.eg. IBM STP-A

Characteristics:

a. Easy to install
b. Low cost (cheaper than coaxial and optical fiber cable)
c. High speed capacity i.e. data transfer rate of CAT5e is up to 1 Gbps.

Applications:

i. In telephone lines to carry voice and data channels.

j. To create a local area network.
k. Ethernet

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 2. Coaxial Cable:
 Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency range than those in twisted pair
cable.
 It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is in turn encased in an outer conductor
of metal foil.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover.
 BNC connector is used.

Characteristics:

a. Due to shield provided, this cable has excellent noise immunity.

b. It has large bandwidth and low losses.
c. Expensive than twisted pair cables but cheaper than fiber optic cable.
d. Data rate of 10 Mbps and can be increased with increase in diameter of
the inner conductor.

Category of coaxial cable:

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 ohm cable TV(analog transmission)

RG-58 50 ohm Thin Ethernet(Digital trans.)

RG-11 50 ohm Thick Ethernet(Digital trans.)

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Applications:

a. Analog and digital telephone network.

b. Cable TV.
c. Thick and thin Ethernet. ( Not used these days due to less capacity of the
channel.)

Optical Fiber:

Optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray. Optical fiber
cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three sections: core, cladding and jacket.

The core is a inner layer and is made up of fiber or glass. It is surrounded by a glass cladding
which has a lower refractive index than the core. The outer most layer is of plastic which is
called as jacket.

Fig: transfer of light ray inside the core

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Characteristics:

a. The light ray inside the fiber does not escape through the walls because of the total
internal reflection.
b. Very high data transfer rate up to 10 Gbps.
c. It is smaller and light weight but expensive.
d. It is not affected by noise signals
e. These cables have much lower attenuation and can carry signal to longer distances
without using amplifiers and repeaters in between.
f. The installation of fiber optic cables is difficult and tedious.
g. Joining the optical fibers is a difficult job.

Types:

1. Multimode fiber:
 Larger Core Diameter
 propagate more than one mode of light
 Suited for Short distance Transmission
 Bending losses should be avoided by using large bending radius
2. Single-mode fiber:
 Only One mode of Light will propagate
 Suited for Long distance transmission
 Bending losses should be avoided by using large bending radius

Unguided Transmission:

Unguided media transports electromagnetic wave without using a physical conductor.

This type of communication is called wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcasted
through air and thus are available to anyone who has a device (antenna) capable to receive
them.

Unguided signals can travel from source to destination in several ways.

1. Ground propagation
2. Sky propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation

1. Radio Transmission:

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Basic idea is to transmit signal in the form of radio waves. Radiowaves have
frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz. Radiowaves can broadcast
omnidirectionally or directionally. Various kinds of antennas are used to
broadcast these signals.
 Omnidirectional i.e. all directions
 Radiowaves can penetrate through walls.
 Used TV broadcasting and F.M radio broadcasting
Applications:
a. Cellular communication
b. Wireless LAN
c. Satellite communication
2. Microwave transmission
The microwave transmission uses higher frequency range than radio frequency
as a result, they produce better throughput and performance. Microwave are
basically electromagnetic waves having frequency range between 1 GHz and 300
GHz.
 Microwaves are unidirectional.
 Microwaves propagation is a line of sight propagation.
 Cannot penetrate through walls.
Applications:
a. In cellular phones
b. In satellite networks
c. Wireless LAN

3. Satellite Transmission
A satellite is simply a repeater. It consists of several transponders each of which
listens to some portion of the spectrum, amplifies the incoming signal and the
rebroadcasts it at another frequency to avoid interference with the incoming
signal.
Satellite communication system consists of ground stations for transmitting and
receiving signals and a communication satellite in the space. The range of
frequencies used for transmission of signals from ground station to the satellite
is uplink frequency and those used for transmission of signals from satellites to
ground station is downlink frequency. Uplink and downlink frequencies are
different to avoid interference.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Types of satellite:
1. LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
They are very close to earth ranging from 500 to 1500 km above the
surface. They are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes. As they are very close
to earth surface their coverage area is small but less propagation delay.
2. MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)
They are somewhere between 8000 km to 18000 km above earth surface.
Visible for around 2 to 8 hours and has larger coverage area than LEO
satellite.
3. GEO(Geostationary Earth Orbit)
These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s surface along
the equator. They rotate at the speed of earth rotation so they are visible
all the time. Larger coverage area than LEO and MEO but more
propagation delay.

Advantages:

a. Larger coverage area than a terrestrial system.

b. Higher bandwidth.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Disadvantages:

a. Larger propagation delay than terrestrial system.

b. Launching satellite into orbit is costly.

Comparison between guided and unguided media:

S.N Guided Media Unguided Media

1. The signal energy propagates through The signal energy propagates through air in
wires in guided media. unguided media
2. Guided media is used for point to point Unguided media is used for point to point
communication and multipoint communication.
3. Signals are in the form of voltage, current Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
or photons in guided media. waves in unguided media.
4. There is specific direction for sending a There is no particular direction to send
signal. signals.
5. e.g. twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical E.g. radiowaves, microwaves and infrared.
fiber

Wireless propagation:

Wireless propagation occurs through one of the following three routes:

1. Ground wave Propagation

Ground Wave propagation is a method of radio wave propagation that uses the
area between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission.
Ground wave propagation can be found for the frequency range of few kHz to
2MHz. There are several factors that help an electromagnetic wave to be
transmitted through ground wave propagation. One factor is that the
electromagnetic wave induces a current in the Earth’s surface, the result of

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 which is to slow the wavefront near the Earth, causing the wavefront to tilt
downward and hence follow the Earth’s curvature. Another factor is diffraction,
which is a phenomenon having to do with the behavior of electromagnetic
waves in the presence of obstacles. Electromagnetic waves in this frequency
range are scattered by the atmosphere in such a way that they do not penetrate
the upper atmosphere.
e.g. AM radio uses ground wave propagation.

2. Sky wave Propagation

With sky wave propagation, a signal from an earth-based antenna is reflected from the
ionized layer of the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) back down to Earth. Waves having
frequency higher than 2MHz and less than 30 MHz can be propagated through sky wave
propagation. With this propagation mode, a signal can be picked up thousands of
kilometers from the transmitter. Eg. Are BBC news

3. Line-of-sight propagation
Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation modes operate,
and communication must be by line of sight. For satellite communication, a

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 signal above 30 MHz is not reflected by the ionosphere and therefore a signal
can be transmitted between an earth station and a satellite. For ground-based
communication, the transmitting and receiving antennas must be within an
effective line of sight of each other. Eg. satellite communication, FM radio and
microwave.

Baseband and Broadband Network:

Baseband:

A Baseband Network is one in which the cable or other network medium can carry only
a single signal at any one time. It is used in digital transmission of signals. i.e. it uses time
division multiplexing (TDM) which uses entire bandwidth of the channel. Typical example of this
is Ethernet.

Broadband:

A Broadband network on the other hand can carry multiple signals simultaneously,
(using a discrete part of the cable bandwidth for each signal). As analog signals are being
transmitted, frequency division multiplexing (FDM) technique is used to transmit multiple
signals through single channel. This technique is performed for cable lines using copper wires.
For optical fiber broadband services, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is used to
transmit different signals through single fiber.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Multiplexing concept

 Multiplexing is a technique that allows the simultaneous

transmission of multiple signal across a single data link.
 Multiplexing is done using a device called multiplexer (MUX) that
combines ‘n’ input lines to generate one output line (i.e. many to
one).
 At the receiving end a device called demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used
that separates signal into its component signal i.e. one input and
many output.

Advantages:
1. More than one signal can be send over a single link.
2. Effective use of bandwidth.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 FDM is an analog technique that combines analog signals

 FDM can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is
greater than the combined bandwidth of the signals to be
transmitted.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 The frequency division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel
into several logical sub-channels. Each logical sub-channel is allocated for a
different signal frequency. The individual signals are filtered and then modulated
(frequency is shifted), in order to fit exactly into logical sub-channels.

Each logical sub-channel is separated by an unused bandwidth called

Guard Band to prevent overlapping of signals. In other words, there exists a
frequency gap between two adjacent signals to prevent signal overlapping.

Above Figure Explanation:

The above figure shows the schematic diagram of an FDM system. The
transmitter end contains multiple transmitters and the receiver end contains
multiple receivers. The communication channel is present between the
transmitter and receiver.

At transmitter end, each transmitter sends a signal of different frequency. In the

above figure, the transmitter 1 sends a signal of 30 kHz, transmitter 2 sends a
signal of 40 kHz, and transmitter 3 sends a signal of 50 kHz. These signals of
different frequencies are then multiplexed or combined by using a device called
multiplexer. It then transmits the multiplexed signals over a communication
channel.

At the receiver end, the multiplexed signals are separated by using a device called
demultiplexer. It then sends the separated signals to the respective receivers. In

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

the above figure, the receiver 1 receives signal of 30 kHz, receiver 2 receives
signal of 40 kHz, and receiver 3 receives signal of 50 kHz.

Advantages:

1. A large number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously.

2. FDM doesn’t need synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages:

1. The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.

2. Large number of modulator and filters are required.

Application:

1. Frequency division multiplexing is used for FM and AM radio

broadcasting.
2. It is used in television broadcasting.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

Wavelength division multiplexing is an analog technique. It is the most

important and most popular method to increase the capacity of an optical fiber.
The working principle of wavelength division multiplexing is similar to frequency
division multiplexing. The only difference is in wavelength division multiplexing
optical signals are used instead of electrical signals.

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique of multiplexing multiple

optical carrier signals through a single optical fiber channel by varying the
wavelengths or colors of laser lights.

Wavelength division multiplexing is a technology that increases the bandwidth of

a communication channel (optical fiber) by simultaneously allowing multiple
optical signals through it.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

The combined signal is transmitted via a single optical fiber cable. At the receiving
end, a demultiplexer splits the incoming beam into its components and each of
the beams is send to the corresponding receivers.

The wavelength division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into

several logical sub-channels according to its wavelength. It allots each logical sub-
channel for a different light color or optical signal wavelength. The individual
signals are filtered and then modulated (wavelength is shifted), to fit exactly into
logical sub-channels.

Advantages of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1. WDM allows transmission of data in two directions simultaneously (Full

duplex).

2. Greater transmission capacity

3. High security

4. Long distance communication with low signal loss

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Disadvantages:

1. The cost of the system increases with the addition of more optical
components.
2. Wavelength tuning is a difficult job.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Time Division Multiplexing is digital technique, i.e. it is the process of

combining multiple digital signals into one signal.

Time Division Multiplexing is a technique in which multiple signals are

combined and transmitted one after another on the same communication
channel.

At the receiver side, the signals are separated and received. Each signal is
received by a user at a different time.

In frequency division multiplexing, all signals of different frequencies are

transmitted simultaneously. But in time division multiplexing, all signals
operate with the same frequency are transmitted at different times.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 In time division multiplexing, each user is allotted a particular time interval
called time slot during which data is transmitted. The time interval (time slot)
allotted to each receiver (user) is so small that the receiver will not detect that
some time was used to serve another receiver (user).

In time division multiplexing, all signals are not transmitted simultaneously;

instead, they are transmitted one after another. For example, as shown in the
above figure, at first, we send signal A. Then after second signal B and then
after third signal C and finally, we send last signal D. Thus, each user occupies
an entire bandwidth for a short period of time.

Types of TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

Time Division Multiplexing is mainly classified into two types:

o Synchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

o Asynchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

Synchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

In synchronous time division multiplexing, each device (transmitter) is allotted

with a fixed time slot, regardless of the fact that the device (transmitter) has
any data to transmit or not. The device has to transmit data within this time
slot. If the device (transmitter) does not have any data to send then its time
slot remains empty.

The various time slots are arranged into frames and each frame consists of one
or more time slots dedicated to each device (transmitter).

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 From above figure we can see that in time frame 2, the transmitter B and C
does not have any data to send so the time slot B and C remains
empty.

The main drawback of synchronous time division multiplexing is that the

channel capacity is not fully utilized. Hence, the bandwidth goes wasted.

Asynchronous/statistical TDM

An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.

The time slots in asynchronous TDM are always less than the number of devices
(transmitter). For example, if we have X devices and Y time slots. Y should always
be less than X (I.e. Y < X).

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

In the above figure, it is shown that the number of devices are 4 and time slots
are 3. The timeframe 1 (all slots) is completely filled with data from devices A, B,
and C. The timeframe 1 has only 3 time-slots. So the data from device D is filled in
the next timeframe (I.e. timeframe 2) in timeslot 1. The data from devices A and D
will be filled in timeslots 2 and 3 in timeframe 2.

In asynchronous time division multiplexing, the multiplexer scans all the devices
(transmitters) and accepts input only from the devices that have actual data to
send and fills all the frames, and then sends it to the receiver.

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Full bandwidth is utilized by a user at a particular time.

2. The time division multiplexing technique is more flexible than frequency

division multiplexing.

3. In time division multiplexing, the problem of crosstalk is very less.

Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Synchronization is required in time division multiplexing.

2. Complex to implement.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Switching:
Switching is the process of forwarding message (data packets) from one
node to another so that it can reach to the destination. A switched network
consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches or routers.
Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of
these nodes are connected to the end systems (e.g. computers or
telephones). Others are used only for routing.

Circuit switching:
 In circuit switching network, a communications path between end
devices (nodes) needs to be set up before they can communicate.
 There is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travel and
no other data is permitted.
 It was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable
example of circuit switching.

Phases of Circuit Switch Connection

 Circuit Establishment: In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established

from the source to the destination through a number of intermediate
switching centers. The sender and receiver transmits communication
signals to request and acknowledge establishment of circuits.
 Data Transfer: Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are
transferred from the source to the destination. The dedicated
connection remains as long as the end parties communicate.
 Circuit Disconnection: When data transfer is complete, the connection
is terminated. The disconnection is initiated by any one of the user.
Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate links from the sender
to the receiver.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Fig: circuit switched Network.

Advantages:

– It is suitable for long continuous transmission, since a continuous

transmission route is established, that remains throughout the
conversation.
– The dedicated path ensures a steady data rate of communication.
– No intermediate delays are found once the circuit is established. So,
they are suitable for real time communication of both voice and data
transmission.

Disadvantages:

– Bandwidth requirement is high even in cases of low data volume.

– There is underutilization of system resources. Once resources are
allocated to a particular connection, they cannot be used for other
connections.
– Time required in establishing a connection may be high.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Message switching:
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternate to circuit
switching, before packet switching was introduced. In message
switching, end users communicate by sending and receiving messages
that included the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest
individual unit.
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a
number of intermediate nodes which transfer data and ensure that the
message reaches its destination.
In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.

Message switching is performed in 2 steps:

Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of

transferring the entire message to the next node. Hence, each node
must have storage capacity. A message will only be delivered if the next
hop and the link connecting it are both available. A store-and-forward
switch forwards a message only if sufficient resources are available and
the next hop is accepting data.

Message delivery – This implies the entire information is transferred in

a single message from source to the destination node. Each message
must have a header that contains the message routing information,
including the source and destination.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Fig: Message switching network

Advantages:

 Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that

improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
 Message priority can be used to manage the network.

Disadvantages:

 The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
 The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching

 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent

in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

  Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

 Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching
technique is a cost-effective technique.
 Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
 Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the
same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available
bandwidth very efficiently

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

 Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications

that require low delay and high-quality services.
 The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 1) Datagram Packet Switching (Connectionless packet switching)

• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a

datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch(router)
uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.

• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the

packets.

2) Virtual Circuit Switching (Connection oriented packet switching)

– In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is

established before the messages are sent.

– the data stream is transferred over a packet switched network, in

such a way that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path
from the sender to the receiver.

– Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.

– In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Lets understand through a diagram below:

– In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1
and 2 are the nodes.

– Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 – When a route is established, data will be transferred.

– After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the

receiver that the message has been received.

– If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):

 It is the name for digital telephone service that works over existing copper
telephone wiring. Thus ISDN is a high speed, fully digital telephone service.
 ISDN was developed by ITU-T(International Telecommunication Union,
Telecommunication Standardization Sector) in 1976. It is a set of protocols
that combines digital telephony and data transport services.
 ISDN involves digitization of the telephone network, which permits voice,
data, text, graphics, music, video and other resources to be transmitted
over existing telephone wires.

ISDN basically provides three types of services:

1. Bearer services
2. Teleservices
3. Supplementary services

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Fig: ISDN services

Bearer services:
Bearer services provide the means to transfer information (voice, data and video)
between users without the network manipulating the content of that
information. The network does not need to process the information and therefore
does not change the content.
Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model and are well
defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched,
packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.

Teleservices:
In teleservices, the network may change or process the contents of the data.
These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices relay on
the facilities of the bearer services and are designed to accommodate complex
user needs, without the user having to be aware of the details of the process.
Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex and
teleconferencing. Although the ISDN defines these services by name, they have
not yet become standards.

Supplementary Service: Supplementary services are those services that provide

additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices. Examples of these
services are reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling, all familiar from
today’s telephone company services.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Principles of ISDN:
1. To support voice and non-voice application.
2. To support switched and non-switched applications.
3. Reliance on 64-kbps connections.
4. Intelligence in the network.
5. Layered protocol architecture.
6. Variety of configuration.
ISDN devices: ISDN devices can be classified into three types:
1. Terminal equipment, TE1 and TE2
2. Terminal Adapters, TA
3. Network Termination devices, NT1 and NT2

Fig: ISDN Architecture

B-channel
 64 kbps
 basic user channel
 can carry digital data, PCM-encoded digital voice, or a mixture of lower-rate
traffic
 supports circuit-switched, packet-switched
D-channel
 16 or 64 kbps
 carries signaling information to control circuit switched calls on B-channel
o who is calling

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 o type of call
o calling what number
H-channel
 384 (H0), 1536 (H11), 1920 (H12) kbps
 is a high-speed channel
 can be used as a single trunk or subdivided by the user fast fax, video, high-
speed data, high-quality audio and multiplexed information streams at
lower data rates

ISDN Interfaces
Basic Rate Interface(BRI)
 2B channels + 1 D channel
 2 × 64 + 16= 144 kbps (192 kbps total)
Primary Rate Interface(PRI)
T1 connection:
 23B+D American Standards
 Data rate 23*64Kbps + 64Kbs + 8bits header
 Information = 1544kbs = 1.544Mbps
E1 Connection:
 30B+D European Standards
 30*64Kbps + 64Kbps +64Kbps
 2048Kbps=2.048Mbps
 Last D channel for Framing and Synchronization in E1 Connections

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU