• Information processing model: It takes the mental processes of our brain to

that of a computer: Information Input, Processing of Information, Output as in

computers whereas Encoding, Storage, Retrieval in humans.

• Equilibration: as an ongoing process that refines and transforms mental

structures, constituting the basis of cognitive development.

• Cognitive equilibration: refers to the individual seeking to stabilize his or

her cognitive structures.

• Assimilation: integrating new information with existing schema.

• Accommodation: modifying mental schemas to make sense of new information.

• Schema: is an abstract concept proposed by J. Piaget to refer to abstract

concepts.

• Schemas (or schemata): are units of understanding that can be hierarchically

categorized as well as webbed into complex relationships with one another.

• Zone of Proximal Development: as “the distance between the actual

developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or
in collaboration with more capable peers”.

• Scaffolding: is a process in which teachers’ model or demonstrate how to

solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed.

• Information is processed initially in :working memory (WM).

• Information that is to be retained is then passed on to :long-term memory

(LTM).

• Rehearsal: is mental repetition of information in order to remember it.

• Chunking: involves breaking large pieces of information into smaller pieces.

• Schema theory: In this model, information is grouped into meaningful

categories, or schemas. New information is either added to an existing schema, or
perhaps a new one is created.

• Accretion: adding a new fact to an existing schema,

• Tuning: changing the existing schema so that it becomes more consistent with
experience, and

• Restructuring: creating entirely new schemata that replace or incorporate old

ones.

• Concept mapping: graphically displaying the relationships between the

elements of a system.

• Advance organizers: introductory material that bridges the gap between what
the learner already knows and is about to learn.

• Metaphor and analogy: comparing new information to information already

learned.

• Chunking: involves breaking large pieces of information into smaller pieces.

• Rehearsal: repetition.

• Imagery: providing opportunities to mentally visualize material or concepts.

• Mnemonic devices: or memory device, is any learning technique that aids

information retention or retrieval in the human memory for better understanding.

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• Dual coding theory: suggests that we learn through two cognitive systems:
verbal and nonverbal.

• Intrinsic load: is difficulty that is inherent in the content itself.

• Extraneous load: is information or activity that is not needed for learning.

• Germane load: is cognitive processing that assists in the formation of

learner schemas.

• Segmentation: Divide instructional material into smaller, more understandable

pieces. We sometimes refer to this as “chunking” of information.

• Signaling: Visual and verbal cues on the structure of the content (also
called “advance organizers”) focus the learner’s attention on relevant content.

• Weeding: Related to the CTML coherence principle, weeding involves the

removal of extraneous information in order to focus the learner on relevant
content.

• Cognitive Apprenticeship is the method of helping students better learn

concepts and acquire skills under the presence and guidance of an expert or
facilitator.

• Reciprocal Teaching: It is best described as an instructional activity in the

form of dialog between the students and the instructor with the aim of creating
meaning and aiding in better understanding of the material.

• Anchored Instruction: The basic premise behind anchored instruction is the

creation of techniques and strategies that revolve around “anchors” (situations,
cases, etc.) and help transform learning into relevant and real-life contexts,
thereby allowing better exploration and grasping of the subject matter.

• Problem-Based Learning: It involves exposing students to problems that are

open-ended and based on real life problems.

• Discovery Learning: This approach allows learning through interaction and

exploration of the environment. Students “discover” the concepts by asking
questions, formulating and testing hypotheses and coming to a conclusion after
analyzing the collected data.

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• "Motivation": describes why a person does something. It is the driving force

behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and
maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
• Motivation: is a process of interaction between the learner and the
environment, which is marked by selection, initiation, increase, or persistence of
goal-directed behavior

• Intrinsic Motivation (Or Internal Motivation): comes from within. It refers

to when you do something for its own sake because it aligns with your interests,
passions, or personal values.

• Learning Motivation (Or Competence Motivation): In this type of motivation,

we are driven by the act of learning itself.

• Attitude motivation: we love being positive and spreading positivity. It is

about making people feel good, so we seek out activities that allow us to do that.

• Achievement Motivation: For this type of motivation, we are not necessarily

thinking about the reward at the end but just care about crossing the finish line.
There is no greater satisfaction than the feeling of accomplishment.

• Creative Motivation: We might find ourselves motivated by creativity. That

person value freedom of expression and are happiest when people let you spread your
wings.

• Physiological Motivation: In this we are motivated by biological needs like

food and water. These motivations exist because years of evolution have made us
this way.

• Extrinsic Motivation (Or External Motivation): refers to external factors

that drive you to do something. For example, you could be motivated by extrinsic
rewards or negative consequences.

• Incentive motivation: is all about external rewards.

• Fear Motivation: Here you’re motivated by the fear of an undesirable outcome.

You don’t want to do the task, but you have to if you want to avoid a bad thing.

• Power Motivation: It’s normal to want control over your own life. But some
people take it one step further: they want to control other people. There are many
types of power, and they can be used for nefarious or altruistic reasons.

• Social motivation: describes the desire to be accepted by your social group.

Here you’re motivated by what others think of you.

• Activation: is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of activation

would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your degree.

• Persistence: is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may
exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even
though you are tired from staying up late the night before.

• Intensity: is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.

• All-or-nothing thinking: If you think that you must be absolutely perfect

when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying, one small slip-up or
relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing forward.

• Believing in quick fixes: It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't reach
your goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.
• Thinking that one size fits all: Just because an approach or method worked
for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you don't feel
motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will work better for
you.

• Achievement Goal Theory: argues that all motivation can be linked to one’s
orientation towards a goal.

• Performance goals: are based on satisfying one’s ego by appearing smart in

front of one’s peers or on achieving a sense of superiority.

• Mastery goals: are, as they sound, motivated by a desire to fully master a

skill or concept.

• Expectancy Value Theory: According to this model, expectations and values

influence performance and task choice directly.

• Flow: is described as a psychological state in which an individual is purely

intrinsically motivated and in which their sense of time is muted.

• ‘Goldilocks’ conditions: tasks that are too difficult for the student will
engender frustration and helplessness, while tasks that are too easy will cause the
student to feel bored, and both these states of mind lead to disengagement from the
activity.

• Individual-specific motivation: describes the orientation with which all

activities are approached, while task-specific motivation is dependent upon the
appeal of the activity.

• Agency: may be defined briefly as a sense of purpose and autonomy in striving

after one’s goals.

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• Learning: is the acquisition of skill or knowledge, while memory is the

expression of what you’ve acquired.

• Memory: refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing,

retaining, and later retrieving information.

• Encoding: In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a

usable form, which occurs through a process known as .

• Retrieval: To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first
has to be retrieved.

• This perplexing memory retrieval issue known as lethologica or :the tip-of-

the-tongue phenomenon.

• WM: refers to both structures and processes used for storing and manipulating
information.

• STM: refers to the ability to hold information in mind over a brief period of
time.

• Intermediate-term memory: is a state between working memory and long-term

memory.
• Plasticity: The ability of a neural tissue to change because of its
activation.

• Associative Visual Agnosia: posterior parietal cortex damage - can identify

but cannot name the objects

• Appreciative Visual Agnosia: posterior occipital lobe damage - can name the
objects but cannot draw

• Cell body: contains nucleus and DNA (command center of the neuron)

• Learning: The ability to alter behavior on the basis of experience.

• Memory: Acquisition, storage & retrieval of sensory information. Ability to

recall past events at the conscious or unconscious level.

• Thought: A thought result from a pattern of stimulation of many parts of the

nervous system at the same time & in a definite sequence, probably involving the
cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system, upper reticular formation of brain stem.

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• Intellectual disability: formerly known as mental retardation; can refers to

when somebody has a developmental disorder (i.e., autism),

• Learning disability: refers to when a person has difficulty learning in

specific academic areas (i.e., dyslexia).

• Intellectual disability (or ID): is a term used when a person has certain
limitations in cognitive functioning and skills, including conceptual, social and
practical skills, such as language, social and self-care skills.

• Learning disability: refers to when someone has persistent struggles in

specific academic skills. Reading, writing and Math are the main ones.

• Disorder: is a medical condition that may or may not give rise to disability
depending on its severity.

• Disability: is the functional disadvantage suffered by a person affected by

that condition.

• Basic reading problems: occur when there is difficulty understanding the

relationship between sounds, letters and words.

• Reading comprehension problems: occur when there is an inability to grasp the

meaning of words, phrases, and paragraphs.

• Basic writing disorder: refers to physical difficulty forming words and

letters.

• Expressive writing disability: indicates a struggle to organize thoughts on

paper.

• Motor difficulty: refers to problems with movement and coordination whether

it is with fine motor skills (cutting, writing) or gross motor skills (running,
jumping).

• Motor disability: is sometimes referred to as an “output” activity meaning

that it relates to the output of information from the brain.

• Auditory processing disorder: An inability to distinguish subtle differences

in sound make it difficult to sound out words and understand the basic concepts of
reading and writing.

• Visual processing disorder: Problems in visual perception include missing

subtle differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words,
skipping lines, misperceiving depth or distance, or having problems with eye–hand
coordination.

• ADHD: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), while not considered a

learning disability, can certainly disrupt learning. Children with ADHD often have
problems sitting still, staying focused, following instructions, staying organized,
and completing homework.

• Autism: Difficulty mastering certain academic skills can stem from pervasive
developmental disorders such as autism and Asperger's syndrome.

• Neuroplasticity: refers to the brain's natural, lifelong ability to change.

• Integration: refers to the understanding of information that has been

delivered to the brain, and it includes three steps:

• Sequencing: which means putting information in the right order.

• Abstraction: which is making sense of the information.

• Organization: which refers to the brains ability to use the information to

form complete thoughts.

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• Bias: is a type of prejudice against a person, event, situation, or group. In

simple terms, it's when a person or group of people is treated unfairly.

• Unconscious bias: Sometimes bias occurs intentionally, but often, people form
biased opinions and attitudes without being aware of doing so.

• Educational bias: which is when a group of students is discriminated against

in an educational setting.

• Educational bias: can also be defined as any type of unfair treatment or

discrimination meted out to an individual or group of individuals.

• Cultural bias: It refers to that section of people who consider themselves

culturally superior or inferior to another group of people.

• The macabre constant: is a theorized bias in educational assessment that

happens when a teacher unconsciously splits students into three subjective
categories—good, average and poor—regardless of their actual objective scholarly
level.

• Cognitive bias: is a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the

human brain to simplify information processing through a filter of personal
experience and preferences.