26 February 2023

CHAPTER 6
Laplace Transforms

Chapter 6 p1

6.0 Laplace Transforms

The process of solving an ODE using the Laplace transform

method consists of three steps, shown schematically in
Figure below:
Step 1. The given ODE is transformed into an algebraic
equation, called the subsidiary equation.
Step 2. The subsidiary equation is solved by purely
algebraic manipulations.
Step 3. The solution in Step 2 is transformed back, resulting
in the solution of the given problem.

Figure. Solving an IVP by Laplace transforms

Chapter 6 p2

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6.0 Laplace Transforms

The key motivation for learning about Laplace transforms is that

the process of solving an ODE is simplified to an algebraic
problem (and transformations). This type of mathematics that
converts problems of calculus to algebraic problems is known
as operational calculus. The Laplace transform method has two
main advantages over the methods discussed in Chaps. 1, 2:
I. Problems are solved more directly: Initial value problems are
solved without first determining a general solution.
Nonhomogenous ODEs are solved without first solving the
corresponding homogeneous ODE.
II. More importantly, the use of the unit step function (Heaviside
function in Sec. 6.3) and Dirac’s delta (in Sec. 6.4) make the
method particularly powerful for problems with inputs
(driving forces) that have discontinuities or represent short
impulses or complicated periodic functions.

Chapter 6 p3

6.1
Laplace Transform.
Linearity. First Shifting Theorem
(s-Shifting)

Section 6.1 p4

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

When applied to a function, the Laplace transformation

changes that function into a new function by using a
process that involves integration.
Definition: If f(t) is a function defined for all t ≥ 0, its Laplace
transform is the integral of f(t) times e−st from t = 0 to ∞.
It is a function of s, say, F(s), and is denoted by L(f); thus
∞
(1) 𝐹 𝑠 = L(f)= ‫׬‬0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here we must assume that f(t) is such that the integral exists
(that is, has some finite value). This assumption is usually
satisfied in applications.

Section 6.1 p5

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Not only is the result F(s) called the Laplace transform, but
the operation just described, which yields F(s) from a
given f(t), is also called the Laplace transform. It is an
“integral transform”

F( s)   k( s, t ) f (t ) dt
0
with “kernel” k(s, t) = e−st.
Note that the Laplace transform is called an integral
transform because it transforms (changes) a function in
one space to a function in another space by a process of
integration that involves a kernel.

The kernel or kernel function is a function of the variables

in the two spaces and defines the integral transform.

Section 6.1 p6

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Furthermore,
∞
the given function f(t) in 𝐹 𝑠 = L(f)= ‫׬‬0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
is called the inverse transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L −1(F); that is, we shall write
(1*) f(t) = L −1(F).

Note that (1) and (1*) together imply

L −1(L (f(t))) = f (t)

and
L (L −1(F(s))) = F(s) .

Section 6.1 p7

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Notation:
• Original functions depend on t and their transforms on
s—keep this in mind!

• Original functions are denoted by lowercase letters and

their transforms by the same letters in capital,
so that F(s) denotes the transform of f(t),
and Y(s) denotes the transform of y(t), and so on.

Section 6.1 p8

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑡 = 1, find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 .

𝐹 𝑠 = L{1}
∞
= න 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑡=∞ −1 −∞ 1
= |𝑡=0 = 𝑒 − 𝑒0 =
−𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡, find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 .

∞
1
𝐹 𝑠 = L{t}= න 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
0 𝑠

Section 6.1 p9

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

1) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 ,
2) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 3 ,
3) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑛 .
𝑛!
In general: For 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … we have L{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠𝑛+1

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , where 𝑎 > 0, find the Laplace

transform 𝐹 𝑠 .
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = L{𝑒 } = න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑡
0
∞
= න 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
1
Section 6.1 p10 = 𝑠−𝑎 , 𝑠 − 𝑎 > 0

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Theorem 1: Linearity of the Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform is a linear operation; that is, for any
functions f(t) and g(t) whose transforms exist and any constants
a and b the transform of af(t) + bg(t) exists, and
L{ af(t) + bg(t) }= a L{ f (t)} + b L {g(t) }.
Proof:
∞
L{ af(t) + bg(t) } = ‫׬‬0 (af(t) + bg(t)). 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
= න af(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 + bg(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞ ∞
= න af(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡+ න bg(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
∞ ∞
= a න f(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡+b න g(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
= a L{ f (t) } + b L{ g(t) }.
Section 6.1 p11

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑡 = cosh 𝑎𝑡 , find the Laplace transform

𝐹 𝑠 .
By definition we have:
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = L{ cosh 𝑎𝑡 } = න cosh 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

OR,
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
𝐹 𝑠 = L{ cosh 𝑎𝑡 } = L{ }= 2 L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 }
2

1 1 1 𝑠
= + = 2
2 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑎2

Section 6.1 p12

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑡 = sinh 𝑎𝑡 , find the Laplace transform

𝐹 𝑠 .
𝐹 𝑠 = L{ sinh 𝑎𝑡 }
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
= L{ }
2
1
= L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 }
2
1 1 1
= −
2 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝑎
=
𝑠2 − 𝑎2

Section 6.1 p13

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

1) 𝑓 𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 1,
2) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 5𝑡 − 4𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 − 7,

Remark:
𝑠
L{ cos(ωt) } =
𝑠2
+ ω2
ω
L{ sin ω𝑡 } = 2
𝑠 + ω2

Section 6.1 p14

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Table: Some Functions ƒ(t) and Their Laplace Transforms L(ƒ)

Section 6.1 p15

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

∞
Example: Evaluate ‫׬‬0 𝑒 −(𝑠−3)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ ∞
1
න 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡+3𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 3𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = L{𝑒 3𝑡 }= .
0 0 𝑠−3

∞
Example: Evaluate ‫׬‬0 cos(5𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
∞
𝑠 𝑠
න cos(5𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = L{ cos 5𝑡 } = = 2 .
0 𝑠2 +52 𝑠 + 25

∞
Example: Evaluate ‫׬‬0 𝑡 5 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
∞
5!
න 𝑡 5 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = L{𝑡 5 } = .
0 𝑠6
Section 6.1 p16

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡) = sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃) ,

Note:
𝑓 𝑡 = sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 = sin 𝜔 𝑡 cos 𝜃 + cos(𝜔 𝑡) sin(𝜃)
L{𝑓 𝑡 } = L{ sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 }
= L{ sin 𝜔 𝑡 cos 𝜃 } + L{cos(𝜔 𝑡) sin(𝜃)}
= cos 𝜃 L{ sin 𝜔 𝑡 } + sin(𝜃)L{cos(𝜔 𝑡)}
ω 𝑠
F(s) = cos 𝜃 2 2
+ sin(𝜃) 2
𝑠 +ω 𝑠 + ω2

Section 6.1 p17

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Let 𝑓 𝑡 = cos2 2𝑡 . Find L{ f (t)}.

1 1
Solution: Note: cos2 (𝜃) = 2 + 2 cos(2𝜃)
1 1
So, 𝑓 𝑡 = cos 2 2𝑡 = 2 + 2 cos(4𝑡)
1 1
Then, L 𝑓 𝑡 =L + 2 cos(4𝑡)
2
1 1 11 1 𝑠 𝑠2 +16+𝑠2 2𝑠 2 +16
=L 2} + L{2 cos(4𝑡) = 2 𝑠 + 2 𝑠2 +16 = 2𝑠(𝑠2 +16) = 2𝑠(𝑠2 +16)

𝑠2 +8
Thus, L{cos2 2𝑡 } = 𝑠(𝑠2 +16)

Section 6.2 p18

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

0.2𝑠+1.8
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = . Find f 𝑡 .
𝑠2 +3.24
Solution:
0.2𝑠+1.8 𝑠 1.8
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +(1.8)2 = 0.2 𝑠2 +(1.8)2 + 𝑠2 +(1.8)2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

𝑓 𝑡 = 0.2 cos 1.8𝑡 + sin(1.8 𝑡)

Section 6.1 p19

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

0.2𝑠+1.4
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = . Find f 𝑡 .
𝑠2 +1.96
Solution:
0.2𝑠+1.4 𝑠 1.4
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +(1.4)2 = 0.2 𝑠2 +(1.4)2 + 𝑠2 +(1.4)2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

𝑓 𝑡 = 0.2 cos 1.4 𝑡 + sin(1.4 𝑡)

Section 6.1 p20

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

5𝑠+1
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −25 . Find f 𝑡 .
Solution:
5𝑠+1 𝑠 1
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −(5)2 = 5 𝑠2 −(5)2 + 𝑠2 −(5)2
𝑠 1 5
= 5 𝑠2 −(5)2 +5 𝑠2 −(5)2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

1
𝑓 𝑡 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 5 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(5 𝑡)
5

Section 6.1 p21

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

4𝑠+32
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −16 . Find f 𝑡 .
Solution:
4𝑠+32 𝑠 1
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −(4)2 = 4 𝑠2 −(4)2 + 32 𝑠2 −(4)2
𝑠 32 4
= 4 𝑠2 −(4)2 + 4 𝑠 −(4)2
2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

32
𝑓 𝑡 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 4 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(4 𝑡)
4

Section 6.1 p22

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

12 228
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = − 𝑠6 . Find f 𝑡 .
𝑠4
Solution:
1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = 12 4
− 228 6
𝑠 𝑠
12 3! 228 5!
= . −
3! 𝑠4 5! 𝑠6

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

12 3 228 5
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡
3! 5!

Section 6.1 p23

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

2 48
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠4 − 𝑠6 . Find f 𝑡 .
Solution:
1 1
𝐹 𝑠 =2 − 48
𝑠4 𝑠6
2 3! 48 5!
= 3! . 𝑠4 − 5! 𝑠6
Apply L −1 on both sides, we get
2 48
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡3 − 𝑡5
3! 5!

Section 6.1 p24

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

𝑠
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝜋2
. Find f 𝑡 .
𝐿2 𝑠2 +
4

Solution:
1 𝑠 1 𝑠
𝐹 𝑠 = 2 =
𝐿 𝜋2 𝐿2 𝑠 2 + ( 𝜋 )2
𝑠2 + 2𝐿
4𝐿2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

1 𝜋
𝑓 𝑡 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
𝐿 2𝐿

Section 6.1 p25

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

1
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+ . Find f 𝑡 .
2)(𝑠− 3)

Solution: Use partial fractions

1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹 𝑠 = = + .
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 3)

Where A 𝑠 − 3 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2 = 1.
−1 1
Then, A = ( , B=(
2+ 3) 2+ 3)

1 1
𝐹 𝑠 =𝐴 +𝐵
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 3)
Apply L −1 on both sides, we get
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 − 2𝑡
+ 𝐵𝑒 3𝑡

Section 6.1 p26

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

1
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+𝑎)(𝑠+𝑏) . Find f 𝑡 .

Solution: Use partial fractions

1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹 𝑠 = = + .
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏) (𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑏)
Where A 𝑠 + 𝑏 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 1.
1 1
Then, A = (𝑏−𝑎) , B = (𝑎−𝑏)

1 1
𝐹 𝑠 =𝐴 +𝐵
(𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑏)
Apply L −1 on both sides, we get
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑏𝑡

Section 6.1 p27

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

s-Shifting: Replacing 𝒔 by 𝒔 − 𝒂 in the Transform

The Laplace transform has the very useful property that, if
we know the transform of f(t), we can immediately get that
of eatf(t), as in next Theorem.

Theorem 2: First Shifting Theorem, s-Shifting

If f(t) has the transform F(s) (where s > k for some k), then eatf(t)
has the transform F(s − a) (where s − a > k).
In formulas,
L {eatf(t)} = F(s − a)
or, if we take the inverse on both sides,
eatf(t) = L 1{F(s − a)}

Section 6.1 p28

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Note: We have (−𝑎) in 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎) , but (+𝑎) in 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 .

𝑠
E𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Use L{ cos(ωt) } = 𝑠2 +ω2 to find L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos(ωt) }.
(𝑠 − 𝑎)
L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos(ωt) } = .
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 +ω2

ω
E𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: UseL{ sin ω𝑡 } = 𝑠2 +ω2 to find L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sin(ωt) }.
ω
L{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ωt) } = .
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 +ω2

Section 6.1 p29

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

2𝑡
1) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 sin(5𝑡),
5
𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠−2)2 +25

2) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 cos( 3 𝑡),

𝑠 𝑠
Since L{ cos(ωt) } = 𝑠2 +ω2 , so L{ cos( 3t) } = 2
𝑠2 + 3
(𝑠−(−2)) (𝑠+2)
𝐹 𝑠 =L{𝑒 −2𝑡 cos( 3 𝑡)} = (𝑠−(−2))2 +( = (𝑠+2)2 +3
3)2

Section 6.1 p30

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

3) 𝑓 𝑡 = cosh 2t cos(3𝑡),
𝑒 2𝑡 +𝑒 −2𝑡
Note: 𝑓 𝑡 = cos 3𝑡
2
1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = L{𝑒 2𝑡 cos 3𝑡 } + L{𝑒 −2𝑡 cos 3𝑡 }
2 2
1 (𝑠 − 2) 1 (𝑠 − (−2))
= +
2 (𝑠 − 2) +9 2 (𝑠 − (−2))2 +9
2

1 (𝑠 − 2) 1 (𝑠 + 2)
= +
2 (𝑠 − 2) +9 2 (𝑠 + 2)2 +9
2

Section 6.1 p31

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

4) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 5𝑡 cosh 3t ,
𝑠
Since L{ cosh 5𝑡 } =
𝑠2 −32
𝑠−5
Then, L{ 𝑒 5𝑡 cosh 5𝑡 } = (𝑠−5)2 −32

𝑒 3𝑡 +𝑒 −3𝑡 1 1
OR, 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 5𝑡 cosh 3t = 𝑒 5𝑡 . = 2 𝑒 8𝑡 +2 𝑒 2𝑡
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Then, L{ 2 𝑒 8𝑡 + 2 𝑒 2𝑡 } = 2 . 𝑠−8+ 2 . 𝑠−2

Section 6.1 p32

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 of

4 −3𝑡
5) 𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑡 𝑒 ,
L{2𝑡 4 𝑒 −3𝑡 } =2 L{𝑡 4 𝑒 −3𝑡 }
4! 4!
=2 = 2
(𝑠 − (−3))5 (𝑠 + 3)5
6) 𝑓 𝑡 = (𝑡 + 3)2 𝑒 −5𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = (𝑡 2 +6𝑡 + 9 )𝑒 −5𝑡 = (𝑡 2 𝑒 −5𝑡 + 6𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡 + 9𝑒 −5𝑡 )
2! 1! 1
L{𝑡 2 𝑒 −5𝑡 + 6𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡 + 9𝑒 −5𝑡 } = (𝑠−(−5))3 + 6 (𝑠−(−5))2 + 9 𝑠−(−5)
2! 1! 1
= (𝑠+5)3 + 6 (𝑠+5)2 + 9 𝑠+5

Section 6.1 p33

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

3!
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−5)4 . Find f 𝑡 .
3!
Solution: Recall that L{𝑡 3 } = (𝑠)4 .
3!
Now, for 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−5)4 .

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 3 𝑒 5𝑡
Note that we have inverse of s-shifting

Section 6.1 p34

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

21
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+ . Find f 𝑡 .
2)4

Solution:
21 3!
𝐹 𝑠 = .
3! (𝑠 + 2)4

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

21 3 − 2𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑒
3!
Note that we have inverse of s-shifting

Section 6.1 p35

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

𝑠
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−3)2 +16 . Find f 𝑡 .

Section 6.1 p36

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

2𝑠+1
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−3)2 +16 . Find f 𝑡 .

Section 6.1 p37

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

−𝑠+11
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠−3 . Find f 𝑡 .
−𝑠+11 −𝑠+11
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠−3 = (𝑠+1)(𝑠−3)
Apply partial fraction
−𝑠 + 11 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 − 3)
where −𝑠 + 11 = 𝐴 𝑠 − 3 + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1)
then 𝐴 = −3, 𝐵 = 2
1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = −3 +2
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 − 3)
Apply L −1 on both sides, we get
𝑓 𝑡 = −3𝑒 −1𝑡 + 2𝑒 3𝑡
Section 6.1 p38

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace inverse of

3𝑠+2
1) 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +16 .
3𝑠−1
2) 𝐹 𝑠 = 2𝑠2 −18 .
2 5
3) 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠7 − 𝑠4 .
𝑠+5
4) 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−2)2 +5.
3
5) 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +2𝑠+1.
1 5
6) F 𝑠 = +
𝑠−2 𝑠−3
3
7) F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −6𝑠−7

Section 6.1 p39

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

3𝑠−137
Example: Find the Laplace inverse of F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +2𝑠+401.
Solution: By completing the square of the denominator
3𝑠−137
F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +2𝑠+401
3𝑠 − 137
=
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 − 1 + 401
3𝑠 − 137
=
𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 1 + 400

3𝑠 − 137
=
(𝑠 + 1)2 +(20)2
3𝑠 + 3 − 3 − 137 3 𝑠 + 1 − 3 − 137 3 𝑠 + 1 − 140
= = =
(𝑠 + 1)2 +(20)2 (𝑠 + 1)2 +(20)2 (𝑠 + 1)2 +(20)2
Section 6.1 p40

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6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Solution: (Continue…)
𝑠+1 140 20
F 𝑠 = 3 (𝑠+1)2 +(20)2 − 20 (𝑠+1)2 +(20)2

Apply L −1 on both sides, we get

𝑓 𝑡 = 3 cos 20 𝑡 𝑒 −1𝑡 − 7 sin 20 𝑡 𝑒 −1𝑡

Section 6.1 p41

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace inverse of

5
F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +2𝑠+4

Section 6.1 p42

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and

Integrals. ODEs

Section 6.2 p46

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

The Laplace transform is a method of solving ODEs and

initial value problems.

The crucial idea is that operations of calculus on functions

are replaced by operations of algebra on transforms.

Roughly, differentiation of f(t) will correspond to

multiplication of L(f) by s (see Theorems 1 and 2) and
integration of f(t) to division of L(f) by s.

To solve ODEs, we must first consider the Laplace

transform of derivatives.

Section 6.2 p47

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Theorem 1: Laplace Transform of Derivatives

The transforms of the first and second derivatives of f(t) satisfy
(1) L( f ’) = sL(f) − f(0)
(2) L(f ”) = s2L(f) − sf(0) − f ’(0).

Formula (1) holds if f(t) is continuous for all t ≥ 0 and satisfies

the growth restriction (2) in Sec. 6.1 and f ’(t) is piecewise
continuous on every finite interval on the semi-axis t ≥ 0.
Similarly, (2) holds if f and f ’ are continuous for all t ≥ 0 and
satisfy the growth restriction and f ” is piecewise continuous on
every finite interval on the semi-axis t ≥ 0 .

Section 6.2 p48

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Theorem 2: Laplace Transform of the Derivative f (n) of

Any Order
Let f, f ’, … , f (n−1) be continuous for all t ≥ 0 and satisfy the
growth restriction (2) in Sec. 6.1. Furthermore, let f (n) be
piecewise continuous on every finite interval on the semi-axis
t ≥ 0. Then the transform of f (n) satisfies

(3) L(f (n)) = sn L(f) − sn−1 f(0) − sn−2 f ’(0) − … − f (n−1)(0).

Section 6.2 p49

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Laplace Transform of the Integral of a Function

Differentiation and integration are inverse operations, and
so are multiplication and division.
Since differentiation of a function f(t) (roughly)
corresponds to multiplication of its transform L(f) by s, we
expect integration of f(t) to correspond to division of L(f)
by s:

Section 6.2 p50

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Theorem 3: Laplace Transform of Integral

Let F(s) denote the transform of a function f (t) which is piecewise
continuous for t ≥ 0 and satisfies a growth restriction (2), Sec.
6.1. Then, for s > 0, s > k, and t > 0,

(4) L  f ( )d   1s F(s),

0
t
thus 0
t 1 
f ( )d  L1  F( s)  .
s 

Section 6.2 p51

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

𝑡
Example: Find Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 cos 𝜔𝜏 𝑑𝜏.
Solution:
𝑡 1
L ‫׬‬0 cos 𝜔𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑠 L cos 𝜔𝑡
1 𝑠 1
= 𝑠 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).

𝑡 sin(𝜔𝜏) 𝑡
OR, L ‫׬‬0 cos 𝜔𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = L |0
𝜔
sin(𝜔𝑡) sin(0)
=L −
𝜔 𝜔
sin(𝜔𝑡)
=L 𝜔
1 𝜔 1
= 𝜔 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = (𝑠2 +𝜔2 )
Section 6.1 p52

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Use the previous Theorem, find the Laplace inverse
1
of F 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).
𝜔
Solution: Recall that L sin 𝜔𝑡 = ,
𝑠2 +𝜔2
𝜔
so L −1{𝑠2 +𝜔2 } = sin 𝜔𝑡 .
1 1 1 11 𝜔
F 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = = 𝜔 𝑠 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).
𝑠 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 )
1 𝑡
Take L −1 We get 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝜔 ‫׬‬0 sin 𝜔𝜏 d𝜏

1 −cos 𝜔𝜏 𝑡 1
= | = − 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − cos 𝜔. 0
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
0
1
= 2 1 − cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔
Section 6.1 p53

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

(Continue…) OR, We can use partial fractions
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
F 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = 𝑠 + (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).

Where 1 = A 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠
1 1
Then, A = 𝜔2 , B = − 𝜔2 , 𝐶 = 0.
1 1 1 𝑠
Thus, F 𝑠 = 𝜔2 𝑠 + − 𝜔2 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).

Take L −1 We get
1 1
𝑓(𝑡) = 2 . 1 − 2 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 𝜔

Section 6.1 p54

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Use the previous Theorem, find the Laplace inverse
1
of F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).

Solution:
1 1
From Previous example: L −1{𝑠(𝑠2 +𝜔2 )} = 𝜔2 1 − cos 𝜔𝑡

Note that:
1 1 1
F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠2 +𝜔2 )
1 1
so 𝑓(𝑡) = L −1 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 +𝜔2
2

𝑡 1 1 sin(𝜔𝑡)
= ‫׬‬0 𝜔2 1 − cos 𝜔𝜏 d𝜏 = 𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝜔

1 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡)
= 2
𝑡− = 2−
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔3
Section 6.1 p55

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

(Continue…) OR, We can use partial fractions
1 𝐴 𝐷 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
F 𝑠 = 𝑠2 (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) = 𝑠 + 𝑠2 + (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ).

Where 1 = As 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 2
Then, A = , B = ,𝐶 = , 𝐷= .
𝐴 𝐷 𝐵𝑠 𝐶
Thus, F 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 𝑠2 + (𝑠2 +𝜔2 ) + (𝑠2 +𝜔2 )

1 1 𝑠 1 𝜔
=𝐴 +𝐷 2+𝐵 2 2
+𝐶
𝑠 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝜔 ) 𝜔 (𝑠 + 𝜔 2 )
2

Take L −1 We get
𝐶
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴. 1 + 𝐷. 𝑡 + 𝐵. cos 𝜔𝑡 + . sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝜔

Section 6.1 p56

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Use the previous Theorem, find the Laplace inverse
2
of F 𝑠 = 2 𝑠 .
𝑠 +
3

Solution:
Note that:
2 2
F 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 𝑠+
3 3

Take L −1 , and apply the Theorem.

1 − 𝜏
1 𝑡 1
−1 1 1 𝑡 𝑒 3
so 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 L = 2 ‫׬‬0 𝑒 − 3𝜏 d𝜏 =2 | = −6[𝑒 − 3𝑡 − 1]
𝑠 𝑠+1 −
1
3 3 0
1
= 6 − 6𝑒 − 3𝑡

Section 6.1 p57

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

(Continue…) OR, We can use partial fractions
2 2
F 𝑠 = 𝑠 =
𝑠2 + 3 𝑠 𝑠 + 1
3
𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑠 1
𝑠+
3
1
Where 2 = A 𝑠 + 3 + 𝐵𝑠

Then, A = 6 , B = −6.
1 1
Thus, F 𝑠 = 6 𝑠 − 6 1
𝑠+
3
1
Take L −1 We get 𝑓 𝑡 = 6 ∗ 1 − 6 ∗ 𝑒 −3𝑡
Section 6.1 p58

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Find the Laplace inverse of
20
1) F 𝑠 = 𝑠3 −2𝜋𝑠
1 20
2) F 𝑠 = .
𝑠 𝑠2 +𝜔2
4

1
3) F 𝑠 = 𝑠4 −𝑠2
𝑠+8
4) F 𝑠 = 𝑠4 +4𝑠2

Section 6.1 p59

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems

Let us now discuss how the Laplace transform method
solves ODEs and initial value problems.

We consider an initial value problem

(5) y” + ay’ + by = r(t), y(0) = K0, y’(0) = K1
where a and b are constant.
Here r(t) is the given input (driving force) applied to the
mechanical or electrical system and y(t) is the output
(response to the input) to be obtained.

Section 6.2 p60

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems (continued)

In Laplace’s method we do three steps:
Step 1. Setting up the subsidiary equation.
This is an algebraic equation for the transform Y = L(y)
obtained by transforming
y” + ay’ + by = r(t), y(0) = K0, y’(0) = K1
by using
L( y’) = sL(y) − y(0) and L(y”) = s2L(y) − sy(0) − y’(0).
So, [s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0)] + a[sY − y(0)] + bY = R(s)
where R(s) = L(r). Collecting the Y-terms, we have the
subsidiary equation
(s2 + as + b)Y = (s + a)y(0) + y’(0) + R(s).
Section 6.2 p61

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems (continued)

Step 2. Solution of the subsidiary equation by algebra.

Make Y subject of the equation

Step 3. Inversion of Y to obtain y = L −1 (Y ).

We reduce the equation in STEP 2 (usually by partial
fractions as in calculus) to a sum of terms whose inverses
can be found from the tables, so that we obtain the
solution y(t) = L−1(Y ).

Section 6.2 p62

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve
y’ + 2y = 0, y(0) = 1.5,

Solution. Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides

L{y’} +2 L{y} = L{0}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
(sY − y(0) ) + 2Y = 0,
So, (sY − 1.5 ) + 2Y = 0,

Collect terms, thus (s+2)Y − 1.5= 0

Section 6.2 p63

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation (s+2)Y − 1.5= 0
Thus,
1.5
Y=
(s+ 2)
Step 3.
From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace inverse
of each term, we obtain the solution

1
L−1 {Y}=1.5 L−1 { }
s+2
Thus,
𝑦 𝑡 = 1.5𝑒 −2𝑡

Section 6.2 p64

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve
y” − y = t, y(0) = 1, y’(0) = 1

Solution. Step 1.
Apply Laplace transform on both sides
L{y”} − L{y} = L{t}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) − Y = 1/s2,
Collect terms, thus
(s2 − 1)Y = s + 1 + 1/s2.

Section 6.2 p65

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation
Divide by (s2 − 1), and the equation becomes
s+1 1
Y= 2 + .
(s − 1) s2(s2 − 1)
Simplification of the first fraction and an expansion of the
1 1
last fraction gives Y = + .
(s − 1) s2(s2 − 1)

Gives 1  1 1
Y  2  2 .
s1  s 1 s 

Section 6.2 p66

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 3.
From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace inverse
of each term, we obtain the solution

1 1 1
L−1 {Y}=L−1 { } +L−1 { 2 } − L−1 {s2}
(s − 1) (s − 1)

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 + sinh 𝑡 − 𝑡

Section 6.2 p67

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

The diagram summarizes our approach.

Section 6.2 p68

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Advantages of the Laplace Method

1. Solving a nonhomogeneous ODE does not require first
solving the homogeneous ODE.
2. Initial values are automatically taken care of.
3. Complicated inputs r(t) (right sides of linear ODEs) can be
handled very efficiently, as we show in the next sections.

Section 6.2 p69

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve
y” − y’ − 2y = 0, y(0) = 1, y’(0) = 0

Solution.
Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides
L{y”} − L{y’} -2 L{y} = L{0}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) − (sY − y(0) )− 2Y = 0,
2
So, s Y − s − (sY − 1 )− 2Y = 0,

Collect terms, thus (s2 − s− 2)Y − s + 1= 0

Section 6.2 p70

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation (s2 −s− 2)Y − s+1= 0
Thus,
s−1 s−1
Y= 2 =
(s − s− 2) (s−2)(s+1)
A B
Using partial fractions gives Y = +
(s−2) (s+1)
where 𝑠 − 1 = 𝐴 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐵(𝑠 − 2)
1 2
set 𝑠 = −1, 𝑠 = 2 we obtain 𝐴 = 3 , 𝐵 = 3 .
1 2
3 3
Thus Y = +
(s−2) (s+1)

Section 6.2 p71

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 3.
From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace inverse
of each term, we obtain the solution

1 1 2 1
L−1 {Y}= L−1 { } + L−1 { }
3 (s−2) 3 (s+1)
Thus,
1 2
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡
3 3

Section 6.2 p72

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve
y” +9y = 10 𝑒 −𝑡 , y(0) = 0, y’(0) = 0

Solution. Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides

L{y”} + 9 L{y} = 10 L{𝑒 −𝑡 }
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
1
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0)+ 9Y = 10 𝑠+1,
1
So, s2Y + 9Y = 10 𝑠+1,

1
Collect terms, thus (s2 + 9)Y = 10 𝑠+1

Section 6.2 p73

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
10
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation (s2 + 9)Y = 𝑠+1
Thus,
10
Y=
(s+1)(s2 + 9)
A B𝑠+𝐶
Using partial fractions gives Y = +
(s+1) (s2 + 9)
where 10 = 𝐴(s2 + 9) + (B𝑠 + 𝐶)(𝑠 + 1)
set 𝑠 = −1, 𝑠 = 0, 𝑠 = 1 we obtain 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1, 𝐶 = 1.
1 −𝑠+1
Thus Y = + which can be written as
(s+1) (s2 + 9)
1 −𝑠 1
Y= + +
(s+1) (s2 + 9) (s2 + 9)
Now,
1 𝑠 1 3
Y= − 2 +3 2
(s+1) (s + 9) (s + 9)
Section 6.2 p74

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 3.
From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace inverse
of each term, we obtain the solution

1 𝑠 1 3
L−1 {Y}=L−1 { } − L−1 { 2 } + L−1 { 2 }
(s+1) (s + 9) 3 (s + 9)
Thus,
1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 − cos 3𝑡 + sin(3𝑡)
3

Section 6.2 p75

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve y” − 4 y’ + 4y = 0, y(0) =8 , y’(0) = 2

Solution. Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides

L{y”} − 4 L{y’} + 4 L{y} = L{0}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) − 4 (sY − y(0)) + 4Y = 0,

So, s2Y − 8s − 2− 4 (sY − 8) + 4Y = 0,

Collect terms, thus (s2 − 4s + 4)Y − 8s + 30 = 0

Section 6.2 p76

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation
(s2 − 4s + 4)Y − 8s + 30 = 0
Thus,
Y = (s28s− 4s
− 30
=
8s − 30
+ 4) (s − 2)2
Since we have (s − 2) in the denominator, so need to have
the same shifting on the numerator.
8s −16+16 − 30 8s −16+16 − 30 8(s −2) −14
Y= = =
(s − 2) 2 (s − 2)2 (s − 2)2
(s −2) 1 1 1
Thus, Y = 8 − 14 =8 − 14
(s − 2)2 (s − 2)2 (s − 2) (s − 2)2

Section 6.2 p77

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 3.
From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace inverse
of each term, we obtain the solution

1 1!
L−1 {Y} = 8 L−1 { } − 14L−1 { }
(s − 2) (s − 2)2

Thus,
𝑦 𝑡 = 8𝑒 2𝑡 − 14 𝑡 𝑒 2𝑡

Section 6.2 p78

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve y” + y’ + 9y = 0, y(0) =0.16 , y’(0) = 0

Solution. Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides

L{y”} + L{y’} + 9 L{y} = L{0}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) + (sY − y(0)) + 9Y = 0,

So, s2Y − 0.16s + (sY − 0.16) + 9Y = 0,

Collect terms, thus (s2 + s + 9)Y − 0.16s − 0.16 = 0

Section 6.2 p79

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation
(s2 + s + 9)Y − 0.16s − 0.16 = 0
Thus,
Y = 0.16s + 0.16
(s2 + s + 9)
Need to do completing the square in the denominator.
0.16s + 0.16 0.16s + 0.16 0.16s + 0.16
Y = s2 + s+ 9 = 2 1 1 =
s + s+ − +9
4 4
(s+12)2 − 14 +36
4

0.16s + 0.08− 0.08 + 0.16 0.16(s+12)+ 0.08

Thus, Y = =
(s+12)2+35
4 (s+1)2+( 35)2 2 2

0.16(s+12)+ 0.08
Y=
(s+12)2+( 35 2
2
)

Section 6.2 p80

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
0.16(s+12) 0.08
Thus Y = 1 2 35 2
+ 1 2 35
(s+2) +( 2 ) (s+2) +( 2 )2
1 35
(s+ 2 ) 1
= 0.16 + 0.08 2
1 2 35 2 35 1 2 35 2
(s+ 2 ) + ( 2 ) 2 (s+ 2 ) + ( 2 )
Step 3. From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace
inverse of each term, we obtain the solution
(s+12) 1
35
L {Y} = 0.16 L { 1 2 35 } + 0.08 35 L { 1 2 35 }
−1 −1 −1 2
(s+2) +( 2 )2 2
(s+2) +( 2 )2
Thus,
35 1 2 35 1
𝑦 𝑡 = 0.16 cos( 𝑡)𝑒 −2𝑡 + 0.08 sin( 𝑡)𝑒 −2𝑡
2 35 2
Section 6.2 p81

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Example: Solve y” − 6 y’ + 5y = 29 cos(2t),

y(0) =3.2 , y’(0) = 6.2

Solution. Step 1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides

L{y”} −6 L{y’} + 5 L{y} = 29 L{cos(2t)}
where Y = L{y}, we get the subsidiary equation
𝑠
s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) −6 (sY − y(0)) + 5Y = 29 𝑠2 +4

𝑠
So, s2Y − 3.2s − 6.2 − 6 (sY − 3.2) + 5Y = 29
𝑠2 +4

𝑠
Collect terms, thus (s2 −6s + 5)Y − 3.2s − 6.2+ 19.2 = 29 𝑠2 +4

𝑠
(s2 −6s + 5)Y = 29 𝑠2 +4 + 3.2s − 13

Section 6.2 p82

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
Step 2. Make Y subject of the equation
29 s 3.2 s − 13
Y= 2 2 + 2
(s + 4)(s − 6s + 5) (s − 6s + 5)
Thus,
29 s + (3.2 s − 13)(s2 +4)
Y=
(s2 + 4)(s2 − 6s + 5)
Need to do simplify the denominator.
29 s + (3.2 s − 13)(s2 +4)
Y=
(s2 + 4)(s− 5)(s −1)
Using partial fractions
A B C s+ D
Y= + +
(s −1) (s− 5) (s2 + 4)
Where
29 s + (3.2 s − 13)(s2 +4) = 𝐴(𝑠 − 5)(s2 + 4)+B(s −1)(s2 + 4)+(C s +D)(s− 5)(s −1)
Thus, A = 1, B = 2, C = 0.2, D = 4.8
Section 6.2 p83

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Solution (continued)
1 2 0.2 s + 4.8
Thus Y = s −1 + s− 5 + s2 + 4
1 2 s 4.8 2
= s −1 + s− 5 + 0.2 s2 + 4 + 2 s2 + 4
Step 3. From this expression for Y and taking the Laplace
inverse of each term, we obtain the solution
L−1 {Y}
1 1 s 4.8 −1 2
= L−1 { } + 2 L−1 { } + 0.2 L−1 { 2 }+ L { 2 }
s −1 s− 5 s +4 2 s +4

Thus,
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 + 2𝑒 5𝑡 + 0.2 cos 2𝑡 + 2.4 sin(2𝑡)

Section 6.2 p84

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

𝑡
Example: Solve y’+ 2y+‫׬‬0 y 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 1 y(0)=0.
Solution:
• Apply Laplace on both sides
𝑡
L {y’+ 2y+‫׬‬0 y 𝜏 𝑑𝜏} = L {1}.
𝑡
Then: L {y’ }+ 2 L { y}+ L { ‫׬‬0 y 𝜏 𝑑𝜏} = L {1}.
Y 1 Y 1
sY − y(0)+2Y+ = 𝑠. Then, sY +2Y+ =𝑠
𝑠 𝑠

Multiply by s to obtain 𝑠 2 Y +2sY+ Y = 1

• Make Y subject of the equation (𝑠 2 +2s+ 1)Y = 1
1 1 1
Y= 2 = =
(𝑠 +2s+ 1) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2

Section 6.3 p85

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6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

1 1 1
Y= = =
(𝑠 2 +2s+ 1) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2
• Taking the Laplace inverse of each term, we obtain the
solution
1
L−1 {Y} = L−1 { }
(𝑠 + 1)2
= 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡

Section 6.3 p86

6.2 Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs

Excercises: Solve the following I.V.P.

1) y” − y’ − 2y = 0, y(0) =1 , y’(0) = 0
2) y” + y = sin(2t), y(0) =2 , y’(0) = 0
3) y” −2 y’ +2 y = 𝑒 −𝑡 , y(0) =0 , y’(0) = 1
4) y” −2 y’ +2 y = cos(t), y(0) =1 , y’(0) = 0

Section 6.2 p87

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6.3Unit Step Function

(Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem

(t-Shifting)

Section 6.3 p88

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

We shall introduce two auxiliary functions,

1) the unit step function or Heaviside function u(t − a)
2) (following) and Dirac’s delta δ(t − a) (in Sec. 6.4).

These functions are suitable for solving ODEs with

complicated right sides of considerable engineering interest,
such as single waves, inputs (driving forces) that are
discontinuous or act for some time only, periodic inputs
more general than just cosine and sine, or impulsive forces
acting for an instant (hammerblows, for example).

Section 6.3 p89

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂)
The unit step function or Heaviside function
𝑢𝑎 𝑡 = u(t − a) is 0 for t < a, has a jump of size 1 at t = a
(where we can leave it undefined), and is 1 for t > a, in a
formula:
0 if t  a
u(t  a)  
(1) 1 if t  a (a ≥ 0).
The Figure shows the case u(t − a) for an arbitrary positive a.

Section 6.3 p90

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

The next Figure shows the special case u(t), which has its
jump at zero,

Section 6.3 p91

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂)
Some textbooks and authors have equality in the definition
of the unit step function or Heaviside function
𝑢𝑎 𝑡 = u(t − a) is 0 for t < a, has a jump of size 1 at t = a
(where we can leave it undefined), and is 1 for t > a, in a
formula: 0 if 𝑡 < 𝑎
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = ቊ (a ≥ 0).
1 if 𝒕 ≥ 𝒂

Section 6.3 p92

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
(2) L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 }= , 𝑠>0 . (a ≥ 0).
𝑠

The transform of 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 follows directly from the

defining integral
∞
L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 }= ‫׬‬0 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 ∞
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
= න 0. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑎 𝑠

Section 6.3 p93

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Examples:
𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠
1. L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 }= L { 𝑢2 𝑡 }=
𝑠 𝑠
𝑒 −3𝑠 𝑒 −3𝑠
2. L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 3 }= 𝑠 L { 𝑢3 𝑡 }= 𝑠
𝑒 −1𝑠 𝑒 −1𝑠
3. L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 }= 𝑠 L { 𝑢1 𝑡 }= 𝑠
𝑒 −0𝑠 1 𝑒 −0𝑠 1
4. L { 𝑢 𝑡 − 0 }= 𝑠 = L { 𝑢0 𝑡 }= 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑠

1
5. L { 𝑢 𝑡 + 4 }= 𝑠 Why? Sketch 𝑢 𝑡 + 4 to see why!

Section 6.3 p94

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

Multiplying functions f (t) with u(t − a), we can produce all

sorts of effects. The simple basic idea is illustrated in the next
figures.
In the Figure,
the given function, 𝑓 𝑡 = 5 sin(𝑡) is shown in (A).
In (B) it is switched off between t = 0 and t = 2 (because
u(t − 2) = 0 when t < 2) and is switched ON beginning at t = 2.

In (C) it is shifted to the right by 2 units, say, for instance, by 2

sec, so that it begins 2 sec later in the same fashion as before.

Section 6.3 p95

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

Effects of the unit step function:

(A) Given function.
(B) Switching off and on.
(C) Shift.
Section 6.3 p96

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

More generally we have the following.

Let f(t) = 0 for all negative t.
Then f(t − a)u(t − a) with a > 0 is
f(t) shifted (translated) to the right by the amount a.

Section 6.3 p97

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) (continued)

The following Figure shows the effect of many unit step
functions, three of them in (A) and infinitely many in (B)
when continued periodically to the right; this is the effect
of a rectifier that clips off the negative half-waves of a
sinuosidal voltage.

Use of many unit step functions

Section 6.3 p98

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Example: Sketch 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝜋

0 𝑡<𝜋
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝜋 = ቐ 1 𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
0 𝑡 > 2𝜋

Section 6.3 p99

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
In general, for 𝑎 < 𝑏,

0 𝑡<𝑎
𝑢 𝑡−𝑎 −𝑢 𝑡−𝑏 =ቐ 1 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
0 𝑡>𝑏

Example: Sketch 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2

0 𝑡<1
𝑢 𝑡−1 −𝑢 𝑡−2 =ቐ 1 1≤𝑡≤2
0 𝑡>2

Section 6.3 p100

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Sketch 𝑡 2 𝑢 𝑡 − 1

Example: Sketch 𝑡 2 [𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)]

Section 6.3 p101

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Sketch sin(𝑡)[𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋)]

Section 6.3 p102

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Write the following function using unit step

functions. 2 if 0  t  1

1 1
f (t )   t 2 if 1  t  
2 2
cos t if
1
t  .

 2

Solution: In terms of unit step functions

𝑓 𝑡
𝑡2 𝜋 𝜋
= 2 𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − + cos 𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡 − ).
2 2 2

Also, Note that 2[1 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)] gives f(t) for 0 < t < 1.
Section 6.3 p103

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Write the following function using unit step

functions.
𝑡 𝑡<2
𝑓 𝑡 = ቐsin 3𝑡 2≤𝑡<5
𝑒 3𝑡 𝑡≥5

Solution: In terms of unit step functions

𝑓 𝑡
= 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 + sin 3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 5 + 𝑒 3𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡 − 5).

Section 6.3 p104

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Write the following function using unit step

functions.
2 0≤𝑡<1
𝑡2
𝑓 𝑡 =൞ 2 1≤𝑡<𝜋
cos(𝑡) 𝑡≥𝜋

Section 6.3 p105

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Time Shifting (t-Shifting): Replacing 𝒕 by 𝒕 − 𝒂 in 𝒇 (𝒕)

The first shifting theorem (“s-shifting”) in Sec. 6.1

concerned transforms F(s) = L {f(t)} and L{eatf(t)} = F(s − a).

The second shifting theorem will concern functions f(t)

and f(t − a). Unit Step functions are just tools.

Section 6.3 p106

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Theorem 1: Second Shifting Theorem; Time Shifting

If f(t) has the transform F(s) then the “shifted function”

(3)  0 if t  a
f (t )  f (t  a)u(t  a)  
 f (t  a) if t  a
has the transform e F(s).−as

That is, if L {f(t)} = F(s), then

(4) L {f(t − a)u(t − a)} = e−as L {f(t)} = e−as F(s).
Or, if we take the inverse on both sides, we can write
(4*) f(t − a)u(t − a)} = L−1{e−asF(s)}.

Practically, if we know 𝐹(𝑠), we can obtain the transform of

f(t − a)u(t − a)} by multiplying 𝐹 𝑠 by e−as
Section 6.3 p107

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Recall: If L {f(t)} = F(s), then L {f(t − a)u(t − a)} = e−as L {f(t)} = e−asF(s).

Corollary: If L {f(t)} = F(s), then

And
L {f(t)u(t − a)} = e−as L {f(t + a)}.

Section 6.3 p108

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of 5 sin 𝑡 − 2 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 .

Solution: We will use L {f(t − a)u(t − a)} = e−asF(s).

Then L {5 sin 𝑡 − 2 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 } = 5 L {sin 𝑡 − 2 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 }

= 5 e−2s L {sin 𝑡 }
1
= 5 e−2s 𝑠2 +1

Section 6.3 p109

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of 5 sin 3 𝑡 − 2 . 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 .

Solution: We will use L {f(t − a)u(t − a)} = e−asF(s).

Then L {5 sin 3 𝑡 − 2 . 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 } = 5 L {sin 3 𝑡 − 2 . 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 }

= 5 e−2s L {sin 3𝑡 }
3
= 5 e−2s 𝑠2 +9

Section 6.3 p110

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑒 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 .

Solution: We will use L {f(t)u(t − a)} = e−as L {f(t+a)}.

Then L {𝑒 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 } = e−2s L {𝑒 𝑡+2 }

= e−2s L {𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 2 }
= 𝑒 2 e−2s L {𝑒 𝑡 }
1
= 𝑒 2 e−2s 𝑠−1
1
= e−2s+2 𝑠−1

Section 6.3 p111

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑒 3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 .

Solution: We will use L {f(t)u(t − a)} = e−as L {f(t+a)}.

Then L {𝑒 3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 } = e−2s L {𝑒 3(𝑡+2) }

= e−2s L {𝑒 3𝑡+6 }
= e−2s L {𝑒 3𝑡 𝑒 6 }
= 𝑒 6 e−2s L {𝑒 3𝑡 }
1
= 𝑒 6 e−2s 𝑠−3
1
= e−2s+6 𝑠−3

Section 6.3 p112

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Application of Unit Step Functions
Example: Write the following function using unit step
functions and find its transform.
2 0<𝑡<1
𝑓 𝑡 = ቐ3 1 < 𝑡 < 𝜋
4 𝑡>𝜋
Solution
Step 1. In terms of unit step functions
𝑓 (𝑡)
= 2[𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 ] + 3[𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 ] + 4𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋).
= 2𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 3𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 3𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 + 4𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋).

Section 6.3 p113

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Solution (continued)
Step 2. Apply Laplace transform
L{𝑓 (𝑡)} = L{2𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 3𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 3𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 + 4𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)}

= L{2𝑢 𝑡 } − L{2𝑢 𝑡 − 1 } + L{3𝑢 𝑡 − 1 } − L{3𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 } + L{4𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)}

= 2 L{𝑢 𝑡 } − 2L{𝑢 𝑡 − 1 } + 3L{𝑢 𝑡 − 1 } − 3L{𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 } + 4L{𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)}

𝑒 −0.𝑠 𝑒 −1.𝑠 𝑒 −1.𝑠 𝑒 −𝜋.𝑠 𝑒 −𝜋.𝑠

𝐹 𝑠 =2 −2 +3 −3 +4
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Section 6.3 p114

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Application of Theorem 1. Use of Unit Step Functions
Example: Write the following function using unit step
functions and find its transform.

2 if 0  t  1
 1 1
f (t )   t 2 if 1  t  
2 2
cos t if t  1  .
 2

Section 6.3 p115

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Solution
Step 1. In terms of unit step functions
𝑡2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑡) = 2[𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 ] + [𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − ] + cos(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡 − ).
22 2 2
𝑡 𝑡2 𝜋 𝜋
= 2𝑢(𝑡) − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) − 𝑢(𝑡 − ) + cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − ).
2 2 2 2

Step 2. Apply Laplace transform

𝑡2 𝑡2 𝜋 𝜋
L{𝑓 (𝑡)} = L{2𝑢(𝑡) − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) − 𝑢(𝑡 − ) + cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − )}
2 2 2 2

2 2
𝑡 𝑡 𝜋 𝜋
=L{2𝑢(𝑡)} − L{2𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} + L{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} − L{ 𝑢(𝑡 − )} + L{cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − )}
2 2 2 2

1 1 𝜋 𝜋
= 2L{𝑢(𝑡)} − 2L{𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} + L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} − L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − )} + L{cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − )}
2 2 2 2

Section 6.3 p116

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
Solution (continued)
𝑒 −0𝑠 1
• L{𝑢 𝑡 } = =
𝑠 𝑠

𝑒 −1𝑠
• L{𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} =
𝑠

• L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑒 −1𝑠 L{ 𝑡 + 1 2}

2! 1! 1
= 𝑒 −𝑠 L{𝑡2 + 2𝑡 + 1} = 𝑒 −𝑠 +2 +
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋2
• L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − )} = 𝑒 −2 𝑠 L{(𝑡 + )2} = 𝑒 −2 𝑠 L{𝑡2 + 𝜋𝑡 + }
2 2 𝜋
4
2! 1! 𝜋2 1
= 𝑒 −2 𝑠 + 𝜋 2+
𝑠3 𝑠 4 𝑠

𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
• L{cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − )} = 𝑒 −2 𝑠 L{cos(t + )}
2 𝜋 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 −2 𝑠 L{cos t cos − sin sin(t)}
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 − 𝑠
2 L{cos t . 0 − 1. sin(t)} = − 𝑒 −2 𝑠 L{sin(t)}
𝜋
1
= − 𝑒 −2 𝑠
Section 6.3 p117 𝑠 2 +1

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Solution (continued)
1 1 𝜋 𝜋
L{𝑓 𝑡 } = 2L{𝑢(𝑡)} − 2L{𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} + L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − 1)} − L{𝑡2𝑢(𝑡 − )} + L{cos(t)𝑢(𝑡 − )}
2 2 2 2

L{𝑓 𝑡 }
1 𝑒 −𝑠 1 −𝑠 2! 1! 1 1 𝜋 2! 1! 𝜋2 1 𝜋 1
=2 −2 + 𝑒 3 +2 2+ − 𝑒 −2 𝑠 3 + 𝜋 2 + − 𝑒 −2 𝑠 2
𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 4 𝑠 𝑠 +1

Section 6.3 p118

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Represent the following functions using unit step

functions and find its transform.
1. 𝑡 0 < 𝑡 < 2.
2. (𝑡 − 3) 𝑡 > 3.
3. cos(2𝑡) 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜋.
𝜋
4. 𝑒 𝑡 0 < 𝑡 < 2.
5. 𝑒 −𝑡 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜋.
6. s𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑡) 2 < 𝑡 < 4.
𝜋
− 𝑡
7. 𝑒 2 1 < 𝑡 < 3.
8. 𝑡 2 1 < 𝑡 < 2.
9. s𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑡) 0 < 𝑡 < 2.
Section 6.3 p119

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

𝑒 −𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform 𝑓 𝑡 of 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠2 +𝜋2
𝑒 −𝑠 1
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝜋2 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑠2 +𝜋2
1 𝜋
= 𝑒 −𝑠 . 2
𝜋 𝑠 + 𝜋2
Take L−1.
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
L−1{F(s)}= L−1{𝑒 −𝑠 𝜋 . 𝑠2 +𝜋2 }= 𝜋 L−1{𝑒 −𝑠 𝑠2 +𝜋2 }
1
= 𝜋 sin 𝜋(𝑡 − 1) . 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Section 6.3 p120

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

𝑠𝑒 −2𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform 𝑓 𝑡 of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝜋2
𝑠𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝜋2 = 𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠2 +𝜋2

Take L−1.
𝑠
L−1{F(s)}= L−1{𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠2 +𝜋2 }
= cos 𝜋(𝑡 − 2) . 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)

Section 6.3 p121

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
1
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform 𝑓 𝑡 of 𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠+2)2
1 1!
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = =
(𝑠+2)2 (𝑠+2)2

Take L−1.
1!
L−1{F(s)}= L−1 { }
(𝑠+2)2

=(𝑡)𝑒 −2(𝑡)
𝑒 −3𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform 𝑓 𝑡 of 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+2)2

𝑒 −3𝑠 1 1!
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+2)2 = 𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠+2)2 = 𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠+2)2

Take L−1.
1!
L−1{F(s)}= L−1{𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠+2)2 }

Section 6.3 p122 =(𝑡 − 3)𝑒 −2(𝑡−3) . 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
𝑒 −3𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−1)3

Solution: Without exponential function 𝑒 −3𝑠 in the numerator.

The inverse Laplace transform is 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 .
But, 𝑒 −3𝑠 add t-shifting to the function 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 .
𝑒 −3𝑠 −3𝑠
1
𝐹 𝑠 = = 𝑒
(𝑠 − 1)3 (𝑠 − 1)3
1 2!
= 𝑒 −3𝑠
2! (𝑠 − 1)3
Take L−1.
1 2! 1 2!
L−1{F(s)}=L−1{𝑒 −3𝑠 2! (𝑠−1)3 }= 2! L−1{𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠−1)3 }
1
Section 6.3 p123 = 2! (𝑡 − 3)2 𝑒 (𝑡−3) 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
6+6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +9
6+6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 6 6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = = 𝑠2 +9 +
𝑠2 +9 𝑠2 +9
1 1
=6 + 6 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
𝑠2 + 9 𝑠2 + 9
1 3 1 3
= 6 3 𝑠2 +9 + 6 3 𝑠2 +9 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Take L−1.
3 3
L−1{F(s)} = L−1{2 𝑠2 +9 + 2 𝑠2 +9 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 }
3 3
= 2 L−1{ } + 2L−1{ 2 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 }
𝑠2 +9 𝑠 +9
𝑓 𝑡 = 2 sin 3𝑡 + 2 sin 3(𝑡 − 𝜋) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)
Section 6.3 p124

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
𝑒 −2𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2
𝑒 −2𝑠 1
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2 𝑒 −2𝑠
1 𝐴 𝐵
= 𝑒 −2𝑠 = + (𝑠−1) 𝑒 −2𝑠
(𝑠+2)(𝑠−1) (𝑠+2)
1 1
Where 1 = A s − 1 + B(𝑠 + 2) so A = − , 𝐵 =
3 3
1 1 1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = − + 𝑒 −2𝑠
3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

Take L−1.
1 1 1 1
L−1{F(s)}=L−1 − 3 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 3 𝑒 −2𝑠
𝑠+2 𝑠−1

1 1
𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−2
𝑢(𝑡 − 2) + 𝑒 𝑡−2
𝑢(𝑡 − 2)
3 3
Section 6.3 p125

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
𝑒 −2𝑠+3
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2
𝑒 −2𝑠+3 1
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2 = 𝑠2 +𝑠−2 𝑒 −2𝑠+3
1 𝐴 𝐵
= 𝑒 3 𝑒 −2𝑠 = + 𝑒 3 𝑒 −2𝑠
(𝑠+2)(𝑠−1) (𝑠+2) (𝑠−1)
1 1
Where 1 = A s − 1 + B(𝑠 + 2) so A = − , 𝐵 =
3 3
1 1 1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = − + 𝑒 3 𝑒 −2𝑠
3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

Take L−1.
1 1 1 1
L−1{F(s)}= 𝑒 3 L−1 − 3 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 3 𝑒 −2𝑠
𝑠+2 𝑠−1

1 1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 3 − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−2 𝑢(𝑡 − 2) + 𝑒 𝑡−2
𝑢(𝑡 − 2)
3 3
Section 6.3 p126

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
(2𝑠−2)𝑒 −5𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+2
(2𝑠−2)𝑒 −5𝑠 (2𝑠−2)
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+2 𝑒 −5𝑠
𝑠2 −2𝑠+2
(2𝑠−2) 2(𝑠−1)
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+1−1+2 𝑒 −5𝑠 = (𝑠−1)2 +1 𝑒 −5𝑠
(𝑠 − 1)
𝐹 𝑠 =2 𝑒 −5𝑠
(𝑠 − 1)2 +1

Take L−1.
(𝑠−1)
L−1{F(s)}=L−1 2 (𝑠−1)2 +1 𝑒 −5𝑠 =

𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 (𝑡−5) cos(𝑡 − 5)𝑢(𝑡 − 5)

Section 6.3 p127

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)
(2𝑠+2)𝑒 −5𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+2
−5𝑠
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = (2𝑠+2)𝑒
𝑠 2 −2𝑠+2
(2𝑠+2)
= 2
𝑠 −2𝑠+2
𝑒 −5𝑠
(2𝑠+2) 2𝑠+2
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑒 −5𝑠 = 𝑒 −5𝑠
𝑠 2 −2𝑠+1−1+2 (𝑠−1)2 +1

2𝑠−2+2+2 2 𝑠−1 +4 2 𝑠−1 +4

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑒 −5𝑠 = 𝑒 −5𝑠 = 𝑒 −5𝑠
(𝑠−1)2 +1 (𝑠−1)2 +1 (𝑠−1)2 +1
𝑠−1 1
𝐹 𝑠 = 2 + 4 𝑒 −5𝑠
(𝑠−1)2 +1 (𝑠−1)2 +1

Take L−1.
𝑠−1 1
L−1{F(s)}=L−1 2 𝑒 −5𝑠 +4 𝑒 −5𝑠 =
(𝑠−1)2 +1 (𝑠−1)2 +1

𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 (𝑡−5) cos 𝑡 − 5 𝑢 𝑡 − 5 + 4𝑒 (𝑡−5) sin(𝑡 − 5)𝑢(𝑡 − 5)

Section 6.3 p128

6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

6−6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −4
6−6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 6 6𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = = 𝑠2 −4 −
𝑠2 −4 𝑠2 −4
1 1 −𝜋𝑠
1 2 1 2
=6 − 6 𝑒 = 6 − 6 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
𝑠2 − 4 𝑠2 − 4 2 𝑠2 − 4 2 𝑠2 − 4
Take L−1.
2 2 2 2
L−1{F(s)}=L−1{3 𝑠2 −4 − 3 𝑠2 −4 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 }=3 L−1{ 𝑠2 −4 } − 3L−1{ 𝑠2 −4 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 }

𝑓 𝑡 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑡 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2(𝑡 − 𝜋) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)

Section 6.3 p129

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6.3 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function).

Second Shifting Theorem (t-Shifting)

Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of

𝑒 −2𝑠
1. 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠−1)3
4−4𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
2. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 +4
4𝑒 −2𝑠 −2𝑒 −5𝑠
3. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑒 −2𝑠
4. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠6
(2𝑠+3)𝑒 −5𝑠
5. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+2
𝑠 𝑒 −5𝑠
6. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2 −2𝑠+2

Section 6.3 p130

6.4
Short Impulses.
Dirac’s Delta Function.
Partial Fractions

Section 6.4 p131

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

An airplane making a “hard” landing, a mechanical

system being hit by a hammerblow, a ship being hit by a
single high wave, a tennis ball being hit by a racket, and
many other similar examples appear in everyday life.

They are phenomena of an impulsive nature where

actions of forces—mechanical, electrical, etc.—are applied
over short intervals of time.
We can model such phenomena and problems by
“Dirac’s delta function,” and solve them very effectively by
the Laplace transform.

Section 6.4 p132

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

To model situations of that type, we consider the function

1 / k if a  t  a  k
(1) f k (t  a)  
0 otherwise

This function represents, for instance, a force of

magnitude 1/k acting from t = a to t = a + k, where k is
positive and small.
Section 6.4 p133

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

1 / k if a  t  a  k
f k (t  a)  
0 otherwise
Examples:
1
0≤𝑡≤𝑘
1. 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 = ൝ 𝑘
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1
0≤𝑡≤2
2. 𝑓2 𝑡 = ൝ 2
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1
0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.5 2 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.5
3. 𝑓0.5 𝑡 = ൝0.5 =ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1000 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.001
4. 𝑓0.001 𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Section 6.4 p134

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

1 / k if a  t  a  k
f k (t  a)  
0 otherwise
Examples:
1
5≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5+𝑘
1. 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 − 5 = ൝ 𝑘
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1
𝑎 ≤𝑡 ≤𝑎+2
2. 𝑓2 𝑡 − 𝑎 = ൝2
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
2
3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3 + 0.5
3. 𝑓0.5 𝑡 − 3 = ቊ
0
𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1000 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎 + 0.001
4. 𝑓0.001 𝑡−𝑎 =ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Section 6.4 p135

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Recall:
1
𝑎 ≤𝑡 ≤𝑎+𝑘
𝑓𝑘 𝑡 − 𝑎 = ቐ𝑘
𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
0

Note:
∞

න 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0

Section 6.4 p136

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

To find out what will happen if k becomes smaller and

smaller, we take the limit of fk as k→0 (k > 0).
This limit is denoted by δ(t − a), that is,
∞ 𝑎≤𝑡 ≤𝑎+0
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑎 = lim 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 − 𝑎 = ൜ 𝒂>𝟎
𝑘→0 0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
δ(t − a) is called the Dirac delta function or the unit impulse
function.
δ(t − a) is not a function in the ordinary sense as used in
calculus, but a so-called generalized function (distribution).

Section 6.4 p137

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

So, by taking the limit as k→0 we obtain

 if t  a
 t  a   and
0 otherwise
∞ ∞

න 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡 = lim න 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 1

𝑘→0
0 0

From calculus we know that a function which is

everywhere 0 except at a single point must have the
integral equal to 0.
Nevertheless, in impulse problems, it is convenient to
operate on δ(t − a) as though it were an ordinary function.

Section 6.4 p138

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Properties:
In particular, for a continuous function g(t) one uses the
property [often called the sifting property of δ(t − a), not
to be confused with shifting]


0
g(t ) (t  a)dt  g( a)

Example:
∞

න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜋 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝜋 = −1
0

Section 6.4 p139

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

To obtain the Laplace transform of δ(t − a) we write

1
f k (t  a)  u(t  a)  u(t  ( a  k )) 
k
and take the transform
1  as ( a k ) s 1  e  ks
LL f k (t  a)   e  e   e  as .
ks ks
We now take the limit as k→0. By l’Hôpital’s rule the
quotient on the right has the limit 1 (differentiate the
numerator and the denominator separately with respect to
k, obtaining se−ks and s, respectively, and use se−ks/s →1 as
k→0). Hence the right side has the limit e−as.
This suggests defining the transform of δ(t − a) by this limit,
that is,
L 𝛿 𝑡−𝑎 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
Section 6.4 p140

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Examples:
1. L 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 = 𝑒 −2𝑠
2. L 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜋 = 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
3. L 𝛿 𝑡 =L 𝛿 𝑡−0 = 𝑒 −0𝑠 = 1

Note:
L 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑠

Examples:
1. L 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜋 cos(𝑡) = cos(𝜋)𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 = −1𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
2. L 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜋 sin(𝑡) = sin(𝜋)𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 = 0. 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 = 0

Section 6.4 p141

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Note:
• L𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑒 −0𝑠 = 1

• Using the rule 𝐿 𝑦’ = 𝑠𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑌 − 𝑦(0).

𝑑
If y(0)=0 then 𝐿−1 𝑠. 𝑌 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 .
𝑑
• Then, 𝐿−1 𝑠 =L−1{s.1} = 𝑑𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿′ 𝑡
• L−1{s} = 𝛿′ 𝑡
• More generally, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, L−1{𝑠 𝑛 }= 𝛿 (𝑛) 𝑡

Section 6.4 p142

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Solve y” + 4y = 𝛿(t − 𝜋), y(0) = 8, y’(0)=0

Solution:
• Apply Laplace transform L{y” + 4y} = L{𝛿(t − 𝜋)}
Then subsidiary equation is 𝑠2Y − 8𝑠 + 4Y = 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
Collect the terms
𝑠2 + 4 Y = 8𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
8𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 𝑠 1
Y(s) = = 8 + 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
𝑠2 + 4 𝑠2 + 4 𝑠2 + 4

𝑠 1 2
=8 2
+ 2
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
𝑠 +4 2 𝑠 +4
• Take L−1
1
y 𝑡 = 8 cos 2𝑡 + sin 2(𝑡 − 𝜋) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)
2
Section 6.4 p143

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Solve y” + y = 𝛿(t − 𝜋) − 𝛿(t − 2𝜋), y(0) = 0, y’(0)=1.
Solution:
• Apply Laplace transform
L{y” + y} = L{𝛿(t − 𝜋) − 𝛿(t − 2𝜋)}
Then subsidiary equation is 𝑠2Y − 0. 𝑠 − 1 + Y = 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 − 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠
Collect the terms
𝑠2 + 1 Y = 1 + 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 − 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
1 + 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 − 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 1 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠
Y(s) = = 2 + 2 − 2
𝑠2 + 1 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1
1 1 1
Y(s) = 2 + 2 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠
𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1

• Take L−1
y 𝑡 = sin 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 − 𝜋 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 − sin (𝑡 − 2𝜋) 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋)
Section 6.4 p144

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Find the response of the system
y” + 3y’ + 2y = δ(t − 1), y(0) = 0, y’(0)=0.
Solution.
• Apply Laplace transform L{y” + 3y’ + 2y} = L{𝛿(t − 1)}
Then subsidiary equation is
𝑠2Y − 𝑠y 0 − y’(0) + 3 𝑠Y − y 0 + 2Y = 𝑒 −1𝑠
Which simplified as 𝑠2Y + 3𝑠Y + 2Y = 𝑒 −𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
𝑒 −𝑠 1 1
Y= 2 = 2 𝑒 −𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑠
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝐴 𝐵
Y= + 𝑒 −𝑠
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
1=𝐴 𝑠+2 +𝐵 𝑠+1 . Then 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1.
1 −1
Hence, Y = 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝑠
(𝑠+1) (𝑠+2)
Section 6.4 p145

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

1 −1
Now, Y = (𝑠+1) 𝑒 −𝑠 + (𝑠+2) 𝑒 −𝑠
• Take L−1
y 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑡−1 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−1 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

= [𝑒 − 𝑡−1 − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−1 ]𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Note that the final answer can be written as:

0 0<𝑡<1
y 𝑡 = ቊ − 𝑡−1 −2 𝑡−1
𝑒 −𝑒 𝑡>1

Section 6.4 p146

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Find the response of the system
y” + 3y’ + 2y = u(t − 1), y(0) = 0, y’(0)=0.
Solution.
• Apply Laplace transform L{y” + 3y’ + 2y} = L{u(t − 1)}
Then subsidiary equation is
𝑒 −1𝑠
𝑠2Y − 𝑠y 0 − y’(0) + 3 𝑠Y − y 0 + 2Y = 𝑠
𝑒 −1𝑠
Which simplified as 𝑠2Y + 3𝑠Y + 2Y = 𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
𝑒 −𝑠 1 −𝑠
1
Y= = 𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑠
𝑠(𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2) 𝑠 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Y= + + 𝑒 −𝑠
𝑠 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
Then 1 = 𝐴(s+1)(s+2)+Bs(s+2)+Cs(s+1)
𝐴 =, 𝐵 = , 𝐶 = .
Section 6.4 p147

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Hence, Y = 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 + (𝑠+1) 𝑒 −𝑠 + (𝑠+2) 𝑒 −𝑠

1 1 1
Now, Y = 𝐴 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝐵 (𝑠+1) 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝐶 (𝑠+2) 𝑒 −𝑠
• Take L−1
y 𝑡 = 𝐴. 1. 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 𝐵𝑒 − 𝑡−1 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 𝐶𝑒 −2 𝑡−1 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Section 6.4 p148

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Find the response of the system

y” + 16y = 4δ(t − 3𝜋), y(0) = 2, y’(0) =0.
Solution.
• Apply Laplace transform L{y” + 16y} = L{4δ(t − 3𝜋)}
Then subsidiary equation is
𝑠2 + 16 Y = 2𝑠 + 4𝑒 −3𝜋𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
2𝑠 + 4𝑒 −3𝜋𝑠 𝑠 4
Y= = 2 + 𝑒 −3𝜋𝑠
𝑠2 + 16 𝑠2 + 16 𝑠2 + 16
• Take L−1
y 𝑡 = 2 cos 4𝑡 + sin(4 𝑡 − 3𝜋 ) 𝑢(𝑡 − 3𝜋)

Section 6.4 p149

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6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Example: Solve y” + 4y’ + 5y = 4δ(t − 1), y(0)=0, y’(0) =3.

Solution.
• Apply Laplace transform L{y” + 4y’ + 5y} = 4L{δ(t − 1)}
Then subsidiary equation is
𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 5 Y = 3 + 4𝑒 −𝑠
• Make Y subject of the equation
3 + 4𝑒 −𝑠
Y= 2
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 5
Completing the square for the denominator
3 + 4𝑒 −𝑠 1 1
= 2
=3 2
+4 𝑒 −𝑠
(𝑠 + 2) + 1 𝑠+2 +1 𝑠+2 2+1
• Take L−1
y 𝑡 = 3𝑒 −2𝑡 sin(𝑡) + 4sin( 𝑡 − 1 )𝑒 −2(𝑡−1) 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Section 6.4 p150

6.4 Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions

Exercises: Solve the following I.V.P.

1) y” + 3y’ + 2y = 10δ(t − 1), y(0)= 1, y’(0) = -1.
𝜋
2) y” + 5y’ + 6y = δ(t − 2 ), y(0)= 0, y’(0) = 0.
3) y” + 5y’ + 6y = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜋 cos(𝑡), y(0)= 0, y’(0) = 0.
4) y” + 4y = sin(𝑡)𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝜋 , y(0)= 0, y’(0) = 0.
1 5 < 𝑡 < 20
5) 2y” + y’ + 2y =ቊ , y(0)= 0, y’(0) = 0
0 𝑜. 𝑤.

Section 6.4 p151

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration

of Transforms.
ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Section 6.6 p152

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Differentiation of Transforms

If a function f(t) satisfies the conditions of the existence

theorem in Sec. 6.1, then the derivative
F’(s) = dF/ds of the transform F(s) = L ( f ) can be obtained
by differentiating F(s) under the integral sign with respect to s.
Thus, if
 
F( s)   e  st f (t )dt , then F ( s)    e  st tf (t )dt.
0 0

Section 6.6 p153

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Differentiation of Transforms (continued)

Consequently, if L (f) = F(s), then
(1) L {tf(t)} = −F ’(s), hence L −1 {F ’(s)} = −tf (t)
where the second formula is obtained by applying L −1 on
both sides of the first formula.
In this way, differentiation of the transform of a function
corresponds to the multiplication of the function by −t.

Section 6.6 p154

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽𝑡)}.

Solution:
𝛽
• Recall, L {sin 𝛽𝑡 } = 𝑠2 +𝛽2
𝑑
Then L {𝑡 sin 𝛽𝑡 } = − 𝑑𝑠 L { sin 𝛽𝑡 }
𝑑 𝛽
=−
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 𝛽 2
2

−𝛽. 2𝑠
=−
(𝑠 2 + 𝛽 2 )2

2𝛽𝑠
=
(𝑠 2 + 𝛽 2 )2
Section 6.3 p155

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {𝑡 cos(𝛽𝑡)}.

Solution:
𝑠
• Recall, L {cos 𝛽𝑡 } = 𝑠2 +𝛽2
𝑑
Then L {𝑡 cos 𝛽𝑡 } = − 𝑑𝑠 L { cos 𝛽𝑡 }
𝑑 𝑠
=−
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 𝛽 2
2

(𝑠 2 +𝛽 2 ). 1 − 𝑠. 2𝑠
=−
(𝑠 2 + 𝛽 2 )2

𝑠 2 − 𝛽2
=
(𝑠 2 + 𝛽 2 )2
Section 6.3 p156

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of

1) L {5𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡)}.
2) L {𝑡 cos(4𝑡)}.
3) L {sin 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑡 cos(𝛽𝑡)}.

Section 6.3 p157

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
1
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {2 𝑡 𝑒 −3𝑡 }.
Solution:
1
• Method 1: Recall L {𝑒 −3𝑡 }= 𝑠+3 .
1 1 𝑑
L { 𝑡 𝑒 −3𝑡 } = ∗ − L {𝑒 −3𝑡 }
2 2 𝑑𝑠
1𝑑 1
=−
2 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 3
1 −1
=−
2 (𝑠 + 3)2

1 1
=
2 (𝑠 + 3)2
Section 6.3 p158

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
1
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {2 𝑡 𝑒 −3𝑡 }.
Solution:
• Method 2: Use first shifting Theorem
1 1 1 1!
Recall L {2 𝑡}= 2 L {𝑡}= 2 𝑠2 .
Then,
1 1 1!
L {2 𝑡 𝑒 −3𝑡 } = 2 (𝑠−(−3))2

1 1
=
2 (𝑠 + 3)2

Section 6.3 p159

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(4𝑡)}.

Solution:
𝑑
L {3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 4𝑡 } = 3 ∗ − 𝑑𝑠 L {𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 4𝑡 }
𝑑 4
= −3 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 − 16
−4.2𝑠
= −3
(𝑠 2 − 16)2

24𝑠
=
(𝑠 2 − 16)2

Section 6.3 p160

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {𝑡 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡)}.

Solution:
We need two differentiations
𝑑 𝑑
Then L {𝑡 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡)} = − 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑑𝑠 L {𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡)}

𝑑2 3
= (−1)2 2 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 9
𝑑 𝑑 3 𝑑 −6𝑠
= 2
=
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 9 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 9)2
2

18(𝑠 2 − 3)
=
(𝑠 2 + 9)3

Section 6.3 p161

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 }.
Solution:
• Method 1:
We can use first shifting theorem
𝑛!
• Recall L {𝑡 𝑛 }= 𝑠𝑛+1 .
Then,
𝑛! 𝑛!
L {𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 } = (𝑠−(𝑘))𝑛+1 = (𝑠−𝑘)𝑛+1

Section 6.3 p162

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L {𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 }.
Solution:
• Method 2: We can have n subsequent differentiations of
1
L {𝑒 𝑘𝑡 } = 𝑠−𝑘.
Then,
𝑑𝑛
L {𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 } = (−1)𝑛 𝑑𝑠𝑛 L {𝑒 𝑘𝑡 }
𝑑𝑛
𝑛
1
= (−1)
𝑑𝑠 𝑛 𝑠 − 𝑘
𝑛!
=
(𝑠 − 𝑘)𝑛+1

Section 6.3 p163

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L{𝑡𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)}.
Solution:
𝑑
L{𝑡𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)} = − 𝑑𝑠 L {𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)}
𝑑 1
=−
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 − (−𝑘))2 +1

𝑑 1
=−
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑘)2 +1
2(𝑠 + 𝑘)
=
((𝑠 + 𝑘)2 +1)2

Section 6.3 p164

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Example: Find the Laplace transform of L{𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 cos(𝑡)}.
Solution:
𝑑
L{𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 cos(𝑡)} = − 𝑑𝑠 L{𝑒 −𝑡 cos(𝑡)}
𝑑 (𝑠 − (−1))
=−
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 − (−1))2 +1

𝑑 (𝑠 + 1)
=−
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 1)2 +1

𝑑 (𝑠 + 1)
=−
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠
=
(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2)2
Section 6.3 p165

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Example: Find the Laplace transform of L{𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 }.

• Apply the rule L{f(t)u(t − a)} = e−as L{f(t+a)}.
• Use differentiation.
Solution:
1! 1
• L{𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 }= e−1s L{(t+1)} = e−1s +𝑆 .
𝑠2
𝑑 𝑑 e−s
• L{𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 }= − 𝑑𝑠 L{𝑢 𝑡 − 1 } = − 𝑑𝑠 𝑠
−𝑠 e−s − 1. e−s
=−
𝑠2
𝑠 e−s + e−s
=
𝑠2

Section 6.3 p166

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
2
Example: Find the Laplace inverse transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝜔𝑠2 .
𝜔2 𝑠2 +𝜔2
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + = 𝑙𝑛
𝑠2 𝑠2

= 𝑙𝑛 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑠 2
Differentiate both sides
2𝑠 2𝑠 𝑠 1
𝐹′ 𝑠 = 2 2
− 2=2 2 2
−2
𝑠 +𝜔 𝑠 𝑠 +𝜔 𝑠
Take L−1
𝑠 1
L−1{𝐹 ′ 𝑠 } = 2L−1 − 2L−1
𝑠2 +𝜔2 𝑠

−𝑡𝑓 𝑡 = 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2.1

cos 𝜔𝑡 2
Thus, 𝑓 𝑡 = −2 +
𝑡 𝑡
Section 6.3 p167

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
𝑠+𝑎
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑛 . Find 𝑓 𝑡 .
𝑠+𝑏
𝑠+𝑎
Solution: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑎 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑠+𝑏

Differentiate both sides

1 1
𝐹′ 𝑠 = −
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏
Take L−1
1 1
L−1{𝐹 ′ 𝑠 } = L−1 − L−1
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏

−𝑡𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡

𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
Thus, 𝑓 𝑡 = −𝑡

Section 6.3 p168

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
𝑠 𝑠
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = arctan( ). Find 𝑓 𝑡 .
𝜋 𝜋

Solution: Differentiate both sides

1
𝜋 𝜋
𝐹′ 𝑠 = 2 = 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜋2
+ 1
𝜋

Take L−1
𝜋
L−1{𝐹 ′ 𝑠 } = L−1 𝑠2 +𝜋2

−𝑡𝑓 𝑡 = sin(𝜋𝑡)
sin(𝜋𝑡)
Thus, 𝑓 𝑡 = −𝑡

Section 6.3 p169

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
𝑠
Example: Given 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 . Find 𝑓 𝑡 .
𝜋

Solution: Differentiate both sides

1
−𝜋 −𝜋
𝐹′ 𝑠 = 2 = 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜋2
1+ 𝜋

Take L−1
−𝜋 𝜋
L−1{𝐹 ′ 𝑠 } = L−1 = − L−1
𝑠2 +𝜋2 𝑠2 +𝜋2

−𝑡𝑓 𝑡 = −sin(𝜋𝑡)
sin(𝜋𝑡)
Thus, 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡

Section 6.3 p170

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients

Integration of Transforms--Optional
Similarly, if f(t) satisfies the conditions of the existence
theorem in Sec. 6.1 and the limit of f(t)/t as t approaches 0
from the right, exists, then for s > k,

L 
L
 f (t ) 
 t 

  s F( s)ds hence LL
1
s


F( s)ds 
f (t )
t
.
In this way, integration of the transform of a function f(t)
corresponds to the division of f(t) by t.

Section 6.6 p171

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Special Linear ODEs with Variable Coefficients
𝑑
Recall L {tf(t)} = −F’(s) = − 𝑑𝑠 𝐹(𝑠).
This idea can be used to solve certain ODEs with variable
coefficients. The idea is this.
Let L (y) = Y.
Then L (y’) = sY − y(0) (see Sec. 6.2).
Hence by formula up,
𝑑 𝑑
L 𝑡y’ = − L y’ = − 𝑠Y − y(0)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Thus,
𝑑Y 𝑑Y
L 𝑡y’ = − Y + 𝑠 = −Y − 𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Section 6.6 p172

6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Special Linear ODEs with Variable Coefficients (continued)
Similarly,
𝑑
L (y” ) = s2Y − sy(0) − y’(0) and using L {tf(t)} =− 𝑑𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
We have
𝑑 𝑑 2
L 𝑡y’’ = − L y’’ = − s Y − sy(0) − y’(0)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Thus,
𝑑Y 𝑑Y
L 𝑡y’’ = − 2sY +s2 − y(0) = −2sY − s2 + y(0)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Section 6.6 p173

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6.6 Differentiation and Integration of Transforms.

ODEs with Variable Coefficients
Special Linear ODEs with Variable Coefficients (continued)
Hence if an ODE has coefficients such as at + b, the
subsidiary equation is a first-order ODE for Y, which is
sometimes simpler than the given second-order ODE. But if
the latter has coefficients at2 + bt + c, then two applications
of (1) would give a second-order ODE for Y, and this shows
that the present method works well only for rather special
ODEs with variable coefficients.

Section 6.6 p174

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Section 6.7 p175

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

The Laplace transform method may also be used for solving

systems of ODEs, as we shall explain in terms of typical
applications.
We consider a first-order linear system with constant
coefficients.
y1  a11 y1  a12 y2  g1 (t )
(1)
y2  a21 y1  a22 y2  g2 (t ).
Writing Y1 = L (y1), Y2 = L (y2), G1 = L (g1), G2 = L (g2), we obtain
from (1) the subsidiary system
sY1  y1 (0)  a11Y1  a12Y2  G1 (s)
sY2  y2 (0)  a21Y1  a22Y2  G2 ( s).

Section 6.7 p176

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Example: Solve the following system

y1′ = −y1 + 4y2 y1(0) = 3
′ y2(0) = 4
y2 = 3y1 − 2y2

Solution:
Apply Laplace transform L
L {y1′ } = −L {y1 } + 4L {y2 }
L {y′2 } = 3L {y1 } − 2L {y2 }
Then
𝑠Y1 − y1 (0) = −Y1 + 4Y 2
𝑠Y 2 − y2 (0) = 3Y1 − 2Y 2

Section 6.7 p177

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

simplify
𝑠Y1 − 3 = −Y1 + 4Y 2
𝑠Y 2 − 4 = 3Y1 − 2Y 2

Collect the terms, then subsidiary system is

𝑠 + 1 Y1 − 4Y 2 = 3
𝑠 + 2 Y 2 − 3Y1 = 4

𝑠 + 1 Y1 − 4Y 2 = 3
and reorder
−3Y1 + 𝑠 + 2 Y 2 = 4

Write in matrix format

𝑠 + 1 −4 Y1 3
=
−3 𝑠 + 2 Y2 4

Section 6.7 p178

6.7 Systems of ODEs

We use Cramer’s rule to solve the system

𝑠 + 1 −4
𝐴 = = 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 − −4 (−3)
−3 𝑠 + 2
= 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 − 10

3 −4
𝐴1 = = 3𝑠 + 22
4 𝑠+2

𝑠+1 3
𝐴2 = = 4𝑠 + 13
−3 4

Section 6.7 p179

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Now,
𝐴1 3𝑠 + 22
Y1 = = 2
𝐴 𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 10
Now, use partial fraction
3𝑠 + 22 3𝑠 + 22 𝐴 𝐵
2
= = +
𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 10 (𝑠 − 2)(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 − 2) (𝑠 + 5)
Where 3𝑠 + 22 = 𝐴 𝑠 + 5 + 𝐵(𝑠 − 2) So, 𝐴 = 4, 𝐵 = −1
Thus,
4 −1
Y1 = +
(𝑠 − 2) (𝑠 + 5)
Take L−1
1 1
L−1 {Y1 } = 4. L−1 { 𝑠−2 } − L−1 { 𝑠+5 }

y1 𝑡 = 4. 𝑒 2𝑡 − 𝑒 −5𝑡
Section 6.7 p180

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Now,
𝐴2 4𝑠 + 13
Y2 = = 2
𝐴 𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 10
Now, use partial fraction
4𝑠 + 13 4𝑠 + 13 𝐶 𝐷
2
= = +
𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 10 (𝑠 − 2)(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 − 2) (𝑠 + 5)
Where 4𝑠 + 13 = 𝐶 𝑠 + 5 + 𝐷(𝑠 − 2) So, 𝐶 = 3, 𝐷 =1
Thus,
3 1
Y2 = +
(𝑠 − 2) (𝑠 + 5)
Take L−1
1 1
L−1 {Y 2 } = 3. L−1 { 𝑠−2 } + L−1 { 𝑠+5 }

y2 (𝑡) = 3. 𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 −5𝑡

Section 6.7 p181

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Example: Solve the following

8 2
y1   y1  y  6.
100 100 2
8 8
y2  y1  y .
100 100 2

y1(0) = 0, y2(0) = 150.

Solution.
The subsidiary system is
6
( 0.08  s)Y1  0.02Y2  
s
0.08Y1  ( 0.08  s)Y2  150

Section 6.7 p182

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Solution. (continued)
We solve this algebraically for Y1 and Y2 by elimination (or
by Cramer’s rule), and we write the solutions in terms of
partial fractions,
9s  0.48 100 62.5 37.5
Y1    
s( s  0.12)( s  0.04) s s  0.12 s  0.04
150s2  12s  0.48 100 125 75
Y2    
s( s  0.12)( s  0.04) s s  0.12 s  0.04

By taking the inverse transform we arrive at the solution

y1  100  62.5e 0.12t  37.5e 0.04t
y2  100  125e 0.12t  75e 0.04t .

Section 6.7 p183

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Example: Solve the following system

y1′ = 2y1 − 4y2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)𝑒 𝑡 y1(0) = 3

y′2 = y1 − 3y2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)𝑒 𝑡 y2(0) = 0

Solution:
Apply Laplace transform L
L {y1′ } = 2L {y1 } − 4L {y2 } + L {𝑢(𝑡 − 1)𝑒 𝑡 }
L {y′2 } = L {y1 } − 3L {y2 } + L {𝑢(𝑡 − 1)𝑒 𝑡 }

Section 6.7 p185

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Then
𝑠Y1 − y1 (0) = 2Y1 − 4Y 2 + 𝑒 −𝑠 L {𝑒 𝑡+1 }
𝑠Y 2 − y2 (0) = Y1 − 3Y 2 + 𝑒 −𝑠 L {𝑒 𝑡+1 }
simplify
1
𝑠Y1 − 3 = 2Y1 − 4Y 2 + 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠−1
1
𝑠Y 2 = Y1 − 3Y 2 + 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠−1

Then subsidiary system is

𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠Y1 − 3 = 2Y1 − 4Y 2 +
𝑠−1
−𝑠 1
𝑒 𝑒
𝑠Y 2 = Y1 − 3Y 2 +
𝑠−1
Section 6.7 p186

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Collect the terms

𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠 − 2 Y1 + 4Y 2 = 3 +
𝑠−1
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
−Y1 + (𝑠 + 3)Y 2 =
𝑠−1
Write in matrix format
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
Y1 3+
𝑠−2 4 𝑠−1
=
−1 𝑠+3 Y2 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠−1

Section 6.7 p187

6.7 Systems of ODEs

We use Cramer’s rule to solve the system

𝑠−2 4
𝐴 = = 𝑠 − 2 𝑠 + 3 − −4
−1 𝑠 + 3
= 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 2
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
3+ 4 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠−1
𝐴1 = = (𝑠 + 3)(3 + ) − 4.
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1
𝑠+3
𝑠−1
= 3𝑠 + 9 + 𝑒 1−𝑠

𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝑠−2 3+ 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1
𝐴2 = 𝑠−1 = 𝑠−2 − −1 3+ = 𝑒 1−𝑠 + 3
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑒 1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1
−1
𝑠−1

Section 6.7 p188

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Now,
𝐴1 3𝑠 + 9 + 𝑒 1−𝑠
Y1 = =
𝐴 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 2
3𝑠+9+𝑒 1−𝑠
= (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1)
3𝑠+9 𝑒 1−𝑠
= (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1) + (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1)
Now, use partial fraction for the first expression
3𝑠 + 9 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1)
Where 3𝑠 + 9 = 𝐴 𝑠 − 1 + 𝐵(𝑠 + 2) So, 𝐴 = −1, 𝐵 = 4
𝑒 1−𝑠 1
Also, (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1) = 𝑒 1−𝑠 (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1)
1 𝐶 𝐷
= +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1)
Where 1 = 𝐶 𝑠 − 1 + 𝐷 𝑠 + 2 So, 𝐷 = 1/3, 𝐶 = −1/3
Section 6.7 p189

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Thus,
1 1
−1 4 −3
Y1 = + + 𝑒 1−𝑠 + 3
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) 𝑠+2 𝑠−1
1 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 1
Y1 = −1. +4 − 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝑠
𝑠+2 𝑠−1 3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

Take L−1
L −1 {Y1 }
1 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 1
= −1. L −1 { } + 4L −1 { }− L −1 {𝑒 −𝑠 }+ L −1 {𝑒 −𝑠 }
𝑠+2 𝑠−1 3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

𝑒 𝑒
y1 (𝑡) = −1. 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 4𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−1 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑒 𝑡−1
𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
3 3

Section 6.7 p190

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6.7 Systems of ODEs

Now,
𝐴2 3 + 𝑒 1−𝑠
Y2 = = 2
𝐴 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 2)
3 + 𝑒 1−𝑠
=
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)
3 1
= + 𝑒 1−𝑠
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)
Now, use partial fraction for the first expression
3 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1)
Where 3 = 𝐴 𝑠 − 1 + 𝐵(𝑠 + 2) So, 𝐴 = −1, 𝐵 = 1
𝑒 1−𝑠 1
Also, (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1) = 𝑒 1−𝑠 (𝑠+2)(𝑠−1)
1 𝐶 𝐷
= +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1)
Where 1 = 𝐶 𝑠 − 1 + 𝐷 𝑠 + 2 So, 𝐷 = 1/3, 𝐶 = −1/3
Section 6.7 p191

6.7 Systems of ODEs

Thus,
−1 1 −1/3 1/3
Y2 = + + 𝑒 1−𝑠 +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1)
1 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 1
Y 2 = −1 + − 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝑠
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) 3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

Take L−1
L −1 {Y2 }
1 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 1
= −1. L −1 { } + L −1 { }− L −1 {𝑒 −𝑠 } + L −1 {𝑒 −𝑠 }
𝑠+2 𝑠−1 3 (𝑠 + 2) 3 (𝑠 − 1)

𝑒 𝑒
y2 (𝑡) = −1. 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2 𝑡−1 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑒 𝑡−1
𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
3 3

Section 6.7 p192

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