Wave Optics and Semiconductor Physics Applied Physics

UNIT- 2 : DIFFRACTION AND POLARIZATION

Introduction – Difference between interference and diffraction – Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
diffraction - Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit- cases – Diffraction grating and grating equation.
Introduction to polarization- Double refraction – Types of Polarization - Quarter waveplate - Half
Waveplate.

1. Diffraction
Definition: Bending of light ray when light incident on the obstacle whose size is comparable with the
wavelength of light.
The light enters into geometrical shadow region and display alternative bright and dark bands. These bands
are called diffraction pattern. The alternative bright and dark bands formed due to constructive and
destructive interference.

Q1.1: If the interference occurred during diffraction of light, then what is the difference between
interference and diffraction?
There is a significant difference between interference and diffraction
Interference Diffraction
1. Bending of light ray when light incident on the
1. Modification of intensity due superposition of
obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength
light waves is called interference
of light.
2. The interaction takes place between two 2. The interaction takes place between secondary
separate wavefronts originating from the wavelets originating from different points of the same
coherent sources. wavefront.
3. The fringe width may or may not be equal 3. The fringe width is never equal
4. All the bright fringes have the same intensity 4. The bright fringes are of varying intensity
5. The region of minimum intensity is perfectly
5. The region of minimum intensity is not perfectly dark.
dark.

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1.1 Types of Diffraction

The diffraction phenomena are classified as
(i) Fresnel’s diffraction
(ii) Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1. A narrow slit or point source is used in 1. An extended source at infinite distance is used in
Fresnel’s diffraction. Fraunhofer diffraction.
2. The source and screen placed at finite distance 2. The source and screen placed at infinite distance from
from obstacle. obstacle.
3. No lenses used to focus rays 3. Converging lens is used to focus parallel rays
4. The wavefront is either spherical or
4. The wavefront is a planar wavefront
cylindrical
5. The center of diffraction pattern may or may
5. The center of diffraction is always bright.
not bright.

6. 6.

Q1.2: Where did you find diffraction pattern?

In a dark room, a narrow slit is placed in the path of a laser light then you can observe diffraction pattern as
shown below.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ……

The diffraction pattern consists of central maxima (1) and secondary maxima (2, 3, 4, 5, …..). Here, you
can observe center spot (central maxima) with high intensity and the intensity of secondary maxima
gradually decreasing.

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How these bright and dark fringes are formed without having two coherent sources?

2. Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit:

• Consider a parallel beam of light incident on a slit (AB) of width ‘a’.
• The light emerged from slit is focused on a screen using convex lens.
• The diffraction pattern appear on the screen consists of a wide central bright band surrounded by a
alternative bright and dark narrow bands on either side.
• Each point of AB sends out secondary wavelets in all directions.
• The rays travelling in the same direction focused at point ‘O’ and the diffracted rays focused at point
‘P’.
• The intensity at point ‘P’ is either maximum or minimum depending on the path difference between
rays coming from ‘A’ and ‘B’.

• The path difference(Δ) between the secondary wavelets from A and B in the direction of θ1 is 𝑎 sin 𝜃
2𝜋
• Phase difference (δ) = a sin 𝜃.
𝜆
• Let us assume that, the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and each wave amplitude is
𝐴′ .
• Hence, path difference between any two consecutive slits is

2𝜋
𝛿 a sin 𝜃
𝜆
𝑑= =
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛𝑑 𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝐴′ sin 𝐴′ sin( )
• The resultant amplitude is given by 𝑅= 𝑑
2
= 𝜆
𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃
sin sin( )
2 𝑛𝜆

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𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝐴′ sin 𝛽
Let 𝛽 = then, 𝑅 = 𝛽
𝜆 sin( )
𝑛

𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
When ‘n’ is very large then (𝑛) is small, hence sin (𝑛) = 𝑛

𝑛𝐴′ sin 𝛽 𝐴 sin 𝛽

Therefore, 𝑅= = (∵ 𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴′ )
𝛽 𝛽
𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
• Intensity at point ‘P’ is 𝐼 = 𝑅 2 = 𝛽2

• Condition for central maxima:

𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃
Intensity 𝐼 = 𝑅 2 = , where 𝛽 =
𝛽2 𝜆

Maximum intensity (Imax= A2) obtained when 𝜃 → 0

sin 𝛽
because, if 𝜃 → 0 then 𝛽 → 0, therefore →1
𝛽
Therefore, when θ = 0 i.e., the secondary wavelets focused at point ‘O’, maximum intensity
occurred.

• Condition for minima:

Intensity will be minimum (Imin = 0) when sin 𝛽 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝛽 = 0

𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃
If 𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋 ⇒ = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

⇒ asin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆

Therefore, 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = ±𝒎𝝀 is the condition for minimum intensity.

• Condition for secondary maxima:

In addition to central maxima at β = 0, there are secondary maxima equally spaced minima.
𝑑𝐼
The condition for secondary maxima occurs when 𝑑𝛽 = 0

𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= [ ]=0
𝑑𝛽 𝑑𝛽 𝛽2

𝑑𝐼 2 sin 𝛽 (𝛽 cos 𝛽−sin 𝛽)

= 𝐴2 × × =0
𝑑𝛽 𝛽 𝛽2

This is true only when either sin 𝛽 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 = 0

But, sin 𝛽 = 0 is the condition for minimum so that the condition for secondary maximum
𝛽 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 = 0
⇒ 𝛽 cos 𝛽 = sin 𝛽
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⇒ 𝛽 = tan 𝛽
The equation 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 is called transcendental equation. The values of β obtained from
graphically. The solution of this equation obtained by plotting graphs 𝑦 = 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = tan 𝛽. The
intersecting points of these graphs are the solution of the above equation.

The graphical solution of 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 gives, 𝛽 = 1.43𝜋, 𝛽 = 2.46𝜋, 𝛽 = 3.46𝜋, … … These are first,
second, third order maxima and so on.
How diffraction pattern look like if diffraction occurs more than two slits (N slits)?

3. Diffraction grating (Diffraction at N parallel slits):

Definition: An arrangement consisting of large number of equidistant parallel slits on a plane glass plate is
called a diffraction grating.
• Consider a planar wavefront of monochromatic source of light incident on a grating section as shown
in figure.
• The grating section consisting of N equidistant parallel slits. Slit width is ‘a’ and the slits separated
by a distance ‘d’.
• The distance (a+d) is called grating element or grating constant.

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• When monochromatic source of light incident on grating section, the waves travelling straight focused
at point ‘O’. This point ‘O’ is the position of central maxima.
• Let us consider secondary waves travelling in the direction of θ and focused at point P.

• The path difference between secondary rays is ∆ = (𝑎 + 𝑑) sin 𝜃

2𝜋
• Phase difference (δ) = (a + d) sin 𝜃.
𝜆
• Resultant amplitude at point ‘P’ due secondary waves
𝐴 sin 𝛽 sin 𝑁𝛾
𝑅= ×
𝛽 sin 𝛾

2𝜋
Here, 2𝛾 = (a + d) sin 𝜃
𝜆

𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛾
Resultant intensity, 𝐼 = 𝑅 2 = 𝛽2
× 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾

• Condition for principal maxima (or central maxima):

For central maxima, sin 𝛾 = 0 i.e. 𝛾 = ±𝑚𝜋

𝜋(𝑎+𝑑) sin 𝜃
⇒ = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

⇒ (a + d)sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆

This equation is called grating equation.

Therefore, the condition for central maxima is 𝛾 = ±𝑚𝜋

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The grating equation (a + d)sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆

sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝑁𝜆,
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 = = number of lines per unit width
(𝑎+𝑑)

• Condition for principal minima:

For principal minima, sin 𝑁𝛾 = 0 i.e. 𝑁𝛾 = ±𝑚𝜋

𝑁𝜋(𝑎+𝑑) sin 𝜃
⇒ = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

⇒ N(a + d)sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆 , where m = 0, 1,2,3…

Q. How many numbers of orders possible with grating (Maximum number of orders possible)?
We know that the positions of the principal maxima in a grating are given by
(a + d)sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆, where m = 0,1,2,3,……
(𝑎+𝑑) sin 𝜃
⇒ 𝑚= 𝜆

sin 𝜃 1
⇒ 𝑚= (∵ 𝑁 = (𝑎+𝑑)
)
𝑁𝜆

Where ‘m’ is order of maxima and ‘λ’ is wavelength of the incident light.
1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ (∵ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1)
𝑁𝜆

This is the expression for the maximum number of order possible with a grating.
Q. How to determine wavelength of light using grating?
We know that the positions of the principal maxima in a grating are given by
(a + d)sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆, where m = 0,1,2,3,……

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Where ‘m’ is order of maxima and ‘λ’ is wavelength of the incident light.
(𝑎+𝑑) sin 𝜃
⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑚

sin 𝜃 1
⇒ 𝜆= (∵ 𝑁 = (𝑎+𝑑)
)
𝑁𝑚

From the known values of angle of diffraction, grating element and order of spectrum the wavelength
of light can be determined.

Numerical
1. Calculate the angle at which the first dark band and the next bright band are formed in the Fraunhofer
diffraction pattern by a slit 0.3 mm wide. The wavelength of a given light is 5890 Å.
2. In Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit, the first diffraction maxima fall at 15° with a slit width of
2.5 µm. Find the wavelength of the light.
3. Find the highest order that can be seen with a grating having 15000 lines/inch. The wavelength of
the light used is 600 nm.
4. A plane transmission grating having 4250 lines per cm is illuminated with sodium light normally.
In second order spectrum the spectral lines deviated by 30° are observed. Find the wavelength of
the spectral line.
5. How many orders will be visible, if the wavelength of light is 5000 Å. Given the number of lines
per centimeter on the grating is 6655.

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POLARIZATION
4. Polarization
Definition: The process of converting the unpolarized light into polarized light is called polarization.
Polarization is the process of restricting the vibration of the electric field vector into particular
direction.
Unpolarized light
The light waves in which electric field vector vibrates in all directions is referred as unpolarized light.

Polarized light
The light waves in which the vibrations are confined to one particular direction is called polarized
light.

4.1 Types of Polarized light

The polarized light can be classified as
(i) Linearly plane polarized light
(ii) Circularly polarized light
(iii) Elliptically polarized light
(i) Linearly plane polarized light
If the vibrations of electric vectors are parallel and follows the same plane perpendicular to the direction
of the propagation. The wave is said to be plane polarized.
The direction of electric field vector does not vary with time, but its magnitude varies sinusoidally with
time.
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(ii) Circularly polarized light

The superposition of two coherent light waves of equal magnitude and perpendicular to each other and
produce the resultant electric vector having constant magnitude. This electric vector having same
magnitude but rotates about the direction of the propagation and sweeps a circular helix in space.
(iii) Elliptically polarized light
The superposition of two coherent light waves of unequal magnitudes and difference in phase produce the
resultant vector. The magnitude of resultant vector changes with time. Also, it rotates about the direction
of propagation and sweeps a flattened helix in the space.
4.2 Methods of producing Polarized light
Polarized light can be produced by
1. Reflection
2. Double refraction
3. Scattering
4. Refraction
5. Selective absorption

1. Polarized light produced by Reflection:

When an unpolarized light incident on surface of transparent medium, it becomes partially polarized.
At a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light is completely polarized and the angle is known as
angle of polarization (iB).
According to Brewster, for a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light is completely plane-
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polarized with vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The tangent of angle of polarization
is numerically equal to refractive index
𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝐵
This is called Brewster’s law.

2. Polarized light produced by Double refraction:

• When a beam of ordinary light is passes through a transparent anisotropic crystal-like calcite (CaCO3)
or quartz, it splits into two refracted rays. The two rays are called ordinary ray (o-ray) and
extraordinary ray (e-ray).
• These two rays are plane polarized. This means that the material exhibits two different refractive
indices.
• This phenomenon is called double refraction.

• When a beam of unpolarized light incident on the calcite crystal with an angle of incidence ‘i’ is
refracted into two directions.

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• The refracted ray with an angle of refraction ‘r1’ emerged out of the crystal is called ordinary ray (o-
ray).
• The refracted ray with an angle of refraction ‘r2’ is called extraordinary ray (e-ray)
sin 𝑖
• The refractive index of ordinary ray is 𝜇0 = sin 𝑟
1

sin 𝑖
• The refractive index of extraordinary ray is 𝜇𝑒 = sin 𝑟
2

• In case of calcite crystal, 𝑟1 < 𝑟2 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜇0 > 𝜇𝑒 ⇒ 𝑣0 < 𝑣𝑒

• Therefore, the velocity of ordinary ray inside the crystal is less than that of extraordinary ray.
• For calcite crystal, the refractive indices of ordinary and extraordinary rays are 𝜇0 = 1.6584 and
𝜇𝑒 = 1.4864.

NOTE: There are two types of double refracting crystals namely, uniaxial crystal and biaxial crystal.
In uniaxial crystal, there is only one direction along which the refracted rays travel with the same
velocity. e.g. Calcite, tourmaline, quartz, etc.

In Biaxial crystal, there are two such directions along which the velocities are the same. e.g. topaz,
mica, etc.

4.3 Quarter waveplate

• When a plane polarized light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally on a thin plate of uniaxial crystal
cut parallel to its optic axis, the light split into ordinary and extraordinary plane polarized lights.
• They travel with different velocities.
• In positive crystal like quartz, the ordinary ray(o-ray) travel faster than that of extraordinary ray (e-
ray)
• In negative crystal like calcite, the extraordinary (e-ray) travel faster than that of ordinary ray(o-ray).
• When these o-ray and e-ray emerging from crystal, path difference introduced between them.

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• If both rays have to traverse a thickness of ‘t’ in doubly refracting crystal, the distance travelled by
o-ray and e-ray are µ0t and µet respectively.
• The path difference ∆= 𝜇𝑜 𝑡 ∽ 𝜇𝑒 𝑡
𝜆
• If the thickness of the plate such that it introduces a path difference of then it is called a quarter
4
λ
wave plate ( 𝜇𝑒 ~𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 =
4
λ
• For positive crystals 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 , 𝑡 = 4(𝜇 )
𝑒 −𝜇𝑜

λ
• For negative crystals 𝜇𝑒 < 𝜇𝑜 , 𝑡 = 4(𝜇 )
𝑜 −𝜇𝑒

• This plate is used to produce circularly and elliptically polarized lights

4.3 Half waveplate
• When a plane polarized light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally on a thin plate of uniaxial crystal
cut parallel to its optic axis, the light split into ordinary and extraordinary plane polarized lights.
• They travel with different velocities.
• In positive crystal like quartz, the ordinary ray(o-ray) travel faster than that of extraordinary ray (e-
ray)
• In negative crystal like calcite, the extraordinary (e-ray) travel faster than that of ordinary ray(o-ray).
• When these o-ray and e-ray emerging from crystal, path difference introduced between them.

• If both
rays have to traverse a thickness of ‘t’ in doubly refracting crystal, the distance travelled by o-ray
and e-ray are µ0t and µet respectively.
• The path difference ∆= 𝜇𝑜 𝑡 ∽ 𝜇𝑒 𝑡
𝜆
• If the thickness of the plate such that it introduces a path difference of then it is called a quarter
2
λ
wave plate ( 𝜇𝑒 ~𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 =
2
λ
• For positive crystals 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 , 𝑡 = 2(𝜇 )
𝑒 −𝜇𝑜

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λ
• For negative crystals 𝜇𝑒 < 𝜇𝑜 , 𝑡 = 2(𝜇 )
𝑜 −𝜇𝑒

• This plate is used to produce plane polarized light.

Numerical
1. Find polarizing angle for a glass of refractive index 1.732.
2. The refractive index of calcite for ordinary ray is 1.658 and for extraordinary ray it is 1.486. The
slice having thickness 0.9x10-4 cm is cut from the crystal. For what wavelength this slice acts as
half waveplate?
3. Find the thickness of the half waveplate, when the wavelength of light is equal to 5890Å, µ0=1.55
and µe = 1.54.

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