Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Modern robotic applications can be operated as real-time embedded systems. Real-time

systems are computer systems that can monitor, respond to, or control their environment
making decisions without active human control. A robot as part of a real-time embedded
system can use sensors, actuators and other inputs and outputs to affect objects in the
real world and must do so within the real-time physical constraints of environments that
humans often operate in as well.

1. Definition Of A Robots

A robot is a computer-controlled machine that is programmed to move, manipulate

objects, and accomplish work while interacting with its environment. According to the
Robot Institute of America (1979), a robot is defined as “a reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized
devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”

Or Industrial robot is defined as “a number of rigid links connected by joints of different

types that are controlled and monitored by computer.”One feature of a robot is the
ability to operate automatically, on its own. This means that there must be in - built
intelligence, or a programmable memory, or simply an arrangement of adjustable
mechanisms that command manipulation.

2. First Use Of The Word Robot

The word robot was not even in the vocabulary of industrialists, let alone science fiction
writers, until the 1920s. In 1920, Karel Capek (1890–1938) wrote the play, (Rossumovi
Univerzální Robot Rossum's Universal Robots), commonly known as R.U.R., which
premiered in Prague in 1921, played in London in 1921, in New York in 1922, and was
published in English in 1923. The word 'robot' was first used to denote a fictional
humanoid in a 1920 Czech-language play R.U.R by Karel Capek, though it was Karel's
brother Josef Capek who was the word's true inventor.

3. Robotics In Research Laboratories

The post-World War II technology boom brought a host of developments. In 1946 the
world’s first electronic digital computer emerged at the University of Pennsylvania at
the hands of American scientists J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. Their computer,
called ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and computer), weighed over 30 tons.
Just on the heels of ENIAC, Whirlwind was introduced by Jay Forrester and his
research team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as the first general
purpose digital computer, originally commissioned by the U. S. Navy to develop a flight
simulator to train its pilots. Although the simulator did not develop, a computer that
shaped the path of business computers was born. Whirlwind was the first computer to
perform real-time computations and to use a video display as an output device. At the

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same time as ENIAC and Whirlwind were making their appearance on the East Coast of
the United States, a critical research center was formed on the West Coast.

In 1946, the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) was founded by a small group of business
executives in conjunction with Stanford University. Located in Menlo Park, California,
SRI’s purpose was to serve as a center for technological innovation to support regional
economic development. In 1966 the Artificial Intelligence Center (AIC) was founded at
SRI, pioneering the field of artificial intelligence (AI), which gives computers the
heuristics and algorithms to make decisions in complex situations.

From 1966 to 1972 Shakey, the Robot, was developed at the AIC by Dr. Charles Rosen
(1917–2002) and his team. Shakey was the first mobile robot to reason its way about its
surroundings and had a far-reaching influence on AI and robotics. Shakey was equipped
with a television camera, a triangulating range finder, and bump sensors. It was
connected by radio and video links to DEC PDP-10 and PDP-15 computers. Shakey
was equipped with three levels of programming for perceiving, modeling, and
interacting with its environment. The lowest level routines were designed for basic
locomotion movement, turning, and route planning. The intermediate level combined
the low-level routines together to accomplish more difficult tasks. The highest-level
routines were designed to generate and execute plans to accomplish tasks presented by a
user. Although Shakey had been likened to a small unstable box on wheels thus the
name it represented a significant milestone in AI and in developing a robot’s ability to
interact with its environment.

Beyond Shakey, SRI has advanced the field of robotics through contributions in
machine vision, computer graphics, AI engineering tools, computer languages,
autonomous robots, and more. A nonprofit organization, SRI disassociated itself from
Stanford University in 1977, becoming SRI International. SRI’s current efforts in
robotics include advanced factory applications, field robotics, tactical mobile robots,
and pipeline robots. Factory applications encompass robotic advances in assembly, parts
feeding, parcel Robotics and Automation Handbook handling, and machine vision. In
contrast to the ordered environment of manufacturing, field robotics involves robotic
applications in highly unstructured settings, such as reconnaissance, surveillance, and
explosive ordnance disposal. Similar to field robotics, tactical mobile robots are being
developed for unstructured surroundings in both military and commercial applications,
supplementing human capabilities, such as searching through debris following disasters
(earthquakes, bombed buildings, etc.). SRI’s pipeline robot, Magnetically Attached
General Purpose Inspection Engine (MAGPIE), is designed to inspect natural gas
pipelines, as small as 15 cm in diameter, for corrosion and leakage, navigating through
pipe elbows and T-joints on its magnetic wheels.

4. History Of Robotics

The history of robotics is one that is highlighted by a fantasy world that has provided
the inspiration to convert fantasy into reality. It is a history rich with cinematic
creativity, scientific ingenuity, and entrepreneurial vision. Quite surprisingly, the
definition of a robot is controversial, even among roboticists. At one end of the
spectrum is the science fiction version of a robot, typically one of a human form an
android or humanoid with anthropomorphic features. At the other end of the spectrum is
the repetitive, efficient robot of industrial automation. In ISO 8373, the International

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Organization for Standardization defines a robot as “an automatically controlled,
reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator with three or more axes.” The Robot
Institute of America designates a robot as “a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through
various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.” A more
inspiring definition is offered by Merriam Webster, stating that a robot is “a machine
that looks like a human being and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking)
of a human being.”

5. The Influence Of Motion Pictures

The advent of motion pictures brought to life many of these mythical creatures, as well
as a seemingly endless supply of new artificial creatures. In 1926, Fritz’s Lang’s movie
“Metropolis” introduced the first robot in a feature film. The 1951 film “The Day the
Earth Stood Still” introduced the robot Gort and the humanoid alien Klaatu, who arrived
in Washington, D.C., in their flying saucer. Robby, the Robot, first made his appearance
in “Forbidden Planet” (1956), becoming one of the most influential robots in cinematic
history. In 1966, the television show “Lost in Space” delivered the lovable robot B-9,
who consistently saved the day, warning Will Robinson of aliens approaching. The
1968 movie “2001: A Space Odyssey” depicted a space mission gone awry, where Hal
employed his artificial intelligence (AI) to wrest control of the space ship from the
humans he was supposed to serve. In 1977, “Star Wars” brought to life two of the most
endearing robots ever to visit the big screen R2-D2 and C3PO. Movies and television
have brought to life these robots, which have served in roles both evil and noble.
Although just a small sampling, they illustrate mankind’s fascination with mechanical
creatures that exhibit intelligence that rivals, and often surpasses, that of their creators.

6. Milestones In Robot History

1. Unimate Robot

The Unimate (Refer to Figure 2.1) was

the first industrial robot, which worked
on a General Motors assembly line at the
Inland Fisher Guide Plant in Ewing
Township, New Jersey, in 1961. It was
invented by George Devol in the 1950s
using his original patent filed in 1954 and
granted in 1961. Devol, together with
Joseph Engelberger, his business
associate, started the world’s firs robot Figure 2.1 Unimate Robot
manufacturing company, Unimation

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2. Shakey Robot

The first general-purpose mobile robot

able to reason about its own actions. It
was developed at the Artificial
Intelligence Center of Stanford Research
Institute (now called SRI International)
from approximately 1966 through
1972. The project managers were Charles
Rosen, Nils Nilsson, and Peter Hart.
Shakey (Refer to Figure 2.2) could
analyze commands and break them down
into basic chunks by itself. This made it
unique as it could perform tasks that
required planning, route-finding, and the
rearranging of simple objects. The robot’s
programming was primarily done in Figure 2.2 Shakey Robot
LISP. It used the Stanford Research
Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS)
planner.

3. WABOT-1 Robot (1970~1973)

The WABOT-1 (Refer to Figure 2.3) was

the first fun-scale anthropomorphic robot
developed in the world. It consisted of a
limb-control system, a vision system and a
conversation system. The WABOT-1 was
able to communicate-with a person in
Japanese and to measure distances and
directions to the objects using external
receptors, artificial ears and eyes, and an
artificial mouth. The WABOT-1 walked
with his lower limbs and was able to grip
and transport objects with hands that used
tactile-sensors. It was estimated that the
WABOT-1 has the mental faculty of a Figure 2.3 WABOT-1 Robot
one-and-half-year-old child. WABOT-1
consisted of the WAM-4 (as its artificial
hands) and the WL-5 (Its artificial legs).

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4. PUMA Robot

More advanced computer-controlled

electric arms guided by sensors were
developed in the late 1960s and 1970s at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) and at Stanford University, where
they were used with cameras in robotic
hand-eye research. Stanford’s Victor
Scheinman, working with Unimation for
GM, designed the first such arm used in
industry. Called PUMA (Programmable
Universal Machine for Assembly) (Refer
to Figure 2.4), they have been used since
Figure 2.4 PUMA Robot
1978 to assemble automobile sub-
components such as dash panels and
lights.

7. Laws Of Robotics

Isaac Asimov proposed three laws of robotics and he later added a “zeroth law.”

Law One: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm, unless this would violate a higher order law.

Law Two: A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with a higher order law.

Law Three: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with a higher order law.

Law Zero: A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to
come to harm.

2.2 Industrial Automation

The word automation comes from the Greek word “automatos,” meaning self-acting.
The word automation was coined in the mid-1940s by the U.S. automobile industry to
indicate the automatic handling of parts between production machines, together with
their continuous processing at the machines. The advances in computers and control
systems have extended the definition of automation. By the middle of the 20th century,
automation had existed for many years on a small scale, using mechanical devices to
automate the production of simply shaped items. However the concept only became
truly practical with the addition of the computer, whose flexibility allowed it to drive
almost any sort of task.

Automation and robotics are two closely related technologies. Industrial automation is
the use of robotics, machines and control systems to perform tasks that were

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traditionally carried out by human workers. Automation can improve productivity,
quality and safety in manufacturing and other industrial applications.

Automation technology includes a wide range of tools and technologies, such as robots,
numerical control (NC) machine tools, programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
computer numerical control (CNC) systems and industrial sensors. Automation systems
can be integrated into existing production lines or stand-alone and can be used to collect
data for preventative maintenance of the equipment.

Industrial automation offers a number of benefits over traditional manual labor.

Automated facilities can work faster and more accurately than human workers, and they
can operate around the clock without tiring and can collect data for monitoring the
health status of the equipment and reduce waste. Automation can also help to improve
safety in hazardous environments.

In recent years, industrial automation has been adopted by a number of industries,

including automotive manufacturing, food and beverage processing, pharmaceuticals
and electronics assembly. The trend is expected to continue as companies look for ways
to improve efficiency and competitiveness.

Industrial automation can make production lines safe and uses logic-based programs to
operate machinery and other industrial equipment technologies. The machine makes
decisions without any human input based on its programming to unlock the efficiency
of your work.

2.3 Types Of Robots:

It's not easy to define what robots are, and it's not easy to categorize them either. Each
robot has its own unique features, and as a whole, robots vary hugely in size, shape, and
capabilities. Still, many robots share some common attributes, making it possible to
group them together. Here are some categories for classifying robots.

1. Aerospace Robots

Aerospace robots is a diverse category that includes robots that fly and robots for space
applications.the Raven fixed-wing drone are examples of flying robots. They are used to
get a bird's-eye view and capture images of a particular location.

2. Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicles are robotic cars equipped with cameras, lidar, GPS, computers,
and other sensing and navigation systems that enable them to drive fully autonomously.
Early models include Boss and Stanley, built for DARPA's autonomous-vehicle
competitions, and also Google's pioneering self-driving car, later spun out to form
Waymo. In the United States, an increasing number of robotaxis, which passengers can
hail using an app, are now operating in cities like Phoenix, Ariz and San Francisco.

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3. Consumer Robots

Consumer robots are robots you can buy and use just for fun or to help you with tasks
and chores. One of the most famous consumer robots is Roomba, which vacuums your
floor autonomously. Other examples include the garden weeding robot Tertill,
mechanical pets like Sony's Aibo robot dog, and AI-powered companions like LOVOT
and Vector. Consumer robots also include a growing variety of camera drones, 3D
printers.

4. Delivery Robots

Delivery robots transport items like food, groceries, and medical supplies from one
point to another. They use cameras, GPS, and other sensors to travel autonomously,
carrying their cargo in secure compartments.

5. Disaster Response Robots

Disaster response robots perform dangerous jobs like searching for survivors in the
aftermath of an emergency. These robots are rugged and can withstand high
temperatures, moisture, dirt, and debris, and some are even radiation-proof. after
earthquake and tsunami struck Japan, deployed robots like PackBot, Kobra, and Quince
to inspect hazardous areas. In addition to ground robots, aerial robots are also used in
disaster relief. Regular drones can conduct search missions from high altitudes, and
specialized drones like Elios can fly inside structures where it's too dangerous for
people to go.

6. Educational Robots

Educational robots include a variety of hands-on robotics modules and kits. You can
find them in classrooms, STEM programs, and homes. Popular models include
programmable robots like Cubelets, Dash and Dot, and Root. These robots use
movement, lights, and sound to help students learn problem-solving and coding skills.
The educational category also includes robotics sets from Lego, 3D printers like
MakerBot.

7. Entertainment Robots

Entertainment robots are designed to evoke an emotional response. They make us laugh,
or feel surprise, or wonder. Among them are robot comedian RoboThespian,
animatronic character Na'vi Shaman, and musically inclined bots like Partner. Flying
robots are also used in entertainment, like the Lucie microdrones that execute aerial
light shows, floating on stage above the performers' heads.

8. Exoskeletons

Exoskeletons are wearable robotic suits equipped with electric motors that help move
the user's body. Some powered exoskeletons can even give the wearer strength. They
work using sensors that detect when the user wants to move—to get up or walk, for
example. The suit then activates the motors in a way that enables the desired motion.
There are lower-body exoskeletons for helping with a user's legs, upper-body models

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for the arms, and full-body suits for both legs and arms. Exoskeletons can be used for
physical rehabilitation and can enable a paralyzed patient to walk again, like the Ekso
and HAL robot suits. Some exoskeletons, like the Guardian XO, have industrial
applications, by giving the wearer added mobility, endurance, or the capacity to carry
heavy loads.

9. Humanoid Robots

Humanoid robots have a mechanical body with arms, legs, and a head like that of a
person's, and they can often walk and manipulate objects like we do. The robot's body
typically has a machine-like appearance, as is the case with humanoids like the friendly
robot ambassador Asimo from Honda and the athletic, agile Atlas from Boston
Dynamics. But humanoids can also have a human-like appearance. Examples include
the Geminoid family of robots, which resemble real people.

10. Industrial Robots

Industrial robots perform repetitive tasks like picking, moving, and assembling parts,
plus cutting, welding, painting, polishing, packaging, and other jobs typically found in
manufacturing. A common type of industrial robot consists of a manipulator arm that
moves fast and precisely. An example is the Unimate, the grandfather of all factory
robots. Kuka's Titan is the world's strongest robot arm, and Omron's Quattro is one of
the fastest. There are also collaborative robots, or cobots, like ABB's YuMi and the UR
series from Universal Robots, which are safe to operate alongside human workers. In
addition to manipulators, the industrial category has been expanding to include
warehouse robots like Amazon's Proteus, inspection quadrupeds like Spot and ANYmal,
and even humanoids like Digit. Industrial robots are among the most common type of
robot in existence. They are used in industries like automotive, electronics, machinery,
plastics, chemicals, food, and others.

11. Medical Robots

Medical robots are a broad category of robotic systems designed to assist people in
hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, and in some cases, at home. One example of a
medical robot is the da Vinci surgical system, designed to be teleoperated by a
physician during minimally invasive procedures. Other examples include bionic
prostheses like the Johns Hopkins' MPL, powered exoskeletons like HAL and Ekso, and
the robotic wheelchair iBot. There are also therapeutic robots to help children with
autism, like QTrobot, and humanoids designed to assist the elderly, like Toyota's HSR.
A system that may fit in this category but is not a robot is IBM's Watson, the victorious
Jeopardy! supercomputer, which has been used in health-care applications.

12. Military & Security Robots

Military and security robots include a broad range of tough, rugged robotic systems that
can perform surveillance and other missions that may be dangerous for humans to carry
out. During the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, U.S. troops used PackBot ground robots
to search for improvised explosive devices, and they flew Raven drones for aerial
reconnaissance. To help with logistics.

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13. Research Robots

Research robots are experimental machines born in universities and corporate research
labs. Though these robots may be able to do useful things, and some may fit other robot
categories, they're primarily intended to help researchers do, well, research. For
example, a biped like Cassie is helping roboticists understand how energy-efficient
walking can be implemented in legged machines. Armar is helping German engineers
design robots that can collaborate with humans in joint manipulation tasks.

14. Service Robots

Service robots perform useful tasks like cleaning or making deliveries. Unlike industrial
robots that operate in factories and warehouses, service robots work in offices, airports,
museums, and shopping malls. One example is SoftBank's Whiz, a commercial-grade
vacuum robot for large spaces. Another example is the Colossus firefighting robot.

15. Social Robots

Social robots are designed to interact and communicate with humans, assist us with
daily tasks like grocery lists and calendar events They do that through voice, sounds,
light, screens, or an expressive face or body. In recent years, have been several attempts
at commercializing social robots. These projects include Pepper, Jibo, Kuri, and Vector.
However, commercial success remains elusive.

16. Telepresence Robots

Telepresence robots allow you to be present at a place without actually going there. You
log on to a robot avatar via the Internet and drive it around, seeing what it sees, hearing
what it hears, and talking with people you encounter in meetings. Examples of
telepresence robots include QB, Vita, Ava, Beam, and Temi.

2.4 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Robots

Robots offer specific benefits to workers, industries, and countries. If introduced
correctly, industrial robots can improve the quality of life by freeing workers from dirty,
boring, dangerous, and heavy labor. It can be said, therefore, that robots give the
possibility to humans to occupy with jobs, that they can execute better. It is true that
robots can cause unemployment by replacing human workers but robots also create jobs
such as robot technicians, salesmen, engineers, programmers, and supervisors.

1. Advantages Of Robots

1. Increase in productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and consistency of products

with the use of robots.

2. Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support,
comfort, or concern about safety.

3. Robots need no environmental comfort such as lighting, air conditioning,

ventilation, and noise protection.

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4. Robots can work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, do not
have hangovers, and need no medical insurance or vacation.

5. Robots have repeatable precision at all times, unless something happens to them or
unless they wear out.

6. Robots can be much more accurate than humans.

2. Disadvantages Of Robots

1. Robots replace human workers creating economic problems, such as lost salaries,
and social problems such as dissatisfaction and resentment among workers.

2. Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, unless the situation is predicted

and the response is included in the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure
that they do not injure operators and machines working with them.

3. Robots are costly due to initial cost of equipment, installation costs, need for
training, and need for programming.

2.5 Robotic Arms

Robotic arms, also known as industrial robots, are mechanical devices used in
manufacturing, assembly, and other industries to perform a variety of tasks. These
machines are designed to move in a variety of directions and perform precise, repetitive
movements with great accuracy, speed, and consistency.

A robotic arm is a type of robot that is designed to perform various tasks, such as
welding, painting, and assembly. The arm consists of a series of rigid links connected
by joints, which can be controlled by motors, hydraulics, or pneumatics. The arm may
also be equipped with various end-effectors, such as grippers or welding torches, to help
it perform its tasks. Robotic arms are typically programmed to perform a series of pre-
defined movements and actions, allowing them to perform their tasks with a high level
of precision and consistency.

The movement of a robotic arm is controlled by a computer, which sends commands to

the motors or other actuators that control the arm’s movement. The computer program
may be preprogrammed with a set of instructions, or it may be able to respond to input
from sensors that detect changes in the environment or the arm’s position. Some robotic
arms are also equipped with cameras or other sensors that allow them to detect and
respond to changes in their surroundings.

There are several types of robotic arms, each with its own set of features and
capabilities. Some robotic arms are designed to move in a single plane, while others can
move in multiple directions. Some robotic arms are equipped with multiple end-
effectors, allowing them to perform a variety of tasks. Others are designed to be more
compact and lightweight, making them suitable for use in confined spaces or for
applications where a smaller arm is required.

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Robotic arms are used in a wide range of industries, including automotive, aerospace,
electronics, and healthcare. In the automotive industry, for example, robotic arms are
used to weld car bodies together, apply paint, and install various components. In
aerospace, they are used to assemble aircraft components and to perform maintenance
tasks on spacecraft. In electronics, they are used to assemble circuit boards and other
electronic components. In healthcare, robotic arms are used in surgery to perform
minimally invasive procedures with greater precision and accuracy than traditional
surgery.

One of the key benefits of using robotic arms is their ability to perform tasks with a high
degree of accuracy and consistency. Unlike human workers, who may become fatigued
or make mistakes, robotic arms can perform the same task over and over again with the
same level of precision and speed. This makes them ideal for tasks that require a high
level of precision, such as welding, painting, and assembly.

In summary, robotic arms are mechanical devices used in manufacturing, assembly, and
other industries to perform a variety of tasks. They consist of a series of rigid links
connected by joints, which can be controlled by motors, hydraulics, or pneumatics.
Robotic arms are typically programmed to perform a series of pre-defined movements
and actions, allowing them to perform their tasks with a high level of precision and
consistency. They are used in a wide range of industries, including automotive,
aerospace, electronics, and healthcare, and offer several benefits, including increased
precision, consistency, and the ability to work in hazardous environments.

2.6 Robot Arm Control

There are several methods of controlling a robotic arm, including:

1. Direct Control:

This involves physically moving the robotic arm by hand using a joystick or other input
device.

2. Programmed Control:

This involves programming the robotic arm to follow a set of pre-determined

instructions.

3. Teleoperation:

This involves controlling the robotic arm remotely using a computer or other device.

4. Vision-based control:

This involves using cameras and computer vision algorithms to track the position of the
object being manipulated, allowing the robotic arm to move accordingly.

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5. Force-Based Control:

This involves using sensors to measure the amount of force being applied by the robotic
arm, allowing it to adjust its movements accordingly.

2.7 Robot Capabilities

The three important capabilities of robots that make them useful for applications are:

1. Transport:

Material handling is one of the basic operations, which is performed on an object as it

passes through the manufacturing process. The object is moved from one location to
another to be stored, machined, assembled, or packaged. The robot’s capability to
acquire an object, move it through space, and release it makes it ideal for transport
operations. Simple tasks such as part transfer from one conveyor to another may only
require one-or twodimensional movements, which are often performed by non-servo
robots. Other parts handling operations such as machine loading and unloading and
packaging may be more complicated and require varying degrees of manipulative
capability. Servo-controlled robots perform these operations.

2. Manipulation:

Another basic operation performed on an object as it is transformed from raw material

to a finished product is processing, which generally requires some types of
manipulation, i.e., workpieces are inserted, oriented, or twisted to be in proper position
for machining, assembly, or some other operation. A robot’s capability to manipulate
both parts and tooling make itvery suitable for processing applications. Examples in this
regard include spot and arc welding, and spray painting.

3. Sensing:

A robot’s ability to react to its environment by means of sensory feedback is also

important, particularly in applications like assembly and inspection. These sensory
inputs may come from a variety of sensor types, including proximity switches, force
sensors, and machine vision systems.

In each application, one or more of the robot’s capabilities of transport, manipulation, or

sensing is employed. These applications make a robot ideal for many applications now
performed manually.

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2.8 Comparison Of The Human And Robot Manipulator

The parts of a robot’s manipulator are named after similar parts in a human’s chief
manipulators (Refer to Figure 2.6)

Figure 2.6 Comparison Of The Human And Robot Manipulator

2.9 Robot Arms Component

1. Manipulator Arm

The manipulator arm is a programmable mechanical arm that functions similarly to a

human arm. Its purpose is to move as required, providing reach in the workspace. It
works as part of a complex robot or carries out independent tasks. Essentially, it’s a
movable chain of successively coupled segments or links.

The segments are called cross-slides, as they can move over one another in a workspace.
One end of the manipulator remains fixed to the ground or base, and the other remains
free to hold the end-effector.

The manipulator arm is designed with a specific coordinate system, with several designs
available. The simplest is a two or three-axis arm. The axis or degree of freedom refers
to the independent movement of the segment or link. The point where two segments or
links are coupled is called a joint. The segments are connected to one another by some
lower pair ( joint ) connector.

2. End-Effector

End effectors are devices attached to the end of a robot’s arm to help it interact with the
surrounding environment. End effectors are essential to robotic systems as they handle,
manipulate, and sense objects. These devices are the primary means by which robots
interact with their environment and perform useful work. End effectors can be
customized to suit specific applications and can be designed to perform a wide range of
tasks, including gripping, cutting, welding, painting, and more.

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3. Sensors

Sensors are essential components of robotic systems, providing robots with the ability to
gain a perception of their environment. Sensors gather data about the robot's
surroundings, including the position and orientation of objects around it and the robot
itself. The robot's control system then uses this information to decide how to interact
with its environment.

4. Actuators

actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into
movement. They are an integral part of any robotic system. Actuators are typically
powered by air, electricity, or liquids. The type of actuator used can greatly affect the
performance and efficiency of the robot.

In the field of robotics, actuators play a crucial role. They are responsible for making
the robot move, whether it's a simple movement like the rotation of a joint or more
complex like walking or grabbing objects. Their versatility allows for a wide range of
applications, from industrial automation to sophisticated humanoid robots. Without
actuators, robots would be static and incapable of any movement or action.

The importance of robotic actuators extends beyond just movement. Modern actuators
are increasingly integrated with sensors and control systems, enhancing their ability to
operate autonomously and intelligently in dynamic environments. They also contribute
to the robot's ability to interact with its environment. For instance, a robotic arm used in
a manufacturing plant needs to move accurately and smoothly to pick up and place
items. This precision is achieved through the use of high-quality actuators.

5. Controller

A controller is a computing unit that controls the motion of links in a programmable

manner. The controller could be microcontrollers, specialized controllers, or computers.

The controller takes feedback from sensors, controlling the outputs of the actuators so
the robot moves sequentially to accomplish its task. The sensors and actuators are
interfaced with the controller through hardware interfaces. The controllers can also have
a user interface for reprogramming or human inputs.

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2.10 Types Of Robotic Arms

The robotic arm is a significant piece of the robotic machinery industry. The different
types of robotic arms tend to fascinate the audience with their speed and strength.

The different types of robot arms, which are one of the main parts of an industrial robot,
are often referred to as robotic manipulators. These robotic arm types are programmable
and are connected via joints or axes to allow rotational or linear movement.

1. Articulated Robot Arm

An articulated robot arm (Refer to Figure

2.7) resembles the human arm and allows
mechanical movement and configuration.
It is one of the most common types of
robotic arms for industrial automation. It
features a single mechanical arm attached
to a base with a twisting joint.

Six-axis robots are the most common

type of articulating robot, and they
generally feature four to six axes,
allowing for a wider range of motion.
They can automate many different robotic
applications, including arc welding, spot
welding, painting, assembly, material
Figure 2.7 Articulated Robot Arm
removal, material handling, palletizing,
and many more.

2. Cartesian Robot Arm

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Cartesian robot arms (Refer to Figure
2.8) are also known as linear robots or
gantry robots. These are the types of
industrial robots that work on three linear
axes using the Cartesian coordinate
system (X, Y, and Z). This means they
move in straight lines on three different
axes (up and down, in and out, and side
to side). This is why this type of robotic
arm is quite popular amongst
industrialists and manufacturers who are
looking for higher flexibility in their
configurations.
Figure 2.8 Cartesian Robot Arm
These robots provide users with the
ability to adjust the speed, precision,
stroke length, and size of the robot arm.
Cartesian robots are positioned in the
market for small applications and are
often used for CNC machines and 3D
printing.

3. Cylindrical Robot Arm

Cylindrical robots (Refer to Figure 2.9)

are another type of robotic arm designed
around a single-arm capable of moving
up and down vertically. They have a
rotary joint at the base and a prismatic
joint to connect the links. These robots
are very compact and cover small and
simple tasks such as assembly, machine
tending, or coating applications. This
type of robotic arm is achieved with a Figure 2.9 Cylindrical Robot Arm
rotating shaft and an extendable arm that
supports vertical and sliding movements.

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4. Delta Robot Arm

Delta robot arms (Refer to Figure 2.10)

are also referred to as "parallel robot
arms" as they facilitate three arms
connected to a single base mounted over
a workspace. These types of robot arms
have high-speed options and are thus
used for automation.

Moreover, these robot arms have a

unique design in the form of a dome
shape that is capable of delicate and
precise movements at high speeds. This is
because all three arms directly control
every joint of the end effector. These
types of robotic arms are a great choice Figure 2.10 Delta Robot Arm
for applications in the food,
pharmaceutical, and electronic industries.

5. Polar Or Spherical Robot Arm

Polar robots (Refer to Figure 2.11), also

known as spherical robots, feature a base
coupled to an arm with two rotational
joints and one linear joint. The robot's
axes combine to create a polar coordinate,
enabling it to have a spherical work
envelope. One of the first industrial robot
categories to ever be created is the Polar
Robot. Die casting, injection moulding, Figure 2.11 Polar Or Spherical Robot
welding, and material handling are Arm
popular uses for polar robots.

6. SCARA Robot Arm

Selective Compliance Assembly Robot

Arm or Selective Compliance The
Articulated Robot Arm (Refer to Figure
2.12) is referred to by the abbreviation
SCARA. The three-axis (X, Y, and Z)
motion of SCARA robots is combined
with rotational motion. Compared to
Cartesian robots, SCARA robots perform
better in lateral motions, move more
quickly, and integrate more readily. Figure 2.12 SCARA Robot Arm
SCARA robots are typically employed
for biomedical applications, palletizing,
and assembling.

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