Economic Geology: Lecture Notes

Assembled by:
Dr. AbdelMonem Soltan
Professor of Applied Mineralogy
E-mail address: [email protected]
 Lecture Three: Mineral Resources

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 Lecture Contents
I. What is Economic Geology?

II. Classification of Ore Deposits

III. Important Definitions

IV. Periodic Table

V. Classification of Elements
1. Metals
2. Non-metals
3. Metalloids

VI. Goldschmidt Classification of Elements

VII. Common Ore and Gangue Minerals

VIII. Some Ore Minerals

IX. Metals and Minerals for a High-Tech world

X. Uses of Critical and Other Metal and Mineral Commodities

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XI. Mineral Systems
I. What is Economic Geology?
The discipline of “Economic Geology”
covers all aspects pertaining to the
description and understanding of mineral
resources.
The purpose of this process-orientated
course is to provide a better
understanding of the nature and origin of
mineral occurrences and how they fit into
the Earth system. Diamond

Gold Lead-Zinc
 II. Classification of Ore Deposits
A very simple classification of ores is achieved on the basis of igneous,
sedimentary/surficial and hydrothermal categories. This subdivision is very
similar to one used by Einaudi (2000), who stated that all mineral deposits can be
classified into three types based on process, namely magmatic deposits,
hydrothermal deposits and surficial deposits formed by surface and
groundwaters. Ore-forming processes can overlap between igneous and
hydrothermal and between sedimentary and hydrothermal.

Classification of the principal rock types (a) and an analogous, but much simplified, classification of ore
deposit types (b).
Ore deposits are formed when a useful commodity/element is sufficiently
concentrated in an accessible part of the Earth’s crust so that it can be profitably
extracted.
Ore deposits are natural concentrations of useful metals, minerals or rocks, which
can be economically exploited. Concentrations that are too small/ low-grade for
mining are called occurrences or mineralizations.

Schematic lithosphere-scale section showing the geodynamic environments in which the processes associated with critical
metal concentration.
WP1: the shallow-levels (≈<5 km depth) of magmatic arcs
WP2: mid-ocean ridges and marginal basins
WP3: post-collisional and extensional settings
Fe, Al, Mg, Ti, and Mn, are abundantly
distributed in the Earth’s crust (i.e.
between about 0.5 and 10 wt%) and
only require a relatively small degree
of enrichment in order to make a
viable deposit.

The table shows that Fe and Al, for

example, need to be concentrated by
factors of 9 and 4, respectively,
relative to average crustal
abundances, in order to form
potentially viable deposits.

The crustal abundances for Au and Pt

are in the range 4–5 parts per billion
(ppb) and even though ore deposits
routinely extract these metals at grades
of around 5 gt−1, the enrichment factors
involved are between 1000 and 1250
times.
Another useful way to distinguish between the geochemically abundant and
scarce metals is to plot average crustal abundances against production
estimates.

Plot of crustal abundances against global production for a number of metal commodities (after Einaudi, 2000). The line through Fe can
be regarded as a datum against which the rates of production of the other metals can be compared in the context of crustal
abundances.
Mineral deposits are basically valuable
rocks. Their formation is compared with
processes that have produced ordinary
rocks. Mineral deposits can also be
thought of as a geochemical
enrichment of elements or compounds
in the Earth’s crust, which is
determined by their chemical
properties.

Simplified scheme illustrating the conceptual difference between

mineral resources and ore reserves as applied to mineral occurrences.
The scheme forms the basis for the professional description of ore
deposits as defined by the Australian and South African Institutes of
Mining and Metallurgy.
 III. Important Definitions
Ore: A type of rock that contains Ore deposits: Ore accumulation.
minerals with important Parts of the crust, where ores
elements including metals that are concentrated.
can be extracted from the rock
at a profit.

Mining: Extraction of ores, or other

Gangue: commercially worthless valuable minerals from the ore
material that surrounds, or is deposits.
closely mixed with, a wanted
mineral in an ore deposit.
Metallogeny: the study of the Metallotect: any geological, tectonic,
genesis of mineral deposits, with lithological or geochemical feature
emphasis on their relationships in that has played a role in the
space and time to geological concentration of one or more
features of the Earth’s crust. elements in the Earth’s crust.

Metallogenic Epoch: a unit of

geologic time favorable for the Metallogenic Province: a region
deposition of ores or characterized characterized by a particular
by a particular assemblage of assemblage of mineral deposit
deposit types. types.
Syngenetic: refers to ore deposits Epigenetic: refers to ore deposits
that form at the same time as that form after their host rocks.
their host rocks.

Supergene: refers to
Hypogene: refers to mineralization
mineralization caused by
caused by ascending
descending solutions.
hydrothermal solutions.
Endogenetic: concentration caused Exogenetic: concentration caused
by processes in the Earth’s interior by processes at the Earth’s surface
(magmatism or metamorphism). (sedimentation, weathering).

Lateral secretion: concentration of

metals by abstraction from
surrounding rock.

The non-genetic descriptors stratiform

(layer-shaped) and stratabound (restricted
to certain strata) only denote shape and
position of an orebody in relation to
sedimentary features, not its origin.
Epithermal: hydrothermal ore Mesothermal: hydrothermal ore
deposits formed at shallow depths deposits formed at intermediate
(less than 1500 meters) and fairly depths (1500–4500 meters) and
low temperatures (50–200 °C). temperatures (200–400 °C).

Hypothermal: hydrothermal
ore deposits formed at
substantial depths (greater
than 4500 meters) and
elevated temperatures (400–
600 °C).
 IV. Periodic Table
Mendeleev arranged the elements into rows in order or
increasing mass and placed elements with similar
properties into the same columns. This arrangements of
atoms in columns with repeating properties from row to
row is called the PERIODIC TABLE.
Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number. Elements in a
group (column) exhibit similar properties because they have the same
number of valence electrons.
Atom structure

The atom of each element is mainly composed of

nucleus which contains protons, each carrying one
positive charge, and uncharged particles called
neutrons.
The nucleus is bounded by "shells" or “energy levels”
occupied by negative electrons. Moving away from the
nucleus, each new shell contains electrons at a higher
energy level than the previous shell. Electrons revolve
around the nucleus in seven electronic shells/energy levels:-
K, L, M, N, O, P & Q.

Each electronic shell

consists of some sub-shells:-

1. K contains only 1 sub-

shell: s.
2. L contains 2 sub-shells: s
& p.
3. M contains 3 sub-shells: s,
p & d.
4. N, O, P & Q contain 4 sub-
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shells: s, p, d & f.
Each sub-shell consists of some
orbitals. An orbital is basically the
region where the probability of M level

finding the electron is maximum.

Electrons are constantly spinning in L level
Electronic shell
Electronic sub-shell
these atomic orbitals at specific Electronic orbital

distances from the nucleus.

The different orbitals are: K level

s = sharp, p = principal, d =
diffuse, f = fundamental

Each orbital can hold up to 2

electrons.
1. s sub-shell contains 1 orbital
and can hold up to 2 electrons.
2. p sub-shell contains 3 orbitals
and can hold up to 6 electrons.
3. d sub-shell contains 5 orbitals
and can hold up to 10
electrons.
4. f sub-shell contains 7 orbitals
and can hold up to 14
electrons.
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The diagram below indicates the total number of electrons to be found in each orbital.
Strangely enough, with increasing atomic number, sometimes the additional electron
does not automatically occupy the next energy level. In the diagram, the number shown
near each of the electrons indicates the order in which they are added to the orbitals.

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Electronic Configuration:-
The arrangement of electrons
of each element in their
orbitals is known as it's
electronic configuration. This
arrangement is called the
electronic configuration at
which the electrons fill the
lower energy levels first.

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There are 92 elements occur in readily detectable amounts in the Earth’s crust.
Some of the elements (iron and aluminum) are required in copious quantities as
raw materials for the manufacture of vehicles and in construction, whereas
others; the rare earths, for example; are needed in very much smaller amounts for
use in the alloys and electronics industries.

A periodic table in which these elements are presented in ascending atomic number and also categorized
into groupings that are relevant to metallogenesis.
V. Classification of Elements

The useful elements can be broadly subdivided in a number of different ways.

Most of the elements can be classified as metals, with a smaller fraction being
non-metals. The elements B, Si, As, Se, Te, and At have intermediate properties
and are referred to as metalloids.

A periodic table showing metals; non-metals and metalloids.

1. Metals
•A metal is a solid material
(an element, compound, or alloy) that is
typically hard, opaque, shiny, and
features good electrical and thermal
conductivity. Metals are
generally malleable, fusible and ductile.

•Currently, 91 out of the 118 total

elements on the periodic table are
classified as metals.

•A metal is a chemical element that is a

good conductor of both electricity and
heat and forms ionic bonds with non-
metals. In chemistry, a metal is an
element, compound, or alloy
characterized by high electrical
conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily
lose electrons to form positive ions
(cations). Those ions are surrounded by
delocalized electrons, which are
responsible for the conductivity.
Metals have the following characteristics:

1. Metals are solids. (except mercury)

2. Metals are hard. (except Lithium,
Potassium, Sodium)
3. Metals have metallic lustre. (shine)
4. Metals are malleable. (can be beaten
into thin sheets) Silver
5. Metals are ductile. (can be drawn into
wires)
6. Metals have high melting points.
(Gallium and Ceasium have low melting
points. They melt in the palm of the
hand)
7. Metals have high boiling points.
Iridium
8. Metals are good conductors of heat.
(Best conductors are silver and copper.
Poor conductors are Lead and Mercury)
9. Metals are good conductors of
electricity. (Best conductors are Silver
and Copper)
10. Metals are sonorus. (produce sound
when beaten)
Rhenium
Metals are broadly classified as Ferrous and
Non-Ferrous.
•Ferrous metals include steel and pig
iron (with a carbon content of a few percent)
and alloys of iron with other metals (such as
stainless steel). Among metals there are
several subgroups, including transition
metals (such as iron, zinc, copper), noble
metals (such as gold, platinum, palladium),
alkaline earth metals, etc. Ferrous metals
•A non-ferrous metal is any metal, including alloys, that does not contain iron in
appreciable amounts. They are generally more expensive than ferrous metals.
Non-ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight
(e.g., aluminium), higher conductivity (e.g., copper), non-magnetic property
resistance to corrosion (e.g., zinc).
Important: Non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, tin,
titanium, zinc. Precious metals include gold, silver, platinum and paladium. Exotic
or rare metals such as cobalt, mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth and cerium.
• Transition Metals
The transition metals can form a variety of ions by losing one or more electrons.
All transition elements are metal at room temperature except mercury which is
liquid at room temperature.
The transition element
can be defined as: "an
• Elements in groups 3-12. element whose atom
• Less reactive harder metals. has a partially filled d
sub-shell, or which can
• Includes metals used in give rise to cations
with an incomplete d
jewelry and construction. sub-shell". A
characteristic of
• Metals used “as metal.” transition metals is
• Most transition elements are that they exhibit two or
more oxidation states.
found combined with other
elements in ores.
• Tungsten has the highest
melting point of any metal
(3,410°C) and will not melt
when a current passes
through it.
• Mercury, which has the
lowest melting point of any
metal (–39°C), is used in
thermometers and in
barometers.
• There are two series of inner transition elements.
• The first series, from cerium to lutetium, is called the lanthanides.
• The second series of elements, from thorium to lawrencium, is called the
actinides.
• The lanthanides are soft metals that can be cut with a knife.
• All the actinides are radioactive.
• Alkali Metals (alkalies)

Alkali metals belong to group

1, from lithium to francium.
Alkali metals react with atoms
of other elements by losing
one electron.

Alkali metals are so highly

reactive where reactivity
increases as you move down
the group. Alkali metals only
exist as compounds. Sodium
and Potassium are very
important to life.
• Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 2 of the periodic table
contains the alkaline earth
metals. These elements are not
as reactive as the metals in
Group 1, but they are more
reactive than most other
metals. They are also harder
than group 1 metals and have
higher melting points.

Differences in their reactivity is how they react with

water. They are good conductors of electricity.

Mg can be as hard as steel when mixed with other

metals but is extremely light.

Calcium is important for bones and muscles.

2. Non-Metals

Non-metals are solids and gases and are not good conductors of heat and
electricity. Non metals are chemical elements that form negative ions, have acidic
oxides, and are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Non metals may be solids,
liquids or gases. (Solids –
Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus
etc. Liquid – Bromine, Gases – Sulfur
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
etc.).
• Non metals are soft. (except
diamond which is the hardest
natural substance).
• Non metals do not have
lustre.( except iodine crystals).
Phosphorus
• Non metals are not malleable.
• Non metals are not ductile.
• Non metals which are solids
and liquids have low melting
points.
• Non metals which are solids
and liquids have low boiling
points.
• Non metals are bad
conductors of heat.
• Non metals are bad
conductors of electricity.
(except graphite).
• Non metals are not sonorus.
Graphite
3.
VI. Goldschmidt Classification of Elements

Another classification of elements, attributed to the pioneering geochemist

Goldschmidt, is based on their rock associations and forms the basis for
distinguishing between lithophile (associated with silicates and concentrated in
the crust), chalcophile (associated with sulfides), siderophile (occur as the native
metal and concentrated in the core), and atmophile (occur as gases in the
atmosphere) elements.
Lithophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they
combine readily with oxygen, forming compounds that do not sink into the core. The
lithophile elements include:[citation needed] Al, B, Ba, Be, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cs, F, I, Hf, K,
Li, Mg, Na, Nb, O, P, Rb, Sc, Si, Sr, Ta, Th, Ti, U, V, Y, Zr, W and the lanthanides.

Chalcophile elements include: Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Ga, Ge, Hg, In, Pb, S, Sb, Se, Sn,
Te, Tl and Zn. Chalcophile elements are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have
a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with sulfur as highly insoluble sulfides.
It is also useful to consider elements in terms of their ore mineral associations,
with some preferentially occurring as sulfides and others as oxides. Some
elements have properties that enable them to be classified in more than one way
and iron is a good example, in that it occurs readily as both an oxide and sulfide.
 VII. Common Ore and Gangue Minerals
It is estimated that there are about 3800 known minerals that have been identified
and classified. Only a very small proportion of these make up the bulk of the
rocks of the Earth’s crust, as the common rock forming minerals. Likewise, a
relatively small number of minerals make up most of the economically viable ore
deposits of the world.
The following compilation is a breakdown of the more common ore minerals in
terms of chemical classes based essentially on the anionic part of the mineral
formula. The compilation also includes some of the more common “gangue,”
which are those minerals that form part of the ore body, but do not contribute to
the economically extractable part of the deposit.

The compilation, including

ideal chemical formulae, is
subdivided into six sections,
these are:
1. Native elements,
2. Halides,
3. Sulfides and sulfo-salts,
4. Oxides and hydroxides,
5. Oxy-salts (such as
carbonates, phosphates,
tungstates, sulfates) and
6. Silicates.
1- Native elements:
Both metals and non-metals exist in nature in the native form, where essentially
only one element exists in the structure. Copper, silver, gold, and platinum are all
characterized by cubic close packing of atoms, have high densities, and are
malleable and soft. The carbon atoms in diamond are linked in tetrahedral
groups forming well cleaved, very hard, translucent crystals. Sulfur occurs as
rings of eight atoms and forms bipyramids or is amorphous.

Metals
Gold – Au
Silver – Ag
Gold Silver
Platinum – Pt Platinum
Palladium – Pd
Copper – Cu

Palladium Copper
Non-metals
Sulfur – S
Diamond – C
Graphite – C
Sulfur Diamond Graphite
2- Halides

The halide mineral group comprises compounds made up by ionic bonding.

Minerals such as halite and sylvite are cubic, have simple chemical formulae,
and are highly soluble in water. Halides sometimes form as ore minerals, such as
chlorargyrite and atacamite.

Halite – NaCl
Sylvite – KCl
Chlorargyrite – AgCl Chlorargyrite
Fluorite – CaF2
Atacamite – Cu2Cl(OH)3

Atacamite
3- Sulfides and sulfo-salts

This is a large and complex group of minerals in which bonding is both ionic and
covalent in character. The sulfide group has the general formula AMXP, where X,
the larger atom, is typically S but can be As, Sb, Te, Bi, or Se, and A is one or more
metals. The sulfo-salts, which are much rarer than sulfides, have the general
formula AMBNXP, where A is commonly Ag, Cu, or Pb, B is commonly As, Sb, or Bi,
and X is S. The sulfide and sulfo-salt minerals are generally opaque, heavy and
have a metallic to sub-metallic luster.

Sulfides Cobaltite – CoAsS

Gersdorffite – NiAsS
Chalcocite – Cu2S Loellingite – FeAs2
Bornite – Cu5FeS4 Molybdenite – MoS2
Galena – PbS Realgar – AsS
Sphalerite – ZnS Orpiment – As2S3
Millerite
Chalcopyrite – CuFeS2 Stibnite – Sb2S3
Pyrrhotite – Fe1–xS Bismuthinite – Bi2S3
Pentlandite – (Fe,Ni)9S8 Argentite – Ag2S
Millerite – NiS Calaverite – AuTe2
Covellite – CuS Pyrite – FeS2
Cinnabar – HgS Laurite – RuS2
Skutterudite – (Co,Ni)As3 Braggite/cooperite – (Pt,Pd,Ni)S
Sperrylite – PtAs2 Moncheite – (Pt,Pd)(Te,Bi)2
Galena
Sulfo-salts

Tetrahedrite – (Cu,Ag)12Sb4S13
Tennantite – (Cu,Ag)12As4S13
Enargite – Cu3AsS4

Tennantite Enargite
Tetrahedrite
4- Oxides and hydroxides:
This group of minerals is variable in its properties, but is characterized by one or
more metal in combination with oxygen or a hydroxyl group. The oxides and
hydroxides typically exhibit ionic bonding. The oxide minerals can be hard, dense,
and refractory in nature (magnetite, cassiterite) but can also be softer and less
dense, forming as products of hydrothermal alteration and weathering (hematite,
anatase, pyrolusite). Hydroxides, such as goethite and gibbsite, are typically the
products of extreme weathering and alteration.
Oxides Hydroxides (or oxyhydroxides)

Cuprite – Cu2O Goethite – FeO(OH)

Hematite – Fe2O3 Gibbsite – Al(OH)3
Ilmenite – FeTiO3 Boehmite – AlO(OH)
Hercynite – FeAl2O4 Manganite – MnO(OH)
Gahnite – ZnAl2O4 Cuprite
Magnetite – Fe3O4
Chromite – FeCr2O4
Rutile – TiO2
Anatase – TiO2
Pyrolusite – MnO2
Cassiterite – SnO2
Uraninite – UO2 Cassiterite
Goethite
Thorianite – ThO2
Columbite-tantalite– (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6
5- Oxy-salts

The carbonate group of minerals form when anionic carbonate groups (CO3)-2
are linked by intermediate cations such as Ca, Mg, and Fe. Hydroxyl bearing and
hydrated carbonates can also form, usually as a result of weathering and
alteration. The other oxy-salts, such as the tungstates (WO4), sulfates (SO4),
phosphates (PO4), and vanadates (VO4), are analogous to the carbonates, but
are built around an anionic group of the form (XO4)-n.

Carbonates Tungstates

Calcite – CaCO3 Scheelite – CaWO4

Dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2 Wolframite – (Fe,Mn)WO4
Ankerite – CaFe(CO3)2
Siderite – FeCO3
Rhodochrosite – MnCO3 Smithsonite
Smithsonite – ZnCO3
Cerussite – PbCO3
Azurite – Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
Malachite – Cu2(OH)2CO3

Wolframite

Azurite
Sulfates Phosphates

Baryte(s) – BaSO4 Xenotime – YPO4

Anhydrite – CaSO4 Monazite – (Ce,La,Th)PO4
Alunite – KAl3(OH)6(SO4)2 Apatite – Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
Gypsum – CaSO4.2H2O
Epsomite – MgSO4.7H2O
Barite

Vanadates

Carnotite – K2(UO2)(VO4)2.3H2O
Monazite
6- Silicates

The bulk of the Earth’s crust and mantle is made up of silicate minerals that can
be subdivided into several mineral series based on the structure and
coordination of the tetrahedral (SiO4)4− anionic group. Silicate minerals are
generally hard, refractory and translucent. Most of them cannot be regarded as
ore minerals in that they do not represent the extractable part of an ore body,
and the list provided below shows only some of the silicates more commonly
associated with mineral occurrences as gangue or alteration products. Some
silicate minerals, such as zircon and spodumene, are ore minerals and represent
important sources of metals such as zirconium and lithium, respectively. Others,
such as kaolinite, are mined for their intrinsic properties (i.e. as a clay for the
ceramics industry).

Neso (ortho)

Zircon – Zr(SiO4)
Garnet (almandine) – Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
Garnet (grossular) – Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
Sillimanite – Al2SiO5 Zircon
Topaz – Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
Chloritoid – (Fe,Mg,Mn)2(Al,Fe)Al3O2(SiO4)2(OH)4
Soro (di)

Lawsonite – CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2.H2O
Epidote – Ca2(Al,Fe)3Si3O12(OH)

Cyclo (ring)

Beryl – Be3Al2Si6O18
Tourmaline –(Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe,Mn,Al)3(Al,Mg,Fe)6Si6O18
(BO3)3(OH,F)4

Ino (chain)

Tremolite-actinolite – Ca2(Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2
Spodumene – LiAlSi2O6
Wollastonite – CaSiO3
Phyllo (sheet)

Kaolinite – Al4Si4O10(OH)8
Montmorillonite – (Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2
Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O
Illite – KAl2(Si,Al)4O10(H2O)(OH)2
Pyrophyllite – Al2Si4O10(OH)2
Talc – Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Muscovite – KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite – K(Fe,Mg)3(Al,Fe)Si3O10(OH,F)2
Lepidolite – K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH,F)2
Chlorite – (Fe,Mg,Al)5–6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8

Tecto (framework)

Quartz – SiO2
Orthoclase – (K,Na)AlSi3O8
Albite – (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
Scapolite – (Na,Ca)4[(Al,Si)4O8)]3 (Cl, CO3)
Zeolite (analcime) – NaAlSi2O6.H2O

Unknown structure

Chrysocolla – (Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4.nH2O
 VIII. Some Ore Minerals

Metallic Elements Ore Minerals Chemical Formulae Industrial Usage

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Copper (Cu) Alloys, Electronics
Bornite Cu5FeS2
Native gold Au Precious metals, electronics, chemical
Gold (Au)
Electrum AuAg instruments
Lead (Pb) Galena PbS Batteries, alloys, glasses
Special steel alloys, rockets, nuclear
Nickel (Ni) Pentlandite (Fe, Ni)9S8
reactors
Mollybdenium (Mo) Molybdenite MoS2 Special steel, filaments, glass piegments
Catalysts, Electronics, Chemical
Platinum (Pt) Native platinum Pt
instruments
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar HgS Electric industrie, Catalysts, corrosives
Zinc (Zn) Sphalerite ZnS Alloys, pesticides, medicines
Stibnite Sb2S3
Antimony (Sb) tin tubings, bronze, enamel, ceramics
Tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13
Aluminum (Al) Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Alloys, automobiles, aircrafts
Uranium (U) Uraninite UO2 Nuclear fuels, catalysts, piegments
Native silver Ag Precious metals, alloys, photos, electric
Silver (Ag)
Argentite Ag22S plating
Tin (Sn) Cassiterite SnO2 Tin plates, bronze
Sheelite CaWO4 Special steels, ultralight macbinaries,
tungsten (W)
Wolframite (Fe, Mn)WO4 alloys
Cobalt (Co) Llinnaeite Co3S4 Steel alloys, ceramics, catalysts
Chrome (Cr) Chromite (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 Alloys, plating, refractory bricks, dyes
Titanium (Ti) Rutile TiO2 High pressure vessels, textiles, dyes
IX. Metals and Minerals for a High-Tech
world

The availability of metal, non-metal and

mineral raw materials, particularly those that
underpin high-technology sectors, is
important for the ongoing development of
many industries. Major ore – commodities -
such as iron ore, coal, aluminium and copper
are very important in a wide range of sectors,
however there is a diversity of supply and
substantial resources.

In essence a mineral resource, i.e., ore deposit

is critical if it is both economically important
and has high risk of supply disruption. These
supply risks originate from four main causes:
(1) scarcity of the ore or mineral (the
geological abundance); (2) diversity and
stability of supply; (3) production only as a by-
product of other commodities; and (4) level of
concentration of ore production and
processing within particular countries or by
particular companies.
Both the US and EU
studies developed
concepts of criticality
involving simple 2-
dimensional matrices,
which express the
combination of
importance in use and
availability or supply
risk of the material in
question. There are
many factors
contributing to each of
these two dimensions—
for example, supply risk
will be influenced by (1)
scarcity of the
commodity; (2)
geopolitical stability of
suppliers; (3) diversity
of supply and market
scale; (4) method of
recovery (e.g., as the
main product or as a
by-product); and (5)
level of concentration
of commodity
production and
processing within
particular countries.
US National Academy of Sciences (2008) criticality matrix
European Commission (2010) criticality matrix for the European Union.
X. Uses of Critical and Other
Metal and Mineral
Commodities

The periodic table of the

elements illustrates the
groupings of elements with
certain shared physical and
chemical properties. For
example, all metals are good
conductors of electricity and are
generally malleable and ductile,
whereas semi-metals (metaloids)
are semi-conductors of
electricity, a highly valuable
property in electronics and solar
energy panels. Some sub-groups
have particular shared
properties, for example platinum-
group elements (PGE) (including
platinum and palladium) and
other noble metals such as gold
are highly resistant to chemical
corrosion.
Other metals are valued for their
extremely high melting temperatures and
hardness, such as tungsten and rhenium,
so that alloys of these metals tend to have
greater tensile strength at high
temperatures. This property enables
rhenium-bearing super-alloys in jet
engine turbine blades to operate at higher
temperatures than non-rhenium turbines),
reducing aeroplane emissions and fuel
The use of rhenium in high
costs. temperature turbines in the
aerospace industry
The rare-earth elements, which include
the lanthanide series metals as well as
scandium and yttrium, have diverse and
very useful properties. For example, small
percentages of neodymium and
dysprosium in some alloys increase
permanent magnet strength by orders of
magnitude, enabling step changes in
miniaturizing of telecommunications and
other electronic devices, and much more
efficient generation of electricity in Electricity turbines
commercial wind turbines.
 Commodities used; bold
Driver of metal/material usage Technology/product indicates critical
commodities
Steel Fe, Cr, V, Mo, Ni, Co, Mn
Catalysts PGE (Pt, Pd)
Ceramics Li, Ce
Industrial production efficiency
Common and infrastructure development
Paint Ti, Cr
Moulds Zr
uses of Flame retardant Sb
metals, non- Cryogenics He
Wind turbines—
REE (Nd, Dy, Sm, Pr)
metals and Low-emissions energy permanent magnets
production Photo-voltaics (PV) In, Sb, Ga, Te, Ag, Cu, Se
minerals in Nuclear reactors U, Th, Zr
industrial Electric cars—batteries
REE (La, Ce, Nd, Pr), Li, Ni
,Co, Mn, graphite
and high- Electric cars—magnets REE (Nd, Dy, Sm, Pr)
technology Low-emissions energy usage Electric cars—fuel cells PGE, Sc
applications. Cars—light metals Al, Mg, Ti
Cars—catalytic converters PGE
Wires Cu
Micro-capacitors—mobile
Ta, Nb, Sb
Communications and phones etc
entertainment technologies Flat screens—phosphors In, Y
Fibre optics and infra-red Ge
Semiconductors Ga
Nuclear/radiation
He
detectors
Defence / security Armour and weapons Be, W, Cr, V
Aerospace—superalloys Re, Nb, Ni, Mo
Light alloys Superalloys
(high-temperature Al, Mg, Ti,
Transport—fuel efficiency &
performance e.g. in jet Sc, Th Re, Nb, Ni,Mo Co,
performance engine turbines) High Sm
speed trains—magnets
Water desalination PGE, Cr, Ti
Water & food security Agricultural production— Phosphate rock; potash,
fertiliser Mg
Metal and other selected element usage in the manufacture of
an average car in 2006 (from United States National Academy
of Sciences, 2008)
Element/material Mass (kg) Property (use)
Iron and steel 963 High strength, durability (frame, engine)
Aluminium 109 Light weight (frame, engine)
Bond strengthener (tyres and other rubber
Carbon 23
parts)
Copper 19 Electrical conductivity (wiring)
Silicon 19 Bonding properties (windows)
Lead 11 Conductor (storage batteries)
Galvaniser, strengthener (galvanised metal
Zinc 10
and alloy parts)
Manganese 8 Hardness as metal alloy parts
Corrosion resistance and hardness as metal
Chromium 7
alloy
Strength at elevated temperature and
Nickel 4
corrosion resistance as metal alloy
Light weight alloying element with
Magnesium 2
aluminium
Sulfur 0.9 Strengthens rubber tyres
Molybdenum 0.45 Strength and toughness as metal alloy
Vanadium 0.45< Strength and toughness as metal alloy
1.5–3.0
Platinum Catalytic properties (catalytic converters)
grams

Note: In addition to the elements listed above, the average car also
contains trace amounts of antimony, barium, cadmium, cobalt,
fluorspar, gallium, gold, graphite, halite, limestone, mica, niobium,
palladium, phosphorus, potash, strontium, tin, titanium and tungsten.
XI. Mineral Systems
Although mineral deposits have diverse
characteristics, they can be related using
temporal and genetic relationships, the
tectonic setting in which they formed and
the chemical characteristics of their host

Mineral system can be defined as:

“all geological factors that control the

generation and preservation of mineral
deposits”.

There are nine broad mineral systems:

▪porphyry-epithermal,
▪granite-related,
▪iron oxide-copper-gold,
▪subaqueous volcanic-related,
▪mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, Three principal tectonic environments
of formation for VMS deposits.
▪orogenic,
▪basin-related,
▪alkaline, and
▪surficial.
End of Lecture