J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

(2015) 15:837–845
DOI 10.1007/s11668-015-0023-8

TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED

Fouling and Corrosion in an Aero Gas Turbine Compressor

R. K. Mishra

Submitted: 7 August 2015 / Published online: 29 September 2015

 ASM International 2015

Abstract This paper deals with the study carried out on are present in dry air. In addition, there is always the
fouling and corrosion problems in an aero gas turbine presence of salts, contaminants, and humidity in the engine
engine which operates from coastal environment. Various inlet air depending on the local condition of the place
parameters responsible for such problems are presented in where the aircraft or engine is positioned [1]. Their pres-
the paper which causes deterioration in performance and ence in air deteriorates the engine performance due to
leads to failure of the components. Prevention and control foreign object damage, erosion, fouling, blockage of
procedures for fouling and corrosion are also highlighted. cooling passages, particle fusion, and cold and hot corro-
Compressor washes such as performance recovery wash sion [1, 2]. Low-pressure compressor (fan) and high-
and desalination wash are found to be very effective in pressure compressor being the front-end components of the
addressing these issues. The frequency of compressor wash engine are affected most due to these elements. Thus,
is to be judiciously worked out from the corrosion rate and compressor fouling and corrosion have become a serious
performance deterioration points of view. concern, and its control and prevention are of priority for
engine operators. Fouling is the degradation in perfor-
Keywords Corrosion failure analysis
mance of a turbine engine due to the build-up of
Corrosion fatigue
Environmental degradation
contaminants on the various aerodynamic surfaces [3]. An
Gas turbine example of low-pressure compressor fouling is shown in
Fig. 1. It results in a drop in airflow and isentropic effi-
ciency which in turn reduces the thrust or power output of
Introduction the engine.
Fouling can also cause engine surge or flame blowout
Many military gas turbines operate from air bases in due to shifting of operating line toward surge line, flow
coastal regions or from offshore platforms even from small distortion, and aerodynamic mismatch as shown in Fig. 2
islets due to strategic reasons. Also many engines takeoff [4, 5]. Investigations have shown that majority of low
from unprepared runways and are subjected to arduous thrust, low spool speed, and high exhaust gas temperature
environment. The standard atmosphere is composed of a cases are attributed to compressor fouling. Compressor
mixture of gases. Although the major constituents are fouling accounts for about 70–85% of gas turbine engine
nitrogen and oxygen, there are many other gases such as performance deterioration. Fouling also has a damaging
argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon, carbon dioxide and effect on compressor blading which deteriorates the
carbon monoxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur etc. mechanical reliability of the compressor. Compressor
fouling also results in a higher turbine entry temperature
for a given power setting. This causes higher turbine entry
temperature leading to degradation of hot-end components
R. K. Mishra (&)
and higher emission levels.
Regional Centre for Military Airworthiness (Engines),
Bangalore, Karnataka 560093, India The parts of gas turbine engines which are operated in a
e-mail: [email protected] chemically reactive environment generally suffer from

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838 J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2015) 15:837–845

Fig. 3 Schematic layout of a twin-spool turbofan engine

Engine Configuration

Fig. 1 Fouling of a low-pressure compressor in an aero gas turbine The present study was carried on a low-bypass turbofan
engine engine with afterburner. It is a twin-spool engine of 40 kN
thrust class with multi-stage axial fan and compressor each
driven separately by single stage turbines. It has an annular
type combustion system incorporating airblast atomizers.
Schematic layout of the engine is shown in Fig. 3.
The low-pressure (LP) compressor rotor disks are bolted
together, each disk having peripheral flanges to which
blades are secured by retaining pins. The LP stator vane
assemblies are fabricated rings of vanes with inner and
outer platforms The high-pressure (HP) compressor com-
prises machined disks welded together to form a drum into
which rotor blades are keyed. Compressor stator assembly
consists of a series of vanes welded on the outer platform to
form a ring behind each row of rotor blades in each stage.
The low-pressure compressor blades are made of high-duty
Al–Cu 2618A alloy, and the vanes are made of 5056 alloy
(ASTM B316) which has strong corrosion resistance
Fig. 2 Drift in compressor operating point due to fouling characteristics.
The other modules of the engine are HP nozzle guide
vanes and turbine rotor, LP nozzle guide vanes, LP turbine
corrosion. In gas turbines, there occur two types of corro- rotor disk, rotor support system, afterburner system, gear
sion: cold corrosion and hot corrosion. Cold corrosion box, and accessories.
occurs in low- and high-pressure compressors which
operate relatively at low temperature due to wet deposits of
salts, acids, steam, and corrosive gases of various chlorides, Compressor Fouling
sulfides, and oxides. The corrosion causes reduction in the
cross-sectional properties of the material and also pitting of Fouling is the build-up of material in cavities and low flow-
the material. Cold corrosion can initiate cracks and met- rate locations along the air flow path as shown in Fig. 1.
allurgical abnormalities in the material. The hot corrosion Besides small particles as a cause for fouling, oil vapors,
occurs in the hot-end components of the engine which are water, salts, and other sticky substances working individ-
exposed to high-temperature combustion gases. Rapid ually or together create a mix of materials that find places
chemical reaction takes place between oxygen and the to adhere. These particles adhere to compressor blade
material at high temperatures. Degradation becomes more surfaces and turbine blade cooling passages. The effect is
severe with increasing contaminant concentration and is to change clearances, disrupt rotating balance, obstruct and
highly influenced by temperature [6, 7]. The present study plug flow paths, and reduce smoothness of rotating and
will focus on cold corrosion and fouling only. The paper stationary blade surfaces. Fouling is, however, usually
highlights various steps involved in the study for corrosion recoverable since there are methods available to remove
prevention in a gas turbine compressor. these deposits with online or offline washing or mechanical

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J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2015) 15:837–845 839

Fig. 4 Deterioration of engine performance and its recovery through

cleaning

Fig. 5 Typical atmospheric dust distribution

cleaning. The cost of recovery is interrupted process output
and sometimes extended shutdown. If recovery by cleaning present will flow off the aerodynamic surfaces rather than
is not performed, performance suffers. It is possible to adhering to the surface. This will result in somewhat
recovery the engine’s performance to close to the original cleaning of the surface. The particulates will be washed
performance with regular cleanings. An example of change away thus reducing the fouling rate. The inlet pressure drop
in engine performance over time is shown in Fig. 4. leading to droplet formation varies from aircraft to aircraft
Researchers have found out several factors that affect and greatly depends on the operating environment as well
compressor fouling. The design philosophy of the com- as the engine-air intake characteristics.
pressor is itself a major factor that contributes to its
fouling. The other factors are loading of the aerofoil, Erosion
incidence angle of the aerofoil, surface smoothness and
nature of coating material, type and condition of airborne Hard particles 5–10 lm or larger create erosion of the
pollutants, and operational environment such as humidity. metal surfaces bounding the air flow path. Figure 5 com-
Based on these parameters, an index of sensitivity to pares the particle size range for erosion with fouling [13].
fouling (ISF) has been defined by Tarabrin et al. [8, 9]. Sand is one of the most common causes of erosion due
Fouling is caused by particles in the range of 2–10 lm. The to its prevalence at the installations of gas turbine.
variation of quantity of those particles present in a local Impingement of small, hard particles against blade and
atmosphere has a major impact on the rate of fouling [10, stator aerodynamic airfoil shapes repeatedly removes tiny
11]. The deposit of particles on the surface of blades takes particles of metal, eventually re-shaping portions of the
plane under the action of inertia forces acting on the par- parts. In finely tuned contours of highly stressed parts, this
ticles and forcing them to move along the curved is a double problem. Re-shaping aerodynamic surfaces
streamline. Particles of dirt that collides with the blade changes the air flow paths, roughens the surfaces, changes
stick to the blade surface. Sticking of dirt increases with the clearances, and eventually reduces the cross-sectional areas
presence of oily substances. that provide the strength necessary to resist the very high
stresses of parts with minimal margins of safety. Also,
Impact of Humidity on Fouling changing the blade shape can create stress concentrations.
This in turn reduces the fatigue strength and can lead to
Fouling of engine parts is a result of particles adhering to high cycle fatigue failures. The efficiency of the gas turbine
water and oil when present on surfaces. Total humidity is is reduced until excessive stress takes over as the main
directly related to the partial pressure of water vapor in the cause of problem.
surrounding atmosphere. Generally water is present in the
incoming air due to the pressure drop experienced at the Contaminants
engine inlet. The rate of fouling is a strong function of total
humidity. As humidity increases, particles will adhere to A contaminant consists of any substance which is entrained
the surface, and the performance of the engine deteriorates in the air flow path in gas turbine engine. A wide range of
[12]. But at high humidity, some amount of the water substances such as solid particles, gases, and liquids such

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Table 1 Common contaminants

Grade Contaminants

Coarse [10 lm Leaves, insects, textile fibers, sand, flying ash, mist, rain, pollen and fog
Fine [1 lm Spore, cement dust, dust sediments, cloud, fog, accumulated carbon black, metal oxide smoke, oil smoke
EPA [0.01 lm Metal oxide smoke, carbon black, smog, mist, fumes, oil smoke, aerosol micro particles

natural frequencies of the blades. Engine is allowed for

minimum 45 min to cool down to below 65 C prior to
activate compressor wash system.
Depending on the ambient temperature, the cleaning
solution tank is filled with appropriate cleaning solution as
given in Table 2. The rinse solution tank is filled with
normal drinking quality water for ambient temperature
above ?2 C and with water and isopropyl alcohol in equal
volumetric proportion for ambient temperature from ?2 to
25 C. Compressed air supply is connected to the wash
tanks. The cleaning solutions are injected into the engine
while motoring the engine at 5% rotor speed for 30 s.
Cleaning solution is allowed to soak for 20–30 min. Then
the rinse solution is injected for 30 s for 2–3 times till the
wash fluid comes out through the exhaust drain valve.
Fig. 6 Schematic of compressor wash rig Subsequently, the engine is run to an intermediate power
rating for one to two minutes for drying the engine. The
as sea salts, dust, sand, exhaust fumes containing oil and compressor wash has been found to be very effective to
fuel vapors, particles such as chemicals, fertilizers, mineral remove flow paths and blade surfaces and to regain engine
ores, and industrial by-products. The presence of contam- performance. The frequency of compressor wash is decided
inants in the environment greatly depends on the location based on the environmental conditions that the engine is
where it is operated and also on the local activities. They subjected to. But it is generally carried out on engines once
are also dependant on climatic conditions such as wind in every 25–35 flight hours. As it is not possible to com-
direction, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity, and pletely remove the water particles and deposits from
precipitation which are constantly changing [10, 12]. various ports and internal passages, the compressor mod-
Some common contaminants and their typical size are ules are dismantled after 100–125 flight hours to physically
presented in Table 1. Generally inlet air filtration is widely clean them for better service life.
used for land based gas turbine engines to prevent perfor-
mance degradation and to prevent unscheduled
maintenance. Ground test beds are also equipped with Corrosion
suitable filtrations for testing aero gas turbine engines.
Axial compressors suffer aqueous corrosion due to for-
Performance Recovery Wash mation of aggressive acids. The presence of airborne salts
and acids of sulfur and nitrogen make the environment
Compressor fouling is generally addressed by carrying out corrosive for compressor material. This generally occurs
periodic compressor wash. These performance recovery during the coastal, marine, or offshore operation of the
wash uses approved chemical additives to remove deposits engine. The main difference between the operations in
on airflow passages and blade surfaces. Compressor these areas is the high salt concentration in the atmosphere
washing can be accomplished both online and offline [14]. compared to that in land based operation. The high con-
On-line cleaning can be performed in a compressor wash centration of salt in the atmosphere can also lead to fouling
rig as shown schematically in Fig. 6 with minimal effects as explained earlier sections.
and can cause rapid improvement in a heavily fouled Coastal areas refer to the land region within 15 km of
compressor. the shoreline. Operation of gas turbines within coastal area
Prior to performing a compressor cleaning, care should presents a major challenge of higher salt concentrations
be taken not to disturb the critical speeds of rotors or and humidity compared to land based application.

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Table 2 Formulation of cleaning solution (by % volume)

Ambient temperature Cleaning agent Aviation kerosene Isopropyl alcohol Water

Cleaning agent: Magnus 1214, R-MC-G21, TURCO-5884 etc.

[2 C 25 0 0 75
25 to 2 C 25 15 20 40
\25 C 25 15 40 20
Cleaning agent: Ardrox-6367, Turboclean-2, ZOK-27 etc.
[5 C 20 0 0 80
5 to ?5 C 20 0 20 60
21 to 5 C 20 0 30 50
\21 C 20 0 40 40

30 m from the ocean surface. However, in offshore appli-

cations, the gas turbine engine inlets are positioned above
30 m from the ocean surface. The primary contaminants in
these cases are salt and seawater. Salt is generated naturally
and is always present in the wet form due to the closeness
of the gas turbine inlet to the ocean surface. The height,
orientation, and location of the engine inlet control the size
and quantity of salt at the inlet. The distance of the inlet
from the ocean surface significantly affects the amount of
sea water and salt aerosols. Concentration of salt decreases
as the height of engine inlet increases above the ocean
surface. The particle size also decreases with height.
In all such cases, the presence and amount of corrosive
species, moisture levels, and materials of engine compo-
nents determine the amounts and rates of corrosion. The
inlet stages of the compressor are the most susceptible to
corrosion damage during normal operation of the com-
Fig. 7 Corrosion seen on air intake fairing and pressure probe pressor. The first few sages of the compressor are the most
susceptible to corrosive attack. These stages generally
The salt present in the ambient air is derived from operate at subatmoshperic pressure, and the water vapor in
seawater aerosols carried by the wind. Depending on the the air condenses into water droplets that readily combine
relative humidity, the salt particles may be present in with the other airborne contaminants. Toward the rear end
aerosols, in the sticky state, or as dry particles. The of the compressor, the compressed air and water droplets
humidity will also have an effect on the size of the salt increase in the both temperature and pressure. Thus, the
particles or aerosols. Relative humidity lower than 50% can liquid water comes back into a gaseous state thereby
cause salt particles to reduce in size below 1 lm. The salt reducing the corrosion potential.
concentration present in the air from the seawater is the The compressor fouling aggravates the corrosion by
highest at the shore and falls rapidly until approximately allowing the water droplets to form or agglomerate in the
15 km off the shoreline. However, the concentration can flow path. The flow path deposits tend to hold the acidic
vary significantly depending on the wind speed, direction, conditions on the surface of the compressor blades and
elevation, and topography. Aero gas turbines operated from vanes. Corrosion pitting on airflow paths caused by salt
ship decks or offshore platforms or from small islets face deposits can be seen in Fig. 8. Pitting corrosion is very
similar problems. The corrosion on air intake fairings and significant in industrial axial flow compressors as well as in
measurement probes are shown in Fig. 7 for the aero gas aero engines operating at sandy atmosphere. The pits are
turbine engine under study which is stationed and operated often the crack initiator in blade fatigue failures.
from a coastal region. Air flow passages in the internal Salt deposits and pitting corrosion marks on blade sur-
cooling air flow path are also seen affected by corrosion. face are presented in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. Pitting in
In a marine environment, the gas turbines are installed many materials can lead to failure by corrosion occurring
on ships. The inlet to the engine turbines is typically within in localized areas.

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Fig. 10 Corrosion pitting on compressor blade surface

• Selection of suitable materials

Fig. 8 Pitting corrosion in compressor air flow passages • Adaption of appropriate heat treatment process of the
material
• Use of corrosion resistant coatings
In spite of the best design practices, compressor corrosion
is often unavoidable due to its operational environments. In
such case, controlling the corrosion level by cleaning is left
the only choice.

Desalination Wash

Compressor wash at scheduled intervals has been found

very effective in controlling the compressor corrosion.
Flow path wash removes many of the deposits through
either a liquid wash dissolving the deposit or an abrasive
scrubbing of the deposits off the blade surfaces. The two
most commonly used methods of cleaning the compressor
are a liquid wash often referred to as water wash and an
Fig. 9 Deposit of corrosive salts on compressor blade surface abrasive cleaning [17].
Compressor desalination wash is a recommended prac-
The cause of this local corrosion is related to material tice worldwide adopted by aero engine operators.
build ups on the surface of the material. The area in or Compressor wash is done by injecting applicable cleaning
immediately under the deposit can form a local environ- fluid into the engine intake using either an installed com-
ment that is oxygen deprived. Oxygen on the metal surface pressor wash ring or a hand held wash wand. Water-based
is required to maintain the corrosion resistant surface film. non-flammable non-toxic and readily biodegradable blend
In addition, the localized corrosion can be further accel- surfactants and inhibitors are commonly used as com-
erated by the creation of aggressive acids. The damage pressor cleaning agents [16]. These agents will have no
shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10 can result in mechanical harmful effect on the compressor material. The cleaning
failure of the component if allowed for prolong period or fluid formulation for few cleaning agents is presented in
preventive measure is not initiated. Table 2. The solutions generally have specific gravity of
about 1.0 and pH value of 7.2–7.6.
Corrosion Prevention & Control Alternatively, a motoring wash can also be done at 10–
25% of high-pressure spool speed, and the water or the
A number of steps are generally considered at design stage cleaning mixture, depending on ambient temperature, is
to prevent the compressor from corrosion [15, 16]. Such injected into the engine intake at a rate of 7.5–11.5 L/min
steps include depending on the engine configuration.

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Normal drinking quality water or demineralized water is Further, it was observed that the components of the
commonly used as the wash fluid for motoring wash pro- engines or aircrafts which are parked inside the hangar
cedure. Although the quality of water varies according to shed with intake and exhaust blanked are less prone to
location and season, it should meet the following minimum corrosion than those parked outside. The engines engaged
standards: in night flight were found to be less prone to salt deposits
and corrosion. The problem of corrosion was found to be
(a) Appearance: free of visible extraneous impurities
more serious during rainy days. Occasional operation from
(b) Total solids: 175 ppm (mg/L) max
offshore platforms showed a steep rise in salt deposits and
(c) pH value: 6.0–8.0 inclusive
corrosion spreading to larger areas in LP compressor.
(d) Chlorides: 15 ppm (mg/l) max
These observations have helped in defining the fre-
(e) Sulfates: 10 ppm (mg/L) max
quency for desalination wash without sacrificing the life
Compressor washing is most effective if it is performed and performance of the engines and at the same time
on a regular basis. The recommended wash schedule is avoiding over-maintenance. Adopting compressor wash at
presented in Table 3. However, the frequency of wash is suitable intervals using R-MC-G21 cleaning agent, the
decided based on the operational environment and the rate corrosion has been prevented to a large extent. Figures 11
of corrosion experienced at a particular location. Abrasive and 12 show almost corrosion-free low compressor pas-
compressor cleaning is accomplished by injecting an sages and blades which have been significantly improved
abrasive media into the compressor inlet during normal compared to that in Figs. 7 and 8.
operation. Walnut shells, rice, fluid catalytic cracking Compressor-turbine desalination wash is also strongly
(FCC) catalyst, glass beads, and other media have been recommended when operating in salt laden atmosphere.
utilized. The size and quantity of the cleaner are important When desalination washes are done in conjunction with
for obtaining a good flow path cleaning and not causing each other it is essential that the compressor wash is done
damage to the compressor flow path components. first.
Aggressive abrasive cleaning can readily cause erosion
damage to both the corrosion resistant coatings and the
compressor airfoils.
In the present study, 10 aero engines were monitored on
daily basis for 15 days in an air base at a coastal location.
The exercise was started from the day of after the desali-
nation wash of the compressors. Whitish-color salt deposits
and carbon deposits were noticed on LP compressor rotor
blade surfaces. Leading edge of the stage 1 blades was also
observed with minor salt deposits. Mild corrosion noticed
on some of the bolt heads. No corrosion marks noticed on
the rotor flow path area and air intake fairing. The quantity
of salt deposits found to increase up to day 3 or day 4. After
that, the progressive daily variation of salt deposits and
corrosion marks on the blades and rotor path areas were
found to be negligible. Also no additional area was affected
by corrosion in subsequent days. It was observed that the
engines which have logged less service hours or consumed
less calendar life are less prone to corrosion than the old
Fig. 11 State of air intake fairing with scheduled compressor wash
engines with less life left.

Table 3 Compressor wash schedule

Environment Type of wash Frequency

Continuously salt laden Desalination wash Daily. After last flight of day
Frequently salt laden Desalination wash Weekly. To suit engine condition
Occasionally salt laden Desalination wash Bi-weekly. To suit engine condition
All Performance recovery wash Generally at every 30 ± 5 h but based on engine
operating conditions. Motoring wash is recommended

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Apart from the desalination wash schedule, the compressor

modules are also dismantled from the engine, and thorough
desalination process is performed. This 2nd level corrosion
prevention procedure is followed in every 6–9 months of
time or after every 100–125 flight hours.

Conclusion

Fouling and corrosion are serious concerns in an aero gas

turbine compressor. This paper summarized the review of
compressor fouling and corrosion problems and practices
followed in gas turbine engines. Further, it presents the
results of comprehensive corrosion studies carried out in
ten aero gas turbine axial flow compressors. The following
Fig. 12 Marginal corrosion on compressor airflow passages due to conclusions can be made on the basis of the studies:
compressor wash
• The local environment where the aero engine is
stationed or operated can cause very corrosive envi-
ronments in the compressor. Salts and sulfur in the air
are the primary cause for the formation of corrosive
deposits.
• Surface corrosion often occurs on the flow path of
compressors, also on the cooling air passages.
• Compressor blading is the most affected by corrosion
pitting and can cause engine performance deterioration.
• The inlet stages of the compressors are the most
susceptible to in-service corrosion.
• Salt and carbon deposits were noticed on LP compres-
sor rotor blade surfaces. But progressive daily variation
of salt deposits and corrosion marks on the blades and
rotor path areas can be maintained minimum with
frequent compressor desalination wash.
Fig. 13 Mild pitting on blade surface locations where paint and • Engines which have logged less service hours or
anodized layer is lost during service
consumed less calendar life are less prone to corrosion
than the old engines with less life left.
Blade Coatings • The components of the engines or aircrafts which are parked
inside the hangar shed with intake and exhaust blanked are
Application of coatings to rotating and stationary parts has less prone to corrosion than those parked outside.
also become a common practice in gas turbine industries. • The engines engaged in night flight were found to be
These coatings enhance the performance by improving the less prone to salt deposits and corrosion.
resistance to corrosive environments, minimizing the rate of • A comprehensive corrosion control program should be
solid particle and liquid droplet erosion, improving the foulant adopted to minimize the corrosion.
release ability of the component and minimizing fretting • Online water/detergent washing of the compressor at
between two components. Diffused aluminide, aluminum- suitable frequency will help in controlling corrosion.
ceramic, and titanium-nitride coatings have been found to • Appropriate metallurgy and coatings should be consid-
provide good corrosion protection for both high salt and acidic ered for engine front-end components [18–20].
environments [18–20]. Care should be taken to maintain the
coating for a specified life. But if the coating is lost during
service exploitation or due to handling errors, the exposed area
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