Chapter 04

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Course: Fluid Mechanics-II (ME-235)

Instructor: Engr. Ali Abbas

Office No: 78 (1st Floor)

Discussion Hours: Thursday-Friday (0900 – 1200 hours)

Email: [email protected]
 Books

Fluid Mechanics; fundamentals and applications by Y. A. Cengel & J.M. Cimbala, 4th Edition
(Chapter 12)

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 INTRODUCTION

▪ For the most part, we have limited our consideration so far to

flows for which density variations and thus compressibility
effects are negligible.

▪ In this chapter, we lift this limitation and consider flows that

involve significant changes in density. Such flows are called
compressible flows, and they are frequently encountered in
devices that involve the flow of gases at very high speeds.

▪ Compressible flow combines fluid dynamics and

thermodynamics in that both are necessary to the development
of the required theoretical background.

▪ In this chapter, we develop the general relations associated with

compressible flows for an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation Enthalpy
▪ The internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume is called enthalpy; in
other words, enthalpy is the total heat content of a body
𝑷
𝒉=𝒖+
𝝆
▪ Whenever the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are negligible, as is often the case, the
enthalpy represents the total energy of a fluid.

▪ For high-speed flows, such as those encountered in jet engines , the potential energy of the fluid
is still negligible, but the kinetic energy is not. In such cases, it is convenient to combine the
enthalpy and the kinetic energy of the fluid into a single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy
h0, defined per unit mass as
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝟎 = 𝒉 + → 4.1
𝟐

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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation Enthalpy
▪ When the potential energy of the fluid is negligible, the stagnation enthalpy represents the total
energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass. Thus it simplifies the thermodynamic analysis of
high-speed flows.

▪ Throughout this chapter the ordinary enthalpy h is referred to as the static enthalpy, whenever
necessary, to distinguish it from the stagnation enthalpy.

▪ Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a duct such as a nozzle, diffuser, or some other flow
passage where the flow takes place adiabatically and with no shaft or electrical work. Assuming
the

▪ Fluid experiences little or no change in its elevation and its potential energy, the energy balance
𝑬ሶ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝑬ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 for this single-stream steady-flow device reduces to;

𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝟎𝟏 = 𝒉𝟎𝟐 𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation Enthalpy
▪ That is, in the absence of any heat and work interactions and any
changes in potential energy, the stagnation enthalpy of a fluid remains
constant during a steady-flow process.

▪ Flows through nozzles and diffusers usually satisfy these conditions, and
any increase in fluid velocity in these devices creates an equivalent
decrease in the static enthalpy of the fluid.

▪ If the fluid were brought to a complete stop, then the velocity at state 2
would be zero
𝑽𝟐𝟏
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒉𝟎𝟐
𝟐
▪ Thus the stagnation enthalpy represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is
brought to rest adiabatically.

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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

▪ During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is

converted to enthalpy (internal energy + flow energy), which
results in an increase in the fluid temperature and pressure. The
properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are called stagnation
properties (stagnation temperature, stagnation density, etc.). The
stagnation state and the stagnation properties are indicated by the
subscript 0.

▪ The stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state when

the stagnation process is reversible as well as adiabatic (i.e.,
isentropic). The entropy of a fluid remains constant during an
isentropic stagnation process.

▪ The actual (irreversible) and isentropic stagnation processes are

Fig 4-1
shown on an h-s diagram in Fig 4-1.

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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

▪ Notice that the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid (and the

stagnation temperature if the fluid is an ideal gas) is the
same for both cases.

▪ However, the actual stagnation pressure is lower than the

isentropic stagnation pressure since entropy increases
during the actual stagnation process as a result of fluid
friction.

▪ Many stagnation processes are approximated to be

isentropic, and isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.

Fig 4-1
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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

▪ Notice that the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid (and the

stagnation temperature if the fluid is an ideal gas) is the
same for both cases.

▪ However, the actual stagnation pressure is lower than the

isentropic stagnation pressure since entropy increases
during the actual stagnation process as a result of fluid
friction.

▪ Many stagnation processes are approximated to be

isentropic, and isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.

Fig 4-1
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Stagnation Temperature STAGNATION PROPERTIES
▪ When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with constant specific
heats, its enthalpy can be replaced by CpT and Eq. 4.1 is expressed as
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝟎 = 𝒉 + → 𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟎 = 𝑪𝒑 𝑻 + → 𝑻𝟎 = 𝑻 + → 4.2
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝑪𝒑
▪ Here, T0 is called the stagnation (or total) temperature, and it represents
the temperature an ideal gas attains when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.

▪ The term V2/2Cp corresponds to the temperature rise during such a

process and is called the dynamic temperature. The temperature of an
ideal gas flowing at a
▪ Note that for low-speed flows, the stagnation and static (or ordinary) velocity V rises by
temperatures are practically the same. But for high-speed flows, the V2/2Cp when it is
brought to a complete
temperature measured by a stationary probe placed in the fluid (the
stop.
stagnation temperature) may be significantly higher than the static
temperature of the fluid.
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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

Stagnation Pressure

▪ The pressure a fluid attains when brought to rest isentropically is called the stagnation pressure P0.
For ideal gases with constant specific heats, P0 is related to the static pressure of the fluid by;
𝒌
𝑷𝟎 𝑻𝟎 𝒌−𝟏
→ 4.3
=
𝑷 𝑻

Stagnation Density
𝟏
𝝆𝟎 𝑻𝟎 𝒌−𝟏
→ 4.4
=
𝝆 𝑻

𝒌−𝟏
𝒌−𝟏
𝑻𝟎 𝝆𝟎 𝑷𝟎 𝒌
= =
𝑻 𝝆 𝑷

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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

▪ When stagnation enthalpies are used, there is no need to refer explicitly to kinetic energy. Then the
energy balance 𝑬ሶ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝑬ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 for a single-stream, steady-flow device can be expressed as

𝒒𝒊𝒏 + 𝒘𝒊𝒏 + 𝒉𝟎𝟏 + 𝒈𝒛𝟏 = 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒕 + (𝒉𝟎𝟐 + 𝒈𝒛𝟐 ) → 4.5

▪ When the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, Eq. 4.5 becomes

𝒒𝒊𝒏 − 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒘𝒊𝒏 − 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟎𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏 + 𝒈(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 ) → 4.6

▪ Notice that kinetic energy terms do not explicitly appear in Eqs. 4.5 and 4.6, but the stagnation
enthalpy terms account for their contribution.

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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

Example 4.1

An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first decelerated in
a diffuser before it enters the compressor. Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to be
isentropic, determine (a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and (b) the required
compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.

For air
𝒌𝑱
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝒌𝒈. 𝑲
𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟒

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound C, which is related to
other fluid properties as (for ideal gas);
𝑪 = 𝒌𝑹𝑻 → 4.7
𝑪𝒑 𝑱
Where 𝒌 = 𝑪 is the specific heat ratio of the gas; 𝑹 is universal gas constant 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒌𝒈.𝑲.
𝑽

Mach Number

The ratio of the speed of the flow V to the speed of sound C is the dimensionless Mach number Ma,

𝑽
𝑴𝒂 = → 4.8
𝑪
During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages, flow
quantities vary primarily in the flow direction only, and the flow can be approximated as one-
dimensional isentropic flow with good accuracy. Therefore, it merits special consideration.

Before presenting a formal discussion of one-dimensional isentropic flow, we illustrate some

important aspects of it with an example.
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 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

Example 4.2

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a nozzle shown in
Fig. at a mass flow rate of 3.00 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and
200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is
designed so that the flow can be approximated as isentropic. Determine the density, velocity, flow
area, and Mach number at each location along the duct that corresponds to an overall pressure drop
of 200 kPa.

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

We note from Example 4.2 that;

▪ Flow area decreases with decreasing pressure down to a critical-pressure value where the Mach
number is unity, and then it begins to increase with further reductions in pressure. The Mach number
is unity at the location of smallest flow area, called the throat.

▪ Note that the velocity of the fluid keeps increasing after passing the throat although the flow area
increases rapidly in that region. This is due to the rapid decrease in the fluid density.

▪ The flow area of the duct considered in this example first decreases and then increases. Such ducts
are called converging–diverging nozzles. These nozzles are used to accelerate gases to supersonic
speeds and should not be confused with Venturi nozzles, which are used strictly for incompressible
flow.

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

The couplings among the velocity, density, and flow areas for isentropic duct flow are rather complex.
In this section we investigate these couplings more thoroughly, and we develop relations for the
variation of static-to-stagnation property ratios with the Mach number for pressure, temperature, and
density.

We begin our investigation by seeking relationships among the pressure, temperature, density,
velocity, flow area, and Mach number for one-dimensional isentropic flow. Consider the mass balance
for a steady-flow process:
𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝑨𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Differentiating and dividing both sides by 𝒎ሶ we get

𝒅𝝆 𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑽
+ + =𝟎 → 4.8
𝝆 𝑨 𝑽

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

𝑽𝟐
As we know that: 𝒉𝟎𝟏 = 𝒉𝟎𝟐 → 𝒉𝟎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 → 𝒉+ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 → 4.9
𝟐
Differentiating Eq. 4.9:

𝒅𝒉 + 𝑽𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎 → 4.10

From Tds equation: 𝑻𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅𝒉 − 𝒗𝒅𝑷

𝟏
As the flow is isentropic hence the above term reduces to: 𝒅𝒉 = 𝒗𝒅𝑷 → 𝒅𝒉 = 𝒅𝑷 → 4.11
𝝆
Comparing Eq. 4.10 and 4.11: 𝟏
𝒅𝑷 + 𝑽𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎 → 4.12
𝝆

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑷 𝟏 𝒅𝝆
After some algebraic manipulation, comparing Eq. 4.8 and 4.12: = 𝟐
− → 4.13
𝑨 𝝆 𝑽 𝒅𝑷
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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

As: 𝒅𝝆 𝟏 𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑷 𝟐
= 𝟐 → = 𝟏 − 𝑴𝒂 → 4.14
𝒅𝑷 𝑺
𝑪 𝑨 𝝆𝑽𝟐
This is an important relation for isentropic flow in ducts since it describes the variation of pressure with flow
area. We note that A, 𝜌, and V are positive quantities.

▪ For subsonic flow (Ma < 1), the term 1 − Ma2 is positive; and thus dA and dP must have the same sign. That
is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct increases and must decrease as the
flow area of the duct decreases. Thus, at subsonic velocities, the pressure decreases in converging ducts
(subsonic nozzles) and increases in diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers).

▪ In supersonic flow (Ma > 1), the term 1 − Ma2 is negative, and thus dA and dP must have opposite signs.
That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct decreases and must decrease
as the flow area of the duct increases. Thus, at supersonic velocities, the pressure decreases in diverging
ducts (supersonic nozzles) and increases in converging ducts (supersonic diffusers).
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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

Now with some more algebraic manipulation by using Eq. 4.12 can re-write Eq. 4.14 as:

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑽
=− 𝟏 − 𝑴𝒂𝟐 → 4.15
𝑨 𝑽
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle or a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic isentropic flow.
Noting that A and V are positive quantities, we conclude the following:

Ma <1 (Subsonic) Ma=1 (Sonic) Ma>1 (Supersonic)

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑨
<𝟎 =𝟎 >𝟎
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Variation of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers:

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases:

The stagnation properties can be re-written to incorporate the Mach number factor as follows;

𝑻𝟎 𝒌−𝟏
=𝟏+ 𝑴𝒂𝟐
𝑻 𝟐

𝒌
𝑷𝟎 𝒌−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
→
= 𝟏+ 𝑴𝒂𝟐 4.16
𝑷 𝟐

𝟏
𝝆𝟎 𝒌−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
= 𝟏+ 𝑴𝒂𝟐
𝝆 𝟐

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 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Critical Properties:

The properties of a fluid at a location where the Ma=1 (the throat) are called critical properties. The
property ratios are called critical ratios. The static critical properties are often denoted with a
superscript (*). The equations 4.16 can be rewritten for critical values at Ma=1 as follows

Example 4.3:
𝑻∗ 𝟐
= Calculate the critical pressure and temperature of carbon dioxide
𝑻𝟎 𝒌 + 𝟏
(k=1.289) for the flow conditions described in Example 4.2.
𝒌
𝑷∗ 𝟐 𝒌−𝟏
= → 4.17
𝑷𝟎 𝒌+𝟏
𝟏
𝝆∗ 𝟐 𝒌−𝟏
=
𝝆𝟎 𝒌+𝟏

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging Nozzles:

Consider the subsonic flow through a converging nozzle as shown in

Fig.

▪ The nozzle inlet is attached to a reservoir at pressure Pr and

temperature Tr.

▪ The reservoir is sufficiently large so that the nozzle inlet velocity is

negligible. Since the fluid velocity in the reservoir is zero and the
flow through the nozzle is approximated as isentropic, the
stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature of the fluid at any
cross section through the nozzle are equal to the reservoir pressure
and temperature, respectively.

Now we begin to reduce the back pressure and observe the resulting
effects on the pressure distribution along the length of the nozzle
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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging Nozzles:

1. When Pb=P0; (there will be no flow through the nozzle)

2. When Pb>P*; (a drop of pressure across the nozzle)

3. When Pb=P*; (mass flow rate in the nozzle increases to the

maximum value and flow is said to be choked).

4. Further reduction of pressure will not cause any effect on the

pressure profile or anything else along the nozzle length

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass flow rate through the nozzle is
constant and is expressed as;

𝑷 𝒌
𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝑨𝑽 = 𝑨 𝑴𝒂 𝒌𝑹𝑻 = 𝑨𝑴𝒂 𝑷 → 4.18
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑻

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging Nozzles:

Substituting the value of T, P from Eq 4.16 in Eq 4.18, we get;

𝒌
𝑨𝑴𝒂 𝑷𝟎
𝑹𝑻𝟎
𝒎ሶ = 𝒌+𝟏 → 4.19
𝒌−𝟏 𝟐
𝑴𝒂 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
𝟏+
𝟐
The maximum mass flow rate can be achieved at critical conditions, i.e. (Ma=1 at throat). Hence, the
equation for maximum flowrate becomes;
𝒌+𝟏
𝒌 𝟐 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
𝒎ሶ 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨∗ 𝑷𝟎 → 4.20
𝑹𝑻𝟎 𝒌 + 𝟏

𝑨∗ represents the throat area;

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging Nozzles:

By combining equations 4.19 and 4.20 for the same mass flowrate we get;

𝒌+𝟏
𝑨 𝟏 𝟐 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
= 𝟏+ → 4.20
𝑨∗ 𝑴𝒂 𝒌+𝟏 𝟐

Table A–13 gives values of A/A* as a function of the Mach number for air (k = 1.4). There is one value of
A/A* for each value of the Mach number, but there are two possible values of the Mach number for
each value of A/A* — one for subsonic flow and another for supersonic flow.

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Example 4.4:

Air enters a nozzle at 206.843 kPa, 350 K, and a velocity of 137.16 m/s. Approximating the flow as
isentropic, determine the pressure and temperature of air at a location where the air velocity equals the
speed of sound. What is the ratio of the area at this location to the entrance area?

Example 4.5:

Air in an automobile tire is maintained at a pressure of 220 kPa (gage) in an environment where the
atmospheric pressure is 94 kPa. The air in the tire is at the ambient temperature of 25°C. A 4-mm-
diameter leak develops in the tire as a result of an accident. Approximating the flow as isentropic
determine the initial mass flow rate of air through the leak.

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

▪ When we think of nozzles, we ordinarily think of flow passages whose cross-sectional area
decreases in the flow direction. However, the highest velocity to which a fluid can be accelerated in a
converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of
the nozzle.

▪ Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can be accomplished only by attaching a
diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the throat. The resulting combined flow section is a
converging– diverging nozzle, which is standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion.

▪ Applications → Rocket Engines, Supersonic Wind Tunnels, Jet Engines, Gas Turbines, Industrial
process (precise control of high-speed gas flows, such as chemical reactors and material
processing).

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

Forcing a fluid through a converging–diverging nozzle is no guarantee that the fluid will be
accelerated to a supersonic velocity. In fact, the fluid may find itself decelerating in the diverging
section instead of accelerating if the back pressure is not in the right range.

The state of the nozzle flow is determined by the overall pressure ratio Pb /P0. Therefore, for given
inlet conditions, the flow through a converging–diverging nozzle is governed by the back pressure
Pb, as will be explained.

Consider the converging–diverging nozzle shown in next slide. A fluid enters the nozzle with a low
velocity at stagnation pressure P0. When Pb = P0 (case A), there is no flow through the nozzle. This is
expected since the flow in a nozzle is driven by the pressure difference between the nozzle inlet and
the exit. Now let us examine what happens as the back pressure is lowered.

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

Case B: When P0 > Pb > PC

▪ The flow remains subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the mass
flow is less than that for choked flow.

▪ The fluid velocity increases in the first (converging) section and

reaches a maximum at the throat (but Ma < 1).

▪ However, most of the gain in velocity is lost in the second

(diverging) section of the nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The
pressure decreases in the converging section, reaches a minimum
at the throat, and increases at the expense of velocity in the
diverging section.

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

Case C: When Pb = PC

▪ The throat pressure becomes P* and the fluid achieves sonic

velocity at the throat.

▪ But the diverging section of the nozzle still acts as a diffuser,

slowing the fluid to subsonic velocities. The mass flow rate that
was increasing with decreasing Pb also reaches its maximum
value.

▪ Recall that P* is the lowest pressure that can be obtained at the

throat, and the sonic velocity is the highest velocity that can be
achieved with a converging nozzle. Thus, lowering Pb further has
no influence on the fluid flow in the converging part of the nozzle
or the mass flow rate through the nozzle. However, it does
influence the character of the flow in the diverging section.
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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

Case D: When PC > Pb > PE

▪ The fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat continues

accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases.

▪ This acceleration comes to a sudden stop, however, as a normal shock

develops at a section between the throat and the exit plane, which
causes a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic levels and a sudden
increase in pressure.

▪ The fluid then continues to decelerate further in the remaining part of

the converging–diverging nozzle.

▪ Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be

approximated as isentropic. The normal shock moves downstream
away from the throat as Pb is decreased, and it approaches the nozzle
exit plane as Pb approaches PE.
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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging-Diverging Nozzles:

Case E: When Pb = PE

▪ When Pb = PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane of the
nozzle.

▪ The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section in this

case, and it can be approximated as isentropic.

▪ However, the fluid velocity drops to subsonic levels just before

leaving the nozzle as it crosses the normal shock.

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 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Example 4.6:

Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Fig., at 1.0 MPa and 800 K with negligible velocity.
The flow is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic with k = 1.4. For an exit Mach number of Ma = 2 and
a throat area of 20 cm2.

Determine;

▪ The throat conditions,

▪ The exit plane conditions, including the exit area, and

▪ The mass flow rate through the nozzle.

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 Practice Problems

Problem # 12-5, 6,7,9,10, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 37, 38, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47*

* Skip the plotting portion of problem 47, just calculate value for Pe= 0.1MPa)

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