RME30001 Introduction to Renewable Energy

Lab 1 Solar Cell Experiments

Aim

The aims of this experiment are to examine the relationships between lights and the electrical output
of solar cells.

1. Theory

The sun radiates energy at a rate of 3.9 x 1026 Watts. At the top of the earth’s atmosphere, an average
power of 1353 Watts m-2 is received. At the surface, near the earth’s equator, 1000 Watts m-2 is typical
when the sun is directly overhead. 1000 Watts m-2 is typically defined as the “Standard Solar
Irradiation”. It is defined as, when the light incident on the solar panel is perpendicular to the solar
panel. As the sun moves away from being directly overhead, the density of the sunlight at the surface
decreases and the power output of the cells decreases relative to the cosine of the incident angle, θL, as
shown in the figure below. Other factors, such as seasonal variations in the latitude of the sun, also
affect solar irradiation.

Figure 1 – Angle of incidence of solar radiation

Good solar sites usually have greater than 2500 KWhm-2 of power available per year. This is the total
sunlight power that a square meter of land will receive in one year. Dividing this number by 365
yields about 6.8 KWhm-2 of power per day. The above data shows that there is significant power
available in solar energy. The difficulty lies in converting it efficiently and cheaply. Photovoltaic solar
cells are one of the most common ways of doing this.

1.1. Photovoltaic Solar Cells

A solar cell (photovoltaic cell) is a solid-state electronic device that takes in light energy and converts
it directly into electrical energy. This is sort of like a light bulb that is acting in reverse. The typical
blue/silver solar cell has a base of the element silicon. The silicon is doctored so that some loosely
held electrons in the silicon could be bounced into the electrical circuit. These moving electrons, also
known as electrical current, can power electronic devices, especially devices that have low power
requirements. Low power devices would be things like calculators, radios, LED lights, electronic
switches, monitoring equipment, rechargers for batteries, and such.
 Figure 2 A monocrystalline silicone solar cell

1.2. Fabrication of a Solar Cell

In the Czochralski process a silicon ingot is “grown” or drawn from a pool of molten silicon. This
entire ingot forms one single crystal, yielding mono-crystalline silicon solar cells. The ingot is cut into
wafer thin slices. The slices are then “doped”. One side is doped to be positive – the P side. Small
amounts of an impurity, such as Boron, are added which creates an excess of “holes”. The other side
is doped to be negative – the N side. A different impurity, such as Phosphorus, is added which creates
an excess of electrons. The band gap voltage (energy potential difference) created by the silicon P-N
junction is around 0.5 V per cell as a result.

In polycrystalline silicon cells, silicon is melted and poured into blocks, which are then cut into
wafers. This process introduces many crystals within a single cell. The boundaries between the
different crystals reduce the efficiency of the cell. However, this process has a lower cost of
manufacturing.

On the other hand, thin film, or amorphous solar cells are made by depositing a thin-film of the solar
cell material onto a substrate (typically glass) and then doping the film. Because this method uses
much smaller amounts of raw materials and often employs common semiconductor vapor deposition
processes, it is the cheapest and simplest method. However, the efficiency of the cells is usually less.

Cells can also be layered on top of each other, creating a heterojunction cell. The different layers are
often responsive to different frequencies of light. Thus, the overall efficiency of the cell can be
increased.

Numerous cell chemistries exist, such as Doped Silicon, Cadmium-Telluride and Gallium-Arsenide.
Each provides a slightly different type of P-N junction, which may have different band-gaps and
respond to different frequencies of light.

1.3. Theory of Operation of a Solar Cell

Sunlight hits the solar cell – if the energy of the photon is high enough (≥band gap energy), it is
absorbed on the P-side. This sends the “holes” towards the N-side. A potential difference (voltage) is
thereby created across the p-n junction that drives the current and propels the excess free electrons to
the conductor on the top of the cell.
 Figure 3 – Operation of a solar cell (courtesy U.S. Department of Energy)

A solar cell is essentially a diode with a large area. It can therefore be described simplistically by the
following equivalent circuit.

Figure 4 - Simple Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

Where ID is the current across the diode D, and IPh is the photocurrent generated by the current source.

The photocurrent is directly proportional to the Irradiance E, which is the amount of sunlight falling
on the cell. The two are related by the following equation,

Where, C0 is a coefficient determined by the cell’s efficiency and other characteristics. The current
across the diode can be modelled by the formula,
Where IS is the saturation current, VD is the cell voltage, VT is the thermal voltage, and m is the diode
factor. This then yields the following formula, which describes the circuit shown in Figure 4 above.

(Equation 1)

A common values for VT at a temperature of 25° C is VT = 25.7 mV. The saturation current IS
typically in the order of 10-10 to 10-5 Amps. For an ideal diode, the diode factor m is equal to 1. Using
a diode factor between the values 1 and 5 may give a more accurate description of the solar cell
characteristics. The following set of curves describing the relationship between the current I, and the
voltage VD, is obtained by using the above common values and Equation 1. These curves are actually
a subset of an infinite number of curves which satisfy the previous equation. Each curve represents a
different level of Irradiance, which is measured in Wm-2.An example of the influence of solar
irradiation on a solar cell is given below.

Figure 5 – Current-Voltage (I-V) curves at various illumination levels

In essence, a photovoltaic solar cell will produce current depending on the load attached to it. For
example, the short-circuit photocurrent can be found by substituting VD = 0 into the comprehensive
Equation 1 developed above. On the plot above and from the equations, we can see that the
photocurrent is greatest under short circuit conditions.

The open-circuit voltage VOC, is the voltage when the positive and negative leads of the cell are not
connected to any kind of circuit. At this point, naturally, the current will be zero. This condition is
satisfied by the points lying on the x-axis (Voltage) of the plot. The following diagram shows these
points.

The power of the cell can be obtained by multiplying the cell’s voltage and current, for any particular
operating point on the Current-Voltage (I-V) curve. A unique fact of photovoltaic solar cells is that
the power output of the cell can be adjusted by changing the load voltage. By adjusting the load
voltage, the cell’s current output can also be adjusted. Since power is the multiplication of voltage and
current, the power output of the cell can also be modified by adjusting the load voltage. The point at
which the power is optimized is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP). Note that the maximum
power is usually not at the same point as either the maximum voltage or current. A Maximum Power
Point Tracker (MPPT) is an electronic DC-DC converter which adjusts the load voltage on a cell to
optimize the power output. Typically, power gains of 10-15% can be realized, for the same input solar
irradiation. This implies that the efficiency of the cell is improved by operating the cell at the MPP.
 Figure 6 – Finding the Maximum Power Point for a particular I-V curve

The equivalent circuit and resulting equations can be modified with increasing complexity to more
accurately describe the output of the solar cells under various changing conditions. In particular,
models have been developed to account for variations in temperature, series resistance and parallel
resistance, as well as operation in negative voltage and extreme positive voltage regions. These
models are not covered here, but you are encouraged to refer to the Reference [1] for more
information.

1.4. Solar Panels and Arrays

Solar Cells can be electrically connected together exactly the same way as batteries. Currents add
when connected in parallel and stay the same when connected in series, while voltages add when
connected in series and stay the same when connected in parallel. Modules of cells can be added
together in the same fashion.

Individual solar cells are connected together in series to form a solar panel. The P side of one cell is
connected to the N side of the next cell, and so on. As mentioned above, voltages add together to form
higher voltages. Current stays the same for the whole panel as for one single cell.

Individual solar panels are connected in parallel to form a solar array. The voltage stays the same for
the whole array as for the individual panels. The currents from the individual panels add together to
form higher currents.

2. Procedure for experiments

a. Attach the leads from the solar cell to the leads from the Multimeter by using the alligator
clip leads.
b. Position the solar cell so that it is facing the sun or another bright light source.
c. Read the voltage produced by setting the Multimeter to the DCV (Direct Current Voltage)
scale appropriate for the size of the measured voltage.
d. Read the milliamps of current produced by setting the Multimeter to the DCA (Direct
Current Amperage) and set the dial for the appropriate current measuring scale.
 Depending on what you are testing, vary only that one item and check the voltage or amperage to see
if there is a relationship between your variable and the output of the solar cell

Light sources

Incandesc
Voltag
Light Colour Diamete ent Luminosit Wattag
e
Source Type Rende r Equivalen Shape y e
Rating
number ring (mm) t Wattage (lm) (W)
(V)
(W)
220-
1. ESL 80 39.0 30 Candle 330 7.0
240
220-
2. LED 80 36.5 20 Candle 330 5.5
240
220-
3. INCANDESCENT 80 55 - Globe - 100.0
240
220-
4. ESL 80 45 22 Round 200 5.0
240
220-
5. LEC 80 60 77 Globe 1100 12.0
240
220-
6. ESL 80 56 52 Round 625 12.0
240

Where
 Electron-stimulated luminescence (ESL)
 Light-emitting diode (LED)
 Light Emitting Ceramic (LEC)
 Lab 1 Report:
1. Introduction:

2. Question/Answers:

Question A:

Does the distance between the bright light source and the solar cell affect the voltage?

Measure the voltage (DCV) as you change the distance between the light and the solar cell. If possible,
measure the distance from the center of the bulb to the face of the solar cell. [One would expect to
find an inverse squared relationship meaning that as the separation doubles, the output drops to one-
fourth. The light from an overhead projector may not follow this relationship as it is focused through
lenses.]

Light Source Voltage (V) at Voltage (V) at Voltage (V) at Voltage (V) at
number Separation (cm) Separation (cm) Separation (cm) Separation (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Question B:

Does the distance between the bright light source and the solar cell affect the current?

Measure the current (DCA) as you change the distance between the light and the solar cell. If possible,
measure the distance from the center of the bulb to the face of the solar cell. [One would expect to
find an inverse squared relationship meaning that as the separation doubles, the output drops to one-
fourth. The light from an overhead projector may not follow this relationship as it is focused through
lenses.]

Light Source Current (mA) at Current (mA) at Current (mA) at Current (mA) at
number Separation (cm) Separation (cm) Separation (cm) Separation (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Question C:

Does the intensity of the light affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?

Measure the voltage (DCV) as you change the amount of light that reaches the solar cell. Take a piece
of cardboard (or other material that blocks all of the light) and use it to cover about ¼ of the surface of
the solar cell. Record the voltage and current generated. Now move the card so it covers ½ of the solar
cell and ¾ of the solar cell. Did the voltage and current change as intensity changes?

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Coverage 0% covered ¼ % covered ½ % covered ¾ covered
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)
Question D:

Does the location where the light hits the solar cell affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?

Measure the voltage (DCV) as you change the location of the spot where the light reaches the solar
cell. Take a piece of cardboard or other material that does not permit light to pass through it and cut a
hole in it. The hole can be square, circular, or irregular; it doesn’t matter. What matters is that all
measurements be taken with the same hole admitting light to the solar cell. Move the spot to a corner,
sides, middle of the solar cell and take voltage and current measurements.

Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)
 Light source
Solar Cell
Location of the Center Side where Side with long Corner of
light spot lines end lines solar cell
Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

3. Discussion
4. Conclusion
 5. References

Books:

1. Understanding Renewable Energy Systems, Quashning, Volker, Earthscan Publications

Ltd, 2005.

2. Renewable Energy, Sorensen, Bent., Academic Press, London, Third Edition, 2004.

3. Renewable Energy Sources for Fuels and Electricity, Johansson, Thomas B., et al., Island
Press, Washington DC, 1993.

Webliography:

1. www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm

2. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/sunshot/index.html

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell