CHAPTER 1: VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s

characteristics and behaviour patterns.

The situationist perspective (situationism) views human behaviour as

resulting from interaction of external and internal factors.

Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute.

Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of
individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of
certain standards of comparison.

Our assessment may be informal or formal.

Formal assessment is objective, standardised, and organised.

On the other hand, informal assessment varies from case to case and from
one assessor to another and, therefore, is open to subjective interpretations.

Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate

abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals.

Some important attributes that are of interest to psychologists:

1. Intelligence:
• Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with
challenges.
• Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person’s general
cognitive competence including the ability to profit from
schooling.
• Generally, students having low intelligence are not likely to do so
well in school-related examinations, but their success in life is
not associated only with their intelligence test scores.
2. Aptitude:
• Aptitude refers to an individual’s underlying potential for
acquiring skills.
• Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able
to do if given proper environment and training.
• A person with high mechanical aptitude can profit from
appropriate training and can do well as an engineer. Similarly, a

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 person having high language aptitude can be trained to be a good
writer.

3. Interest
• Interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more
specific activities relative to others.
• Assessment of interests of students may help to decide what
subjects or courses they can pursue comfortably and with
pleasure.
• Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote
life satisfaction and performance on jobs.
4. Personality:
• Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a
person that make her or him distinct from others.
• Personality tests try to assess an individual’s unique
characteristics, e.g. whether one is dominant or submissive,
outgoing or withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable, etc.
• Personality assessment helps us to explain an individual’s
behaviour and predict how she/he will behave in future.
5. Values:
• Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.
• A person having a value sets a standard for guiding her/his
actions in life and also for judging others.
• In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of
a person (e.g., political, religious, social or economic).

ASSESSMENT METHODS

Several methods are used for psychological assessment:

1. Psychological Test is an objective and standardised measure of an

individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics.
• Objective tests have been developed to measure all the
dimensions of psychological attributes (e.g., intelligence,
aptitude, etc.)
• These tests are widely used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis,
guidance, personnel selection, placement, and training.
• Besides objective tests, psychologists have also developed certain
projective tests, especially for the assessment of personality.

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 2. Interview involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-
one basis.
• You may see it being used when a counsellor interacts with a
client, a salesperson makes a door-to-door survey regarding the
usefulness of a particular product, an employer selects employees
for her/his organisation, or a journalist interviews important
people on issues of national and international importance.

3. Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of

her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the
context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment.
• Case studies are widely used by clinical psychologists.
• Case analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly
illuminating for those willing to learn from their life experiences.
• Case studies are based on data generated by different methods,
e.g. interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests,
etc.

4. Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and

objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring
naturally in real time.
• Certain phenomena such as mother-child interactions can be
easily studied through observation.
• The major problems with observational methods are that the
observer has little control over the situation and the reports may
suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer.

5. Self-Report is a method in which a person provides factual

information about herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc.
that s/he holds.
• Such information may be obtained by using an interview
schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test, or a personal
diary.

INTELLIGENCE

The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving,

learning, understanding, and knowing.

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According to Alfred Binet intelligence is “as the ability to judge well,
understand well, and reason well”.

As per Wechsler intelligence is “the global and aggregate capacity of an

individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively
with her/his environment”.

Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent individual not

only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Theories can be

broadly classified as either representing a psychometric/structural approach
or an information-processing approach.

PSYCHOMETRIC/STRUCTURAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

APPROACH APPROACH
1. Considers intelligence as an Describes processes people use in
aggregate of abilities. intellectual reasoning and
problem solving.
2. It expresses the individual’s The major focus of this approach
performance in terms of a single is how an intelligent person acts
index of cognitive abilities. rather than focusing on
structure/dimensions of
intelligence.
3. Theories representing the Theories representing the
psychometric approach are: information processing approach
• Uni/One factor theory are:
• Two factor theory • Theory of Multiple
• Theory of Primary Mental Intelligences
Abilities • Triarchic theory of
• Hierarchical model of intelligence
intelligence • PASS Model of Intelligence
• Structure of intellect model
4. Psychologists who have Psychologists who have
contributed to this approach are: contributed to this approach are:
• Alfred Binet • Howard Gardner
• Charles Spearman • Robert Sternberg
• Louis Thurstone • J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and
• Arthur Jensen Kirby
• J.P. Guilford

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PSYCHOMETRIC/STRUCTURAL APPROACH

❖ Alfred Binet’s Uni-factor theory

Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to formalise the concept of
intelligence in terms of mental operations.

Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in
differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.

He, therefore, conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of

abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s
environment.

His theory of intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence.

❖ Charles Spearman’s two-factor theory

In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence

employing a statistical method called factor analysis.

He showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some

specific factors (s-factors).

The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to
all performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also many
specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the s-factor.

Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor,

but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel
in their respective domains.

❖ Louis Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

He proposed the theory of primary mental abilities.

It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is

relatively independent of the others.

These primary abilities are:

(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and

ideas)
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and
computational skills)
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms)
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details)

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 (v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly)
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information)
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).

❖ Arthur Jensen’s hierarchical model of intelligence

Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of

abilities operating at two levels, called Level I and Level II.

Level I is the associative learning in which output is more or less similar to

the input (e.g., rote learning and memory).

Level II, called cognitive competence, involves higher-order skills as they

transform the input to produce an effective output.

❖ J. P. Guilford’s Structure of intellect model

J.P. Guilford proposed the structure of-intellect model which classifies

intellectual traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and
products.

Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory
recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production,
and evaluation.

Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual

operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g.,
letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g., information
about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).

Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the

respondent. Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems,
transformations, and implications.

Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6X5X6 categories, therefore,

the model has 180 cells.

Each cell is expected to have at least one factor or ability; some cells may have
more than one factor.

Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH

❖ Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences.

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According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of
intelligences exist.

Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if
a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being
high or low on other types of intelligences.

Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work
together to find a solution to a problem.

Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional

abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.

These are as follows:

1. Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language) :

• It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express
one’s thinking and understand others.
• Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are
sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and
can create linguistic images in their mind.
• Poets and writers are very strong in this component of
intelligence.

2. Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem

solving):
• Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and
critically.
• They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to
solve mathematical problems.
• Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this
component.

3. Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns):

• It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming
mental images.
• The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial
world in the mind.
• Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators,
and surgeons are likely to have highly developed spatial intelligence.

4. Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns):

• It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical
patterns.

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 • Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and
vibrations, and in creating new patterns of sounds.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly

and creatively):
• This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for
display or construction of products and problem solving.
• Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and
surgeons are likely to have such kind of intelligence.

6. Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours):

• This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and
behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable
relationship with others.
• Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and
religious leaders are likely to possess high interpersonal
intelligence.

7. Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and

desires):
• This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and
limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to
others.
• Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their
identity, human existence, and meaning of life.
• Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of this type
of intelligence.

8. Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world):

• This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the
natural world.
• It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora
and fauna, and making subtle discriminations in the natural
world.
• Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, and bird
watchers possess more of naturalistic intelligence.

❖ ROBERT STERNBERG’S THEORY OF TRIARCHIC INTELLIGENCE

As per Robert Sternberg (1985) intelligence is “the ability to adapt, to shape

and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society
and culture”.

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According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence:
1. Componential intelligence
2. Experiential intelligence
3. Contextual intelligence

➢ Componential Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence is

the analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this
ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools.

This intelligence has three components:

• First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is

responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing
things.

• The second is the meta or a higher order component, which

involves planning concerning what to do and how to do.

• The third is the performance component, which involves

actually doing things.

➢ Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or creative intelligence is

involved in using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It
is reflected in creative performance. Persons high on this aspect
integrate different experiences in an original way to make new
discoveries and inventions. They quickly find out which information is
crucial in a given situation.

➢ Contextual Intelligence: Contextual or practical intelligence involves

the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily
basis. It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons
high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select
a more favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the
environment to fit their needs. Therefore, they turn out to be successful
in life.

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❖ DAS, NAGLEIRI AND KIRBY’S PASS MODEL

Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model

of Intelligence has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby
(1994).

According to this model, intellectual activity involves the

interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the
functional units of brain.

These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing,

and planning respectively.

• Arousal/Attention: State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it

helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention enable a
person to process information.
An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant
aspects of a problem.
Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.
For instance, when you are told by your teacher about a test which
s/he plans to hold, it would arouse you to attend to the specific
chapters. Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading,
learning and revising the contents of the chapters.

• Simultaneous and Successive Processing : You can integrate the

information into your knowledge system either simultaneously or
successively.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE
PROCESSING

SIMULTANEOUS SUCCESSIVE PROCESSING

PROCESSING
1. Takes place when we perceive Takes place when all the information
the relations among various is presented serially so that the
concepts and integrate them recall of one leads to the recall of
into a meaningful pattern for other.
comprehension.
2. E.g. – Raven’s Standard E.g. – Learning of digits, alphabets
Progressive Matrices and tables, etc.

Planning : After the information is attended to and processed,

planning is activated. It allows us to think of the possible courses of
action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their
effectiveness.
If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the
task or situation.
For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would
have to set goals, plan a time schedule of study, get clarifications in
case of problems and if you are not able to tackle the chapters
assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways (e.g., give
more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals.

These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either

formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from
the environment. These processes are interactive and dynamic in
nature; yet each has its own distinctive functions.

Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as

the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as
well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling. The battery of tests is
meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.
The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits
of children with learning problems.

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 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture

The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from

studies on twins and adopted children.

Correlation of intelligence scores of identical twins 0.90

reared together
Correlation of intelligence scores of identical twins 0.72
separated early in childhood
Correlation of intelligence scores of fraternal twins 0.60
reared together
Correlation of intelligence scores of brothers and 0.50
sisters reared together
Correlation of intelligence scores of siblings reared 0.25
apart

Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted children, which
show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than
adoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children
grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their
adoptive parents. Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families
with higher socioeconomic status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence
scores.

There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich

nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases
intelligence.

There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a

product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).

Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within which an
individual’s development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities
of the environment.

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ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

• 1905 - Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful
attempt to formally measure intelligence
• 1908 - When the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental
Age (MA), which is a measure of a person’s intellectual development
relative to people of her/his age group.

A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an

intelligence test equals the average performance level of a group of
5-year olds. Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is
below the CA. Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being
two mental age years below the chronological age.

• 1912 - William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept

of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of
most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few
people have either very high or very low
scores. The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a
bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve.

This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the
mean.

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VARIATIONS OF INTELLIGENCE

Intellectual deficiency

Those children who show intellectual deficiency are termed as ‘mentally

challenged’ or ‘mentally retarded’.

The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental

retardation as “significantly sub-average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour
and manifested during the developmental period”.

This definition points to three basic features:

First, in order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show

significantly sub-average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs
below 70 are judged to have sub-average intelligence.

The second relates to deficits in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour

refers to a person’s capacity to be independent and deal effectively with
one’s environment.

The third feature is that the deficits must be observed during the
developmental period, that is between 0 and 18 years of age.

Individuals who are categorised as having mental retardation show significant

variation in their abilities, ranging from those who can be taught to work and
function with special attention, to those who cannot be trained and require
institutional care throughout their lives.

The different levels of retardation are:

• Mild retardation (IQs 55–69),
• Moderate retardation (IQs 40–54)
• Severe retardation (IQs 25–39)
• Profound retardation (IQs below 25)

Although the development of people with mild retardation is typically slower

than that of their peers, they can function quite independently, hold jobs and
families.

The people with moderate retardation lag behind their peers in language and
motor skills. They can be trained in self-care skills, and simple social and

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communication skills. They need to have moderate degree of supervision in
everyday tasks.

Individuals with profound and severe retardation are incapable of managing

life and need constant care for their entire lives.

Intellectual giftedness

The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when Lewis Terman followed
the lives of about 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above to examine how
intelligence was related to occupational success and life adjustment.

Although the terms ‘talent’ and ‘giftedness’ are often used interchangeably,
they mean different things.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GIFTEDNESS AND TALENT

GIFTEDNESS TALENT
1. Giftedness is exceptional Talent is a narrower term which
general ability shown in refers to a remarkable ability in a
superior performance in a wide specific field.
variety of areas.
2. E.g. – Early signs of intellectual E.g. – spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.
superiority, athletes with Highly talented are called
superior psychomotor ability, prodigies.
etc.

It has been suggested by psychologists that giftedness from the teachers’ point
of view depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high
commitment.

Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority. Even during

infancy and early childhood, they show larger attention span, good
recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental
changes, and early appearance of language skills.

To equate giftedness with brilliant academic performance is not correct.

Athletes who show superior psychomotor ability are also gifted.

Some important characteristics of gifted children are :

• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.
• High speed in processing information.

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• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the
gifted. Many other sources of information, such as teachers’ judgment, school
achievement record, parents’ interviews, peer and self-ratings, etc. can be
used in combination with intellectual assessment.

Types of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests are of several types.

❖ On the basis of their administration procedure, they can be

categorised as individual or group tests.

Individual tests Group tests

1. An individual intelligence test is A group intelligence test can be
one which can be administered to administered to several persons
one person at a time. simultaneously.
2. Individual tests require the test Group tests, however, do not allow
administrator to establish a an opportunity to be familiar with
rapport with the subject and be the subjects’ feelings.
sensitive to her/his feelings,
moods and expressions during the
testing session.
3. Individual tests allow people to Group tests generally seek written
answer orally or in a written form answers usually in a multiple-
or manipulate objects as per the choice format.
tester’s instructions.

❖ They can also be classified as either verbal, non-verbal or

performance tests on the basis of the nature of items used.

Verbal tests Non-verbal tests Performance tests

1. Verbal tests require The non-verbal tests Performance tests
subjects to give verbal use pictures or require subjects to
responses either orally illustrations as test manipulate objects
or in a written form. items. and other materials to
perform a task.

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2. Verbal tests can be Non-verbal tests can Written language is
administered only to be administered to not necessary for
literate people. illiterate people as answering the items.
well.
3. Cannot be used with Can be used with Can be easily
persons of different persons from administered to
cultures. different cultures. persons from different
cultures.
4. Self-Concept Raven’s Progressive For example, Kohs’
Questionnaire, Sinha’s Matrices (RPM) Test Block Design Test
Comprehensive Anxiety is an example of a contains a number of
test and Sodhi Attitude non-verbal test wooden blocks. The
Scale are examples of subject is asked to
verbal tests. arrange the blocks
within a time period
to produce a given
design.

❖ Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one

culture over another, it can be judged as either culture-fair or
culture-biased.

Culture-Fair tests Culture-Biased tests

1. Psychologists have tried to develop Many intelligence tests show a
tests that are culture-fair or bias to the culture in which they
culturally appropriate, i.e. one that are developed.
does not discriminate against
individuals belonging to different
cultures.
2. Non-verbal and performance tests Tests developed in America and
help reduce the cultural bias Europe represent an urban and
usually associated with verbal tests. middle-class cultural ethos.
Hence, educated middle class
white subjects generally perform
well on those tests.

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Intelligence testing in India

• S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in constructing an intelligence

test in Hindi in the 1930s.
• C.H. Rice attempted to standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi.
• At about the same time, Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet’s
test in Bengali.
• Attempts were also made by Indian researchers to develop Indian norms
for some western tests including RPM, WAIS, Alexander’s Passalong,
Cube Construction, and Kohs’ Block Design.
• Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement Handbook listing out
103 tests of intelligence in India that were available in various
languages.
• The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at
the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
has documented Indian tests. Critical reviews of Indian tests are
published in the form of handbooks. NLEPT has brought out the
handbooks in the area of intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes,
and interests.

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CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, has argued that culture provides a social

context in which people live, grow, and understand the world around them.
For example, in less technologically developed societies, social and emotional
skills in relating to people are valued, while in technologically advanced
societies, personal achievement founded on abilities of reasoning and
judgment is considered to represent intelligence.

Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and

achievements in art and literature.

Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that

intelligence is a product of culture.

Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like individuals, have a life of their own;
they grow and change, and in the process specify what will be the end-product
of successful intellectual development.

According to him, while elementary mental functions (e.g., crying, attending

to mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, walking, and running) are universal,
the manner in which higher mental functions such as problem solving and
thinking operate are largely culture-produced.
TECHNOLOGICAL INTEGRAL INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
1. Technologically advanced societies Integral intelligence gives
adopt child rearing practices that emphasis on connectivity with
foster skills of generalisation and the social and world
abstraction, speed, minimal moves environment.
and mental manipulation among
children.
2. Technological intelligence values Integral intelligence values self-
personal achievement and reflection and collectivistic
individualistic orientation. orientation.
3. Integral intelligence gives equal
Technological intelligence primarily attention to cognitive and non-
focusses on cognitive competence. cognitive processes as well as
their integration.
4. It is valued in the western culture Integral intelligence is given more
not in Asian and African societies. emphasis in the Indian tradition.

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Intelligence in the Indian tradition

The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which is often used to represent intelligence is far
more pervasive in scope than the western concept of intelligence.

Buddhi, according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort,

determined action, feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence
such as knowledge, discrimination, and understanding.
Among other things, buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own self based on
conscience, will and desire. Thus, the notion of buddhi has affective and
motivational components besides a strong cognitive component.

The following competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian

tradition:
• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination,
problem solving, and effective communication).
• Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the
young and the needy, concern about others, recognising others’ perspectives).
• Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions,
honesty, politeness, good conduct, and self-evaluation).
• Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard
work, vigilance, and goal-directed behaviours).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered
emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s
thinking and actions”.

Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the

same way as IQ is used to express intelligence.
In simple terms, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process
emotional information accurately and efficiently.

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SPECIAL ABILITIES

In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both

aptitude and interest.

Interest Aptitude
1. Interest is a preference for Aptitude is the potentiality to
a particular activity. perform that activity.
2. A person may be interested in a A person may have the potentiality
particular job or activity, but may for performing a job, but may not
not have the aptitude for it. be interested in doing that.

A student with high mechanical aptitude and strong interest in engineering

is more likely to be a
successful mechanical engineer.

Aptitude tests are available in two forms:

1. Independent (specialised) aptitude tests - Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical

Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing Aptitude are independent
aptitude tests.
2. Multiple (generalised) aptitude tests - Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in
the form of test batteries, which measure aptitude in several separate
but homogeneous areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General
Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test batteries.

Among these, DAT is most commonly used in educational settings.

It consists of 8 independent subtests:
(i) Verbal Reasoning
(ii) Numerical Reasoning
(iii) Abstract Reasoning
(iv) Clerical Speed and Accuracy
(v) Mechanical Reasoning
(vi) Space Relations
(vii) Spelling
(viii) Language Usage.

J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.

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CREATIVITY

Some are highly creative and others are not so creative. Some may
express creativity in writing, still others in dance, music, poetry, science
and so on. Manifestations of creativity can be observed in a novel
solution to a problem, an invention, composition of a poem, painting,
new chemical process, an innovation in law, a breakthrough in
preventing a disease and the like. Despite differences, one common
element among these is the production of something new and unique.

Research literature suggests that children begin to develop their

imagination during the early years of childhood but they express
creativity mostly through physical activities and in non-verbal ways.
When language and intellectual functions are fully developed and store
of knowledge is adequately available, creativity is expressed through
verbal modes too. Those who are outstanding in their creativity may
give an indication about the direction in which their creativity lies
through their self-chosen activities. In some cases, however,
opportunities need to be provided before they can manifest their hidden
potential for creativity.

There is no disagreement that creativity is determined by both heredity

and environment. Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity;
environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity. How
much of the creative potential can be realised, when and in what
specific form and direction is largely determined by environmental
factors such as motivation, commitment, family support, peer
influences, training opportunities, etc. Although no amount of training
can transform an average person to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare,
etc. but it is also true that every individual can raise her/his level of
creative potential beyond its present level.

Intelligence and creativity

Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not
necessarily creative. At the same time, creative ideas could come from
persons who did not have a very high IQ. Other researches have shown
that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout
their adult life, had become well-known for creativity in some field.
Researchers have also found that both high and low level of creativity
can be found in highly intelligent children and also children of average
intelligence. The same person, thus, can be creative as well as
intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent ones, in the

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 conventional sense, must be creative. Intelligence, therefore, by itself
does not ensure creativity.

Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and

intelligence is positive. All creative acts require some minimum ability
to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain, and retrieve.
Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with language. The
artist must understand the effect that will be produced by a particular
technique of painting, a scientist must be able to reason and so on.
Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond
that intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CREATIVITY TESTS AND INTELLIGENCE

TESTS

CREATIVITY TESTS INTELLIGENCE TESTS

1. Creativity tests are open-ended and Intelligence tests are closed-ended
there are no specified answers. and have specified answers.
2. Creativity tests assess divergent Intelligence tests assess convergent
thinking. thinking.
3. Assess ability to produce a variety Assess ability to think of the right
of ideas i.e. ideas which are off-the- solution to the problem, memory,
beaten-track, ability to see new logical reasoning, accuracy,
relationships between seemingly perceptual ability and clear
unrelated things, ability to guess thinking.
causes and consequences.
4. There is freedom to use one’s There is little scope for expression of
imagination and express it in spontaneity, originality and
original ways. imagination.
5. Psychologists who have developed Psychologists who have developed
creativity tests are Guilford, intelligence tests are J.C. Raven’s,
Torrance, Khatena, Baqer Mehdi David Wechsler, Binet, Simon, etc.
and Passi.

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