Unii ver

Un ver sit
si ty of D i yala
C oll
lleeg eof E ngi
ng i nee
neer i ng
C hemi
hemiccal E ngi
ng i nee
neer i ng De
D epar
par tment
ment

Producti
Produ ction
on of formaldehyde
formaldehyde
A project report Submitted to the Engineering Department
of Chemical of the University of Diyala in a partial fulfillment
for the Degree of B.Sc in Chemical Engineering

By
Sajad
Sajad jaba
jabar sa
sabty

Muh
M uha
anad
nad asaad adham

Mo
M ohammad abdulljalel
ulljalel mudh
udhafar
far

Supe
Super vi so
sorr :
Asssi st. pro
A prof.
f. Dr. ah
ahmed daham wah
waheeb

2015
2015 - 2016
2016
‫ا‬ ‫ك‬‫ة وع‬
‫ اب و‬ ‫يك‬‫ ع‬ ‫زل‬ ‫( …و‬
)

‫ا‬‫يك عظي‬‫ ع‬ ‫ان فض‬‫م و‬‫ تت‬‫ ت‬

‫م‬‫ي‬‫ظ‬   ‫ق‬‫د‬‫ص‬
‫ ء‬  ‫ نن‬ ‫ ل‬ ‫ ا‬ ‫ ة‬ ‫ ر‬ ‫ و‬ ‫ س‬

2
 Dedication

To my beloved family . . . .
My parents .. My Father & My Mother

My Brothers
My Sisters

To my lovely
lo vely friends . . . .

sajad,muhanad,Mohammed

3
 Table of Contents

Chapter one ……………………………………

……………………………………………………
…………………..
….. 1

1- Summary ……………………………………………………..... 2

1.1 - Introduction ………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………...2
..2

1.2 - Health effects ……………………………………………

…………………………………………………3
……3

1.3 - So
Sources
urces …………………………………
……………………………………………
…………………….
…………. 3

1.4 - Dem
Demand
and ……………………………………………………
……………… ………………………………………
…3

1.5 - Use of
o f formaldehyde
formaldehyde ……….………………………………...4
……….………………………………...4

1.6- Physical and chem

c hemiical properti
pro perties
es ……………………………..4

1.6.1- Physical Propertie

Pro pertiess of Fo
Forma
rmalldehyde ………………………4

1.6.2 - Chem
Chemiical properti
pro perties
es ………………………………………...5
1.7- Pro
Produc
ducti
tion
on method
methodss …………………………………………...6
…………………………………………...6

1.7.1- Fro
Fromm me
methan
thanol
ol by sil
silver
ver catal
catalysts
ysts proces
pro cesss ………………….8

1.7.2- Me
Metal
tal oxide catalyst
catalyst p
proc
rocess
ess ………………………………..10
………………………………..10

1.7.3- Pro
Produc
ducti
tion
on of formal
formaldehyde
dehyde from other
o ther hydro
hydrocarbo
carbon
n gases ..12

1.8- Sele
Selection
ction of proces
pro cesss ………………………………
………………………………………
……….…..13
.…..13

Chapter two ……………………………………

……………………………………………
………………….14
………….14

2.1-Mass
2.1-Mass balance ……………………………………………….…..15

2.1.1- First run mass

mass balance………………………………………..1
balance………………………………………..15
5

2.1.1.1- Materi
Material
al balance on the reactor
reacto r …………………………
……………… ……………15
…15

2.1.1.2- Materi
Material
al balance on the abs
absorb
orber…………………………...18
er…………………………...18

2.1.1.3- Materi
Material
al balance on the distilla
distillation
tion colu
co lumn…………………22
mn…………………22

2.1.2- Seco
Second
nd rrun
un mass bal
b alance
ance ……………………………………..25
……………………………………..25

4
2.1.2.1- Ma
Mass
ss balance
balance on the reactor
reacto r ……………………………….25
……………………………….25

2.1.2.2- Mass balance on the abs

bsorber……………
orber………………
……………….
……………...26
..26

2.1.2.3- Mass balance on the distill

distillation colu
co lumn
mn …………………..27
…………………. .27

2.2- Energy balance ………………………………………………...29

2.2.1- Mi
Mixi
xing
ng po
poin
intt between streams 2 , 3 and 15 …………………29
………………… 29

2.2.2- Energy balance on the heat exchanger E-101

E-101 ……………….30

2.2.3- Energy balance on the heat exchanger E-102

E-102 ……………….32

2.2.4- Mi
Mixi
xing
ng po
poin
intt between streams 6, 7 ………………………….
…………… …………….33
33

2.2.5- Energy balance on the reactor ……………………………….33

2.2.6- Energy balance on the heat exchanger inside the reactor ……34

2.2.7- Energy balance on the absorber ……………………………...36

2.2.8 - Energy balance on the heat exchanger E-103………………...37

E- 103………………...37

2.2.9- Energy balance on

o n the distillat
distillatiion colu
co lumn
mn T-101
T-101 …………….38

2.2.10- Mi
Mixi
xing
ng poi
po int of stream 17 , 18 and 19………………………40
19…………………… …40

2.2.11- Energy balance on the heat exchanger E – 106……………..42

Chapter three ………………………………………

………………………………………………………
………………43
43

3.1- Introduction of desi

des ign …………………………………
…………………………………………
………44
44
3.2- Reacto
Reactorr desi
des ign……………………………………
gn……………………………………………
…………….44
…….44

3.2.1- Reactor desig

d esign
n equation
equation ……………………………………..44
……………………………………..44

3.2.2 Mole balance ……………………………

…………… ……………………………
……………………45
………45

3.2.3 Net rate laws ………………………………………………....46

3.2.4 Rate laws

laws ……………
…………………………
……………………………………
………………………….46
….46

3.2.5- Stoichiometry ……………………………………………….48

5
3.2.6- Combination ………………………………………………..49

3.2.7- Press
Pressure
ure drop ………………………………………
… ……………………………………………
……….50
.50

3.2.8 – Result ……………………………………………………...52

3.3- Packed-bed abs

absorb
orber
er desi
des ign………………………………….
gn…………………………………..56
.56

3.3.1- Introduction ……………………………………………….56

3.3.2 -Packing
-Packing material…………………….………………………56

3.3.3- Sizi
Sizing
ng of pac
packed
ked tower……………………………………
tower……………………………………..56
..56

3.3.3.1- Pac
Packed
ked tower diame
diameter
ter …………….……………………
…………….……………………..57
..57

3.3.3.2
3.3.3. 2 - Packi
Pac king
ng heig
height
ht (Z pac
packi
king
ng)) ……….…………………….60

3.4 - Di
Dist
stil
illa
latt ion colu
co lumn
mn desig
des ign
n …………….………
…………… .…………………...61
…………...61

3.4.1 – Introduction ………………………….……………………6

………………………….……………………61
1

3.4.2 – Fro
Fromm materi
material
al balance ……………………………………62
………… …………………………62

3.4.3 – Calculati
Calculation
on number of plates ……………………………..63
……………………… ……..63

3.4.4 – Column height …………………………………………..67

3.4.5 – Co
Collumn diameter ……………………………
……………… ………………………
…………..
..67
67

Chapter four …………………………………………………….73

Controll loo
Contro loopp system
s ystem on aabs
bsorb
orber
er …………………………………74
…………………………………74
Chapter five ……………………………………
……………………………………………
………………..75
………..75

5.1- Safety & environment

environment precauti
prec aution
on ………………………….76
…………… …………….76

5.1.1- Methanol
Methanol ………………………………………………….76

5.1.1.1- Expos
Exposure
ure ………………………………………………..76
………………………………………………..76

5.1.1.2- Reactivity ……………………………………………….77

5.1.1.3- Storage…………………………………………………..77

6
5.1.2-Formaldehyde ……………………………………………77
5.1.2-Formaldehyde

5.1.2.1- Fire hazards ……………………………………………78

5.1.2.2-Expos
5.1.2.2-Exposure
ure ……………………………………………
……………………………………………….78
….78

5.1.2.3-Storage
5.1.2.3-Storage …………………………………………………78

5.2- Plant location ……………………………………………...78

5.2.1- Introduction……...………………………………………78

5.2.2 - CH2O plant location …………………………………...

……………… …………………...79
79

Chapter six …….…………………………

…….…………………………………………
……………………80
……80

6.1 – Introduction ………………………………………………81

………………………………………………81

6.2 – Raw material

material ……………………………………………..81
……………… ……………………………..81

6.3 - Operati
Operating
ng labor cost
co st ………………………………………
………………………………………82
82

6.4- Equi
Equipment
pment cost
co st …………………………………
…………………………………………
………….83
….83

Conclusion ……………………………………………………...84

Reference………..………………………………………………85

7
CHAPTER ONE
SUMMARY

8
1. Summary

1.1-- Int
1.1 Introdu
roduction
ction

Formaldehyde is called Methyl aldehyde or Methylene glycol or Methylene

oxide it is a colorless, flammable gas or liquid that has a pungent, suffocating
odor. It is a volatile organic compound, which is an organic compound that
easily becomes a vapor or gas. It is also naturally produced in small, harmless
amounts in the human body. The chemical symbol for formaldehyde is CH2O.

Formaldehyde is released into the air by burning wood, kerosene, or natural gas;
gas ;
from automobiles and diesel exhaust; and from cigarettes and other products. It
is found in the air at home, at work, and outdoors, especially in smog. It is also
found in some foods.

Formaldehyde occurs in forest fires, animal wastes, microbial products of

biological
biological systems, and
and plant
plant volatile
volatiles.
s. It can also be formed
formed in seawater
seawater by
photochem
photoc hemiical processes
proc esses .

Formaldehyde was discovered in 1859 by a Russian chemist named Aleksandr

Butlerov.
Bu tlerov. Then in
in 1869,
1869, it was ultimately
ultimately identified by the German chemist
August Hofmann. The manufacture of formaldehyde started in the beginnings of
the twentieth century. Between 1958 and 1968, the annual growth rate for
formaldehyde production averaged to 11.7%. In the mid-1970s, the production
was 54% of capacity. Annual growth rate of formaldehyde was 2.7% per year
from 1988 to 1997. In 1992, formaldehyde ranked 22nd among the top 50
chemicals produced in the United States. The total annual formaldehyde
capacity in 1998 was estimated by 11.3 billion pounds. Since then and the
production
producti on capacity
capacity around the globe is expanding
expanding exponentia
exponentiall
lly
y reach
reachiing a
world’s production of 32.5 million metric tons by 2012. Due to its relatively low
costs compared to other materials, and its receptivity for reaching high purities,
formaldehyde is considered one of the most widely demanded and manufactured
materials in the world. It is also the center of many chemical researches and
alternative manufacture methods. This also explains the vast number of
applications of this material including a building block for other organic
compounds, photographing washing, glues, adhesives, paints, explosives,
disinfecting, tissue preservation and drug testing. formaldehyde is most
commonly produced in industry through the vapor- phase oxidation reaction
between
betw een metha
methanol
nol and ai
airr (Oxygen).
(Oxygen).

9
1.2-- Health effects
1.2

The most probable route of human exposure to formaldehyde is inhalation .Non-

Cancer: Vapors are highly irritating to the eye and respiratory track. Acute
effects include nausea, headaches, and difficulty breathing. Formaldehyde can
also induce or exacerbate asthma, and throat irritation and Repeated exposure to
it cause skin irritation

1.3- Sources
Sources

Formaldehyde is both directly emitted into the atmosphere and formed in the
atmosphere as a result of photochemical oxidation of reactive organic gases in
polluted
polluted atmos
atmosphere
pheress contai
containing ozone and ni nitrogen
trogen oxides.
oxides. Photochemi
Photochemica
call
oxidation is the largest source (could be as high as 88 percent) of formaldehyde
concentrations in California ambient air. A primary source of formaldehyde is
vehicular exhaust Formaldehyde is a product of incomplete combustion. About
9 percent of direct formaldehyde emissions are estimated to come from the
combustion of fossil fuels mobile sources.

The primary stationary sources that have reported emissions of formaldehydeare

crude petroleum and natural gas extraction, manufacturers of miscellaneous
nonmetal
nonmet alllic minera
minerall produc
pro ducts,
ts, and
and gas produc
producti
tion
on and
and di
d istribution
stribution services
services..

1.4-- Demand
1.4

Demand for formaldehyde will grow with the development of the manufacturing
sector mainly the chemical industries such as disinfectants, cosmetics,
pharmaceuti
pharm aceutica
calls, insecticide
insecticide & fungic
fungic ides and the like.
like. The demand for the
output of such establishments is in turn influenced by population growth,
urbanization, income rise and expansion of health services and the like.
Considering the combined effect of the above factors a growth rate of 10% is
taken to forecast the future demand.

PROJECTED DEMAND FOR FORMALDEHYDE (KG)

Year Projected
Demand
2012 143,000
2013 157,300
2014 173,030
2015 190,333

2016 209,366

10
1.5-- U
1.5 Use
se of formaldehyde
formaldehyde

Formaldehyde is an important industrial chemical because of its versatility as a

chemical intermediate (Gerberich et al. 1994). It primarily is used in the
production
producti on of ure urea-form
a-formaldehyde,
aldehyde, phenol-formal
phenol-formaldehy
dehyde,
de, and melamine-
melamine-
formaldehyde resins, which are used as adhesives in the production of particle
board, fiber
fiber boar
b oard,
d, and
and pl
p lywood
ywood.. Formal
Formaldehyd
dehydee is also used in the manufacture
of plastics, insulation, fertilizers, fungicides, biocides, corrosion inhibitors,
embalming fluids, disinfectants, and household cleaners, and it is used in the
textile industry .

1.6-- Physical and chemical pr

1.6 properties
operties

Formaldehyde is a flammable, colorless gas at room temperature and has a

pungen
pung ent,
t, suffocating
suffocating odor
odo r (Budavari
(Budavari et aall. 1989).
1989). Odor
Odo r threshol
thresholds
ds rangi
ranging
ng from
0.5 to 1.0 parts per million (ppm) (ATSDR 1999) and 0.06 to 0.5 ppm
(Gerberich et al. 1994) have been reported. Formaldehyde reacts readily with
many substances and polymerizes easily, making it one of the world's most
important industrial Compound. (Gerberich et al. 1994). Selected chemical and
physical
physical propert
prop ertiies are
are listed
listed in TA
T ABLE
BLE

1.6.1-
1.6 .1- Physical Properties of Fo
Form
rmaldehy
aldehyde
de

Properties
Pro perties Fo
Formi
rmicc aldehyd
aldehyde,
e, methanal,
methanal, methyl al
aldehyd
dehyde,
e,
methylene
methyl ene oxide, Oxo
O xo methane,
methane, ox methyl
methylene
ene
CAS regist
registry
ry number 50-00-0
Molecular
Molecul ar formula HCHO
Molecular weight
weight 30.03
Boiling point –19.5°C
Melting point –92°C

Flash poi
Explos
Explosipoiveintlimi
limits
ts 83°C
7% to(closed
73% cup)
Specifi
Sp ecificc gravity
gravity 1.067 with
with respect
resp ect to ai
airr
Vapo
Va porr pres
pressuresure 3,890 mmHg
mmHg at 25°C
Solu
So lubil
biliity Very s oluble in water; s oluble in al
alco
cohol
hol and ether
Conversion
Conver sion factors 1 ppm = 1.23 mg/m
mg/m ; 1 mg/mmg/m = 0.81 ppm
pp m
Vapor Press
Pres s ure 3284 mm Hg at 20 0C
Vapo
Va porr De
Density
nsity 1.03 for aq. so
solln.; 1.08 for gas
Density/Speciific Gravity
Density/Spec 1.067 (air
(air = 1)
Log Octanol/Water 0.35
Partition Coefficient
Conversion FactorFac tor 1 ppm
pp m = 1.23 mg/m3
mg/m3

11
1.6.2
1.6 .2 - Chemical p
properti
roperties
es

Formaldehyde is one of the most reactive organic compounds known. The

various chemical properties are as follows:

Decomposition
At 150 ºC formaldehyde undergoes heterogeneous decomposition to form
methanol and CO2mai
mainl
nly.
y. Above 350
350 ºC it
it tends to dec
decompo
ompose
se in to CO and H2.

Polymerization
Gaseous formaldehyde polymerizes slowly at temperatures below 100 ºC,
polymeriza
polym erization
tion accelerated
accelerated by traces
traces of polar impuriti
impurities
es such as acids, alalkali
kaliss
orwater. In water
water sol
so lution formaldehyde hydrates to methyl
methylene
ene gl
glyco
ycoll
H
H2C=O
H2 C=O + H2O
H2O HO C OH
H
Which in turn polymerizes to polymethylene glycols, HO (CH2O)nH O)nH,, al
also
so called
called
polyoxy methy
methyllen
enes.
es.

Reduc tion
Reducti on and Oxidation
Oxidation
Formaldehyde is readily reduced to methanol with hydrogen over many
metaland metal oxide catalysts. It is oxidized to formic acid or CO 2 and H2O.In
the presence of strong alkalis or when heated in the presence of acids
formaldehyde undergoes cannizzaro reaction with formation of methanol and
formic acid. In presence of aluminum or magnesium methylate,
paraforma
paraformalldehy
dehyde
de reacts
reacts to form methy
methyll form
fo rmate
ate (Tishchenk
(Tishchenkoo reaction)
reaction)
2HCHO HCOOCH3

Addition reactions
The formation of sparingly water-soluble formaldehyde bisulphite is an
important addition react
reactiion. Hydroc
Hydrocyani
yanicc aci
ac id reacts with
with formaldehyde to give
glyconitrile.
HCHO + HCN HOCH2 - C  - N

Resin formation
Formaldehyde condenses with urea, melamine, urethanes, cyanamide, aromatic
sulfonamides and amines, and phenols to give wide range of resins.

12
Chemical reaction of Formaldehyde

Number
Number Reaction ΔHR,973 K(kJ/mol)
(1) CH3OH +1/2O2 → HCHO+H2O -156
(2) CH3OH →HCHO+H2 +85

(3) CH2O → CO+H2 +12

(4) CH3OH+2/3O 2→CO2+2H2O −676

(5) CH2O+O 2 → CO2+H2O −519

(6) CH2O+1/2O2→CH2O2 −314

(7) CH3OH → C+H2O+H2 −31

(8) CO+H2⇄ C+H2O −136

(9) CO+H2O ⇄ CO 2+H2 −35

1.7-- Produ
1.7 Production
ction methods
Today two main processes are in use for the production of formaldehyde from
methanol, the silver process and the oxide process. The first can be divided in to
two processes, the methanol ballast process and the BASF Badische Anilin&
Soda-Fab
So da-Fabri
rik
k proces
pro cesss as
as sho
shown
wn in Figure
Figure 1.1.

Methanol
ballast
process
Silver
Process
Processes for
BASF
Production of
Process
Oxide
Process

Figure
Figure 1.1. The
T he differen
differentt proces
pro cesss types
types for production
prod uction of formaldehyde
formaldehyde from
methanol.

13
Figure
Figure 2.2.
2. 2. sschemati
chematicc overv
o verviiew of the sil
silver pro
proces
cess.
s. The dashed
das hed square
sq uare shows
sho ws
what only exist in the methanol ballast process

Figure
Figure 2.3. A schem
sc hemati
aticc schem
sc hemee over th
thee oxidation
oxidation proc
p rocess
ess (Table 1.1.)

]%[ Methanol BASF Oxide

Ballast
Conversion 77-88 97-98 95 – 98
Yield mol. 86-90 89.5-90.5 <92.5
Formaldehyde [wt] 42 40-55 <55
Methanol in product <1 < 1.3 0.5-1.5
[wt]

14
1.7.1-
1.7 .1- From m
methanol
ethanol by silver catalysts pr
proce
ocess
ss

Feed mixture of pure methanol vapor and blown in air is generated in evaporator
the mixture combined with steam and enter the reactor vapor passes through bed
to silver catalyst or silver gauze. The conversion is in completed and the reaction
takes place in 600-720 °C the reaction gases cooled in directly with water, the

remaining heat of bottom of a formaldehyde absorption column. In the water

cooled section of column, the bulk of a methanol, water, and formaldehyde
separate out a 42% formaldehyde solution from the bottom absorption column is
fed to distillation column, methanol recovered at top of column, and recycled to
the bottom of evaporator A formaldehyde and less than l%( wt) methanol
product conta
containi
ining
ng up 5 is taken
taken from
from,, the bottom of distill
distillat
atiion col
co lumn
umn and
cooled.
co oled. Diagra
Diagram(1
m(1)) explai
explains
ns the proces
pro cess:
s:

DIAGRAM 1

15
FORMALIN (FOLRMALDEHYDE 37 WT. % SOLUTION)

Flash point 64 °C

Autoignition temperature 430 °C

Explosive limits 36%

Lower Explosion Limit 6%

Upper Explosion Limit 36%

Products of Combustion Carbon monoxide (CO) and Carbon

16
1.7.2-- Metal Oxi
1.7.2 Oxide
de C
Cataly
atalyst
st Proces
Processs

The Formax process developed by Reichhold chemicals to produce

formaldehyde through direct catalytic oxidation of methanol and some other 7
by-productss such as carbon monoxide
by-product monoxide an and
d dimeth
dimethylyl ether forms
forms In 1921, the
oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde with vanadium pentoxide catalyst was
introduced to and patented. Then in 1933, the iron-molybdenum oxide catalyst
was also patented and used till the early 1990’s. Improvements to the metal
oxide catalyst were done through the metal composition, inert carriers and
preparati
prepara tion
on me
methods.
thods. The first commco mmerci
ercial
al p lant for the producti
prod uction
on of
formaldehyde using the iron-molybdenum oxide catalyst was put into action in
1952. Unlike the silver based catalyst in this project, the iron-molybdenum
oxide catalyst makes formaldehyde from the exothermic reaction (1) entirely.
Under atmospheric pressure and 250 –350 ºC, methanol conversion inside the
reactor could
c ould rreach
each 99% and a y
yiiel
eld
d of 88% - 92%.

17
The process begins by mixing of vaporized methanol and air prior to entering
the reactors. Inside the heat exchanger reactor, the feed is passed through the
metal oxide catalyst filled tubes where heat is removed from the exothermic
reaction to the outside of the tubes. Short tubes (1 – 1.5 m) and a shell diameter
2.5 m is the expected design of typical reactors. The bottom product leaving the
reactors is cooled and passed to the absorber. The composition of formaldehyde
in the absorber outlet is controlled by the amount of water addition. An almost
methanol-free product can be achieved on this process design. The advantage of
this process over the silver based catalyst is the absence of the distillation
column to separate unreacted methanol and formaldehyde product. It also has a
li
life
fe span
sp an of 12 to 18 months,
months , larger than the sliver
sliver catal
cat alyst.
yst.

18
1.7.3- Production of formaldehyde from methane and other hydrocarbon
gases

Another method of producing formaldehyde is through the oxidation of

hydrocarbon gases. An increase in the amount produced of formaldehyde is
expected in this process. However, the hydrocarbon formaldehyde is usually

obtained as dilute solution which is not economically concentrated accompanied

by other aldehydes
aldehydes and by-products.
by-products. Howev
However,er, improvemen
improvementsts have been effected
effected
by the use of special
special cataly
catalysts
sts and
and better
better methods
methods of control.
control. Wheel
Wheeler
er
demonstrated that methane is not oxidized at an appreciable rate below 600°C.
The difficulty in this method is in controlling the oxidation of reaction. Ethylene,
ethane and propane oxidations can be controlled to yield formaldehyde under
similar conditions to methane. Higher hydrocarbon gases can be oxidized at much
lower temperatures than methane and ethane. These methods have been described
by Bibb
Bibb also
also reporte
reported
d by Wiezevi
Wiezevich
ch anand
d Frolich,
Frolich, who used iron, nickel,
nickel,
aluminum, and other metals as catalysts and employed pressures up to 135

atmospheres. The Cities Service Oil Company has developed a commercial

proc ess usi
process using
ng thi
this method.
method.

19
1.8- Selection of process
process

The oxide process has to think about how to let out their tail gas, which mostly
consist of nitrogen, oxygen ,CO and other compounds from the absorption tower
such as formaldehyde and methanol exist in the tail gas. Because of these
compounds the tail gas cannot be released into the air as it is, compared to the
silver processes that can let their tail gas go without consideration.
the disadvantage of The oxoxiide process
pro cess design is the need for significantly large
large
equipment to accommodate the increased flow of gases (3 times larger) compared
to the original silver catalyst process design. This increase in equipment sizing
clashes with economic prospect behind the design costs.

silver
silver catalysts proce
process
ss

In this project formaldehyde is to be produced through a catalytic vapor-phase

oxidation reaction involving methanol and oxygen according to the following
reactions.
CH3OH + ½ O2 HCHO + H2O (1)
CH3OH HCHO + H2 (2)

The desired reaction is the first which is exothermic with a selectivity of 9,

whilee the second
whil sec ond is
is an endothermic reaction. Operate of the process at
atmospheric pressure and very high temperatures (600°C – 650°C) .

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 CHAPTER TWO
MATERAIL AND ENERGY BALANCE

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