Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

MODULE – 3
Basic Structure of Computers, Instructions &Programs
Topics:
Functional Units
Basic Operational Concepts
Bus Structures
Performance –Processor Clock
Basic Performance Equation
Clock Rate
Performance Measurement.
Memory Location and Addresses
Memory Operations
Instructions and Instruction Sequencing
Addressing Modes

Introduction
Computer Organization explains the function and design of the various units of digital
computers that store and process information.
It also deals with the input units of the computer which receive information from external
sources and the output units which send computed results to external destinations.
The input, storage, processing, and output operations are governed by a list of instructions
that constitute a program.
It deals about computer hardware and computer architecture.
Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, magnetic and optical storage devices,
displays, electromechanical devices, and communication facilities.
Computer architecture encompasses the specification of an instruction set and the functional
behavior of the hardware units that implement the instructions

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 1

 Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

Functional Units
 A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts: input, memory,

arithmetic and logic, output, and control units, as shown in Figure 1.1.

 The input unit accepts coded information from human operators using devices such
as keyboards, or from other computers over digital communication lines.

 The information received is stored in the computer‟s memory, either for later use or
to be processed immediately by the arithmetic and logic unit.

 The processing steps are specified by a program that is also stored in the
memory.

 Finally, the results are sent back to the outside world through the output unit.

 All of these actions are coordinated by the control unit.

 An interconnection network provides the means for the functional units to

exchange information and coordinate their actions .

Input Units
 Computers accept coded information through input units.
 The most common input device is the keyboard.
 Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated
into its corresponding binary code and transmitted to the processor.
 Many other kinds of input devices for human-computer interaction are
available,including the touchpad, mouse, joystick, and trackball.
 These are often used as graphic input devices in conjunction with displays.
Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 2
 Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

 Microphones can be used to capture audio input which is then sampled and converted
into digital codes for storage and processing.
 Similarly, cameras can be used to capture video input.

 Digital communication facilities, such as the Internet, can also provide input
to acomputer from other computers and database servers.

 The function of the memory unit is to store programs and data.

 There are two classes of storage, called primary and secondary.

Primary Memory :

 Primary memory, also called main memory, is a fast memory that operates at electronic
speeds.

 Programs must be stored in this memory while they are being executed.

 The memory consists of a large number of semiconductor storage cells, each capable of
storing one bit of information. These cells are rarely read or written individually.

 Instead, they are handled in groups of fixed size called words.

 The memory is organized so that one word can be stored or retrieved in one basic
operation.

 The number of bits in each word is referred to as the word length of the computer,
typically 16, 32, or 64 bits.
 To provide easy access to any word in the memory, a distinct address is associated with
each word location.
 Addresses are consecutive numbers, starting from 0, that identify successive locations.
 A particular word is accessed by specifying its address and issuing a control command to
the memory that starts the storage or retrieval process.
 Instructions and data can be written into or read from the memory under the control of the
processor.
 It is essential to be able to access any word location in the memory as quickly as possible.
 A memory in which any location can be accessed in a short and fixed amount of time after
specifying its address is called a random-access memory (RAM). The time required to
access one word is called the memory access time. This time is independent of the
location of the word being accessed.
 It typically ranges from a few nanoseconds (ns) to about 100 ns for current RAM units.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 3

Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

Cache Memory
 As an adjunct to the main memory, a smaller, faster RAM unit, called a cache, is used
to hold sections of a program that are currently being executed, along with any
associated data.

 The cache is tightly coupled with the processor and is usually contained on the same
integrated-circuit chip.

 The purpose of the cache is to facilitate high instruction execution rates.

 At the start of program execution, the cache is empty.

 All program instructions and any required data are stored in the main memory.

 As execution proceeds, instructions are fetched into the processor chip, and a copy of
each is placed in the cache.

 When the execution of an instruction requires data located in the main memory,
thedata are fetched and copies are also placed in the cache.
Secondary Storage
 Primary memory is essential, it tends to be expensive and does not retain information
when power is turned off.
 Thus additional, less expensive, permanent secondary storage is used when large
amounts of data and many programs have to be stored, particularly for information
that is accessed infrequently.
 Access times for secondary storage are longer than for primary memory.
 A wide selection of secondary storage devices is available, including magnetic disks,
optical disks (DVD and CD), and flash memory devices.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

o Most computer operations are executed in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of
the processor.
o Any arithmetic or logic operation, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, or comparison of numbers, is initiated by bringing the required
operandsinto the processor, where the operation is performed by the ALU.
o For example, if two numbers located in the memory are to be added,
they are brought into the processor, and the addition is carried out by the ALU.
o The sum may then be stored in the memory or retained in the processor for
immediate use.
o When operands are brought into the processor, they are stored in high-speed
storage elements called registers.
o Each register can store one word of data.
o Access times to registers are even shorter than access times to the cache unit on
the processor chip.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 4

Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

Output Unit
o The output unit is the counterpart of the input unit.

o Its function is to send processed results to the outside world.

o A familiar example of such a device is a printer.

o Most printers employ either photocopying techniques, as in laser printers,

or ink jetstreams.

o Such printers may generate output at speeds of 20 or more pages per minute.

o However, printers are mechanical devices, and as such are quite slow
compared tothe electronic speed of a processor.

o Some units, such as graphic displays, provide both an output function, showing text
o and graphics, and an input function, through touchscreen capability.

Control Unit

 The memory, arithmetic and logic, and I/O units store and process information and
perform input and output operations.

 The operation of these units must be coordinated in some way.

 This is the responsibility of the control unit.

 The control unit is effectively the nerve center that sends control signals to
other units and senses their states.

 I/O transfers, consisting of input and output operations, are controlled by

program instructions that identify the devices involved and the information to
be transferred.

 Control circuits are responsible for generating the timing signals that govern the
transfers and determine when a given action is to take place.

 Data transfers between the processor and the memory are also managed by the
control unit through timing signals.

 A large set of control lines (wires) carries the signals used

for timing and synchronization of events in all units.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 5

Digital Design and Computer Organization (BCS302) Module 3

 The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows:

 The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data
through an input unit and stores it in the memory.
 Information stored in the memory is fetched under program control
into anarithmetic and logic unit, where it is processed
 Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit
 All activities in the computer are directed by the control unit

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 6

 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3
1. BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS:
The program to be executed is stored in memory. Instructions are accessed from memory to the
processor one by one and executed.
STEPS FOR INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
Consider the following instruction
Ex: 1 Add LOCA, R0
This instruction is in the form of the following instruction format
Opcode Source, Destination
Where Add is the operation code, LOCA is the Memory operand and R0 is Register operand
This instruction adds the contents of memory location LOCA with the contents of Register R0 and
the result is stored in R0 Register.
The symbolic representation of this instruction is
R0 [LOCA] + [R0]

The contents of memory location LOCA and Register R0 before and after the execution of this
instruction is as follows

Before instruction execution After instruction execution

LOCA = 23H LOCA = 23H
R0 = 22H R0 = 45H

The steps for instruction execution are as follows

1. Fetch the instruction from memory into the IR (instruction register in CPU).
2. Decode the instruction 1111000000 10011010
3. Access the Memory Operand
4. Access the Register Operand
5. Perform the operation according to the Operation Code.
6. Store the result into the Destination Memory location or Destination Register.

Ex:2 Add R1, R2, R3

This instruction is in the form of the following instruction format

Opcode, Source-1, Source-2, Destination

Where R1 is Source Operand-1, R2 is the Source Operand-2 and R3 is the Destination. This
instruction adds the contents of Register R1 with the contents of R2 and the result is placed in R3
Register.
The symbolic representation of this instruction is
R3 [R1] + [R2]
The contents of Registers R1,R2,R3 before and after the execution of this instruction is as follows.
Before instruction execution After instruction execution
R1 = 24H R1 = 24H
R2 = 34H R2 = 34H
R3 = 38H R3 = 58H

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 7

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3
The steps for instruction execution is as follows
1. Fetch the instruction from memory into the IR.
2. Decode the instruction
3. Access the First Register Operand R1
4. Access the Second Register Operand R2
5. Perform the operation according to the Operation Code.
6. Store the result into the Destination Register R3.

CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMORY AND PROCESSOR

The connection between Memory and Processor is as shown in the figure.

The Processor consists of different types of registers.
1. MAR (Memory Address Register)
2. MDR (Memory Data Register)
3. Control Unit
4. PC (Program Counter)
5. General Purpose Registers
6. IR (Instruction Register)
7. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 8

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

The functions of these registers are as follows

1. MAR
 It establishes communication between Memory and Processor
 It stores the address of the Memory Location as shown in the figure.

MAR
Memory
5000h 5000 23h
5001 43h
5002 78h
5003 65h

2. MDR
 It also establishes communication between Memory and the Processor.
 It stores the contents of the memory location (data or operand), written into or read from
memory as shown in the figure.

MDR
Memory
23h 23h 5000
43h 5001
78h 5002
65h 5003

3. CONTROL UNIT
 It controls the data transfer operations between memory and the processor.
 It controls the data transfer operations between I/O and processor.
 It generates control signals for Memory and I/O devices.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 9

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

4. PC (PROGRAM COUNTER)
 It is a special purpose register used to hold the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
 The contents of PC are incremented by 1 or 2 or 4, during the execution of current
instruction.
 The contents of PC are incremented by 1 for 8 bit CPU, 2 for 16 bit CPU and for 4 for 32
bit CPU.

4. GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER / REGISTER ARRAY

The structure of register file is as shown in the figure

R0
R1
R2
.
Rn-1
 It consists of set of registers.
 A register is defined as group of flip flops. Each flip flop is designed to store 1 bit of
data.
 It is a storage element.
 It is used to store the data temporarily during the execution of the program(eg: result).
 It can be used as a pointer to Memory.
 The Register size depends on the processing speed of the CPU
 EX: Register size = 8 bits for 8 bit CPU

5. IR (INSTRUCTION REGISTER
It holds the instruction to be executed. It notifies the control unit, which generates timing
signals that controls various operations in the execution of that instruction.

6. ALU (ARITHMETIC and LOGIC UNIT)

 It performs arithmetic and logical operations on given data.

Steps for reading the instruction.

PC contents are transferred to MAR and read signal is sent to memory by control unit.
The data from memory location is read and sent to MDR.
The content of MDR is moved to IR.

[PC]  MAR Memory  MDR  IR

CU ( read signal)

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 10

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

2. BUS STRUCTURE
Bus is defined as set of parallel wires used for data communication between different parts of
computer. Each wire carries 1 bit of data. There are 3 types of buses, namely
1. Address bus
2. Data bus and
3. Control bus1.
1. Address bus :
 It is unidirectional.
 The processor (CPU) sends the address of an I/O device or Memory device by means of
this bus.

2. Data bus
 It is a bidirectional bus.
 The CPU sends data from Memory to CPU and vice versa as well as from I/O to CPU
and vice versa by means of this bus.

3. Control bus:
 This bus carries control signals for Memory and I/O devices. It generates control signals
for Memory namely MEMRD and MEMWR and control signals for I/O devices namely IORD
and IOWR.

The structure of single bus organization is as shown in the figure.

 The I/O devices, Memory and CPU are connected to this bus is as shown in the figure.
 It establishes communication between two devices, at a time.

Features of Single bus organization are

 Less Expensive
 Flexible to connect I/O devices.
 Poor performance due to single bus.
There is a variation in the devices connected to this bus in terms of speed of operation.
Few devices like keyboard, are very slow. Devices like optical disk are faster. Memory and
processor are faster, but all these devices uses the same bus. Hence to provide the synchronization
between two devices, a buffer register is attached to each device. It holds the data temporarily
during the data transfer between two devices.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 11

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

3. PERFORMANCE
 The performance of a Computer System is based on hardware design of the processor and
the instruction set of the processors.
 To obtain high performance of computer system it is necessary to reduce the execution
time of the processor.
 Execution time: It is defined as total time required executing one complete program.
 The processing time of a program includes time taken to read inputs, display outputs,
system services, execution time etc.
 The performance of the processor is inversely proportional to execution time of the
processor.
More performance = Less Execution time.
Less Performance = More Execution time.

The Performance of the Computer System is based on the following factors

1. Cache Memory
2. Processor clock
3. Basic Performance Equation
4. Instructions
5. Compiler

CACHE MEMORY: It is defined as a fast access memory located in between CPU and
Memory. It is part of the processor as shown in the fig

The processor needs more time to read the data and instructions from main memory
because main memory is away from the processor as shown in the figure. Hence it slowdown the
performance of the system.
The processor needs less time to read the data and instructions from Cache Memory
because it is part of the processor. Hence it improves the performance of the system.

PROCESSOR CLOCK: The processor circuits are controlled by timing signals called as Clock.
It defines constant time intervals and are called as Clock Cycles. To execute one instruction there
are 3 basic steps namely
1. Fetch

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 12

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

2. Decode
3. Execute.
The processor uses one clock cycle to perform one operation as shown in the figure
Clock Cycle → T1 T2 T3
Instruction → Fetch Decode Execute
The performance of the processor depends on the length of the clock cycle. To obtain high
performance reduce the length of the clock cycle. Let „ P ‟ be the number of clock cycles generated
by the Processor and „ R „ be the Clock rate .

The Clock rate is inversely proportional to the number of clock cycles.

i.e R = 1/P.
Cycles/second is measured in Hertz (Hz). Eg: 500MHz, 1.25GHz.

Two ways to increase the clock rate –

 Improve the IC technology by making the logical circuit work faster, so that the time taken
for the basic steps reduces.
 Reduce the clock period, P.

BASIC PERFORMANCE EQUATION

Let „T „be total time required to execute the program.
Let „N „be the number of instructions contained in the program.
Let „S „be the average number of steps required to one instruction.
Let „R‟ be number of clock cycles per second generated by the processor to execute one
program.

Processor Execution Time is given by

T=N*S/R
This equation is called as Basic Performance Equation.
For the programmer the value of T is important. To obtain high performance it is necessary to
reduce the values of N & S and increase the value of R

Performance of a computer can also be measured by using benchmark programs.

SPEC (System Performance Evaluation Corporation) is an non-profitable organization, that
measures performance of computer using SPEC rating. The organization publishes the application
programs and also time taken to execute these programs in standard systems.

𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑆𝑃𝐸𝐶 =
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 13

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

DIFFERENCES MULTIPROCESSOR AND MULTICOMPUTER

MULTIPROCESSOR MULTICOMPUTER
1. It is a process of interconnection of two or It is a process of interconnection of two or
more processors by means of system bus. more computers by means of system bus.
2. It uses common memory to hold the data It has its own memory to store data and
and instructions. instructions.
3. Complexity in hardware design. Not much complexity in hardware design.
4. Difficult to program for multiprocessor Easy to program for multiprocessor system
system.

4. MEMORY LOCATIONS AND ADDRESSES

1. Memory is a storage device. It is used to store character operands, data operands and
instructions.
2. It consists of number of semiconductor cells and each cell holds 1 bit of information. A
group of 8 bits is called as byte and a group of 16 or 32 or 64 bits is called as word.
World length = 16 for 16 bit CPU and World length = 32 for 32 bit CPU. Word length is defined
as number of bits in a word.
 Memory is organized in terms of bytes or words.
 The organization of memory for 32 bit processor is as shown in the fig.

The contents of memory location can be accessed for read and write operation. The memory is
accessed either by specifying address of the memory location or by name of the memory location.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 14

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

 Address space : It is defined as number of bytes accessible to CPU and it depends on the
number of address lines.

5. BYTE ADDRESSABILITY
Each byte of the memory are addressed, this addressing used in most computers are called byte
addressability. Hence Byte Addressability is the process of assignment of address to successive
bytes of the memory. The successive bytes have the addresses 1, 2, 3, 4………….2 n-1. The
memory is accessed in words.

In a 32 bit machine, each word is 32 bit and the successive addresses are 0,4,8,12,… and
so on.
Address 32 – bit word

0000 0th byte 1st byte 2nd byte 3rd byte

0004 4th byte 5th byte 6th byte 7th byte
0008 8th byte 9th byte 10th byte 11th byte
0012 12th byte 13th byte 14th byte 15th byte
….. ….. ….. ….. …..
n-3 n-3th byte n-2th byte n-1th byte nth byte

BIG ENDIAN and LITTLE ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

Two ways in which byte addresses can be assigned in a word.

Or
Two ways in which a word is stored in memory.
1. Big endian
2. Little endian

BIG ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

In this technique lower byte of data is assigned to higher address of the memory and higher
byte of data is assigned to lower address of the memory.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 15

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

The structure of memory to represent 32 bit number for big endian assignment is as shown in the
above figure.

LITTLE ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

In this technique lower byte of data is assigned to lower address of the memory and higher byte
of data is assigned to higher address of the memory.
The structure of memory to represent 32 bit number for little endian assignment is as shown in
the fig.

Eg – store a word “JOHNSENA” in memory starting from word 1000, using Big Endian
and Little endian.

Bigendian -
1000 J O H N
1000 1001 1002 1003
1004 S E N A
1004 1005 1006 1007

Little endian -
1000 J O H N
1003 1002 1001 1000
1004 S E N A
1007 1006 1005 1004

WORD ALLIGNMENT

16 bit
Word size 32 bit
64 bit

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 16

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

The structure of memory for 16 bit CPU, 32 bit CPU and 64 bit CPU are as shown in the figures
1,2 and 3 respectively

For 16 bit CPU For 32 bit CPU For 64 bit CPU

5000 34H 5000 34H 5000 34H
5002 65H 5004 65H 5008 65H
5004 86H 5008 86H 5016 86H
5006 93H 5012 93H 5024 93H
5008 45H 5016 45H 5032 45H

It is process of assignment of addresses of two successive words and this address is the number of
bytes in the word is called as Word alignment.

ACCESSING CHARACTERS AND NUMBERS

The character occupies 1 byte of memory and hence byte address for memory.
The numbers occupies 2 bytes of memory and hence word address for numbers.

6. MEMORY OPERATION
Both program instructions and operands are in memory. To execute each instruction has
to be read from memory and after execution the results must be written to memory. There
are two types of memory operations namely 1. Memory read and 2. Memory write
Memory read operation [ Load/ Read / Fetch ]
Memory write operation [ Store/ write ]

1. MEMORY READ OPERATION:

 It is the process of transferring of 1 word of data from memory into Accumulator (GPR).
 It is also called as Memory fetch operation.
 The Memory read operation can be implemented by means of LOAD instruction.
 The LOAD instruction transfers 1 word of data (1 word = 32 bits) from Memory into the
Accumulator as shown in the fig.
Memory
Accumulator
5000
5004
32 bits
5008
5012
5016
5020

32 bits

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 17

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

Steps for Memory Read Operation

(1) The processor loads MAR (Memory Address Register) with the address of the memory
location.
(2) The Control unit of processor issues memory read control signal to enable the memory
component for read operation.
(3) The processor reads the data from memory into the Accumulator by means of bi-directional
data bus.

[MAR]  Memory  Accumulator

MEMORY WRITE OPERATION

 It is the process of transferring the 1 word of data from Accumulator into the Memory.
 The Memory write operation can be implemented by means of STORE instruction.
The STORE instruction transfers 1 word of data from Accumulator into the Memory
location as shown in the fig.
Accumulator
5000
5004
32 bits 5008
5012
5016
5020

32 bits
Steps for Memory Write Operation
 The processor loads MAR with the address of the Memory location.
 The Control Unit issues the Memory Write control signal.
 The processor transfers 1 word of data from the Accumulator into the Memory location
by means of bi-directional data bus.

7. COMPUTER OPERATIONS (OR) INSTRUCTIONS

AND INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
The Computer is designed to perform 4 types of operations, namely
 Data transfer operations
 ALU Operations
 Program sequencing and control.
 I/O Operations.

1. Data Transfer Operations

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 18
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

a) Data transfer between two registers.

Format: Opcode Source1 , Destination

The processor uses MOV instruction to perform data transfer operation between two registers
The mathematical representation of this instruction is R1 → R2.
Ex : MOV R1 , R2 : R1 and R2 are the registers.
Where MOV is the operation code, R1 is the source operand and R2 is the destination operand.
This instruction transfers the contents of R1 to R2.
EX: Before the execution of MOV R1,R2, the contents of R1 and R2 are as follows
R1 = 34h and R2 = 65h
After the execution of MOV R1, R2, the contents of R1 and R2 are as follows
R1 = 34H and R2 = 34H

b) Data transfer from memory to register

The processor uses LOAD instruction to perform data transfer operation from memory to
register. The mathematical representation of this instruction is
[LOCA] → ACC. Where ACC is the Accumulator.
Format : opcode operand
Ex: LOAD LOCA
For this instruction Memory Location is the source and Accumulator is the destination.

c) Data transfer from Accumulator register to memory

The processor uses STORE instruction to perform data transfer operation from
Accumulator register to memory location. The mathematical representation of this instruction is
[ACC] → LOCA. Where, ACC is the Accumulator.
Format: opcode operand
Ex: STORE LOCA
For this instruction accumulator is the source and memory location is the destination.

2. ALU Operations

The instructions are designed to perform arithmetic operations such as Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication and Division as well as logical operations such as AND, OR and NOT operations.
Ex1: ADD R0, R1
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows:
R1← [R0] + [R1]; Adds the content of R0 with the content of R1 and result is placed in R1.
Ex2: SUB R0, R1
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows:
R1← [R0] - [R1] ; Subtracts the content of R0 from the content of R1 and result is placed
in R1.
EX3: AND R0, R1 ; It Logically multiplies the content of R0 with the content of R1 and result is
stored in R1. (R1= R0 AND R1)
Ex4: NOT R0 ; It performs the function of complementation.

Dr. Ajay V G, Dept. of CSE, SVIT 19

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21CS34) Module 3

3. I/O Operations: The instructions are designed to perform INPUT and OUTPUT
operations. The processor uses MOV instruction to perform I/O operations.
The input Device consists of one temporary register called as DATAIN register and output register
consists of one temporary register called as DATAOUT register.
a) Input Operation: It is a process of transferring one WORD of data from DATA IN
register to processor register.
Ex: MOV DATAIN, R0
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows,
R0← [DATAIN]
b) Output Operation: It is a process of transferring one WORD of data from processor
register to DATAOUT register.
Ex: MOV R0, DATAOUT
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows,
[R0]→ DATAOUT

REGISTER TRANSFER NOTATION

 There are 3 locations to store the operands during the execution of the program namely 1.
Register 2. Memory location 3. I/O Port. Location is the storage space used to store the
data.
 The instructions are designed to transfer data from one location to another location.
Consider the first statement to transfer data from one location to another location
 “ Transfer the contents of Memory location whose symbolic name is given by AMOUNT into
processor register R0.”
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R0 ← [AMOUNT]
Consider the second statement to add data between two registers
 “Add the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2”
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R2 ←[R0] + [R1].
Such a notation is called as “Register Transfer Notation”.
It uses two symbols
1. A pair of square brackets [] to indicate the contents of Memory location and
2. ← to indicate the data transfer operation.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE NOTATION

Consider the first statement to transfer data from one location to another location
 “ Transfer the contents of Memory location whose symbolic name is given by
AMOUNT into processor register R0.”
 The assembly language notation of this statement is given by
MOV AMOUNT, R0
Opcode Source Destination
This instruction transfers 1 word of data from Memory location whose symbolic name is given by
AMOUNT into the processor register R0.
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R0 ← [AMOUNT]

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Consider the second statement to add data between two registers

 “Add the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2”
 The assembly language notation of this statement is given by

ADD R0 , R1 , R2
Opcode source1, Source2, Destination

This instruction adds the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2.
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R2 ←[R0] + [R1].
Such a notations are called as “Assembly Language Notations”

BASIC INSTRUCTION TYPES

There are 3 types basic instructions namely
1. Three address instruction format
2. Two address instruction format
3. One address instruction format

Consider the arithmetic expression Z = A + B, Where A,B,Z are the Memory locations.
Steps for evaluation
1. Access the first memory operand whose symbolic name is given by A.
2. Access the second memory operand whose symbolic name is given by B.
3. Perform the addition operation between two memory operands.
4. Store the result into the 3rd memory location Z.
5. The mathematical representation is Z ←[A] + [B].

a) Three address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode Source-1 Source-2 destination

Destination ← [source-1] + [source-2]

Ex: ADD A, B, Z
Z ← [A] + [B]
a) Two address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode Source Source/destination

Destination ← [source] + [destination]

The sequence of two address m/c instructions to evaluate the arithmetic expression
Z ← A + B are as follows
MOV A, R0
MOV B, R1
ADD R0, R1
MOV R1, Z

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b) One address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode operand

Ex1: LOAD B
This instruction copies the contents of memory location whose symbolic name is given
by „B‟ into the Accumulator as shown in the figure.
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows
ACC ← [B]

Accumulator Memory

Ex2: STORE B
This instruction copies the contents of Accumulator into memory location whose
symbolic name is given by „B‟ as shown in the figure. The mathematical representation is as
follows
B ← [ACC].
Memory
Accumulator

Ex3: ADD B
 This instruction adds the contents of Accumulator with the contents of Memory
location „B‟ and result is stored in Accumulator.
 The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows
ACC ←[ACC]+ [B]

STRIGHT LINE SEQUENCING AND INSTRUCTION EXECUTION

Consider the arithmetic expression

C = A+B , Where A,B,C are the memory operands.
The mathematical representation of this instruction is
C = [A] + [B].
The sequence of instructions using two address instruction format are as follows
MOV A, R0
ADD B, R0
MOV R0, C
Such a program is called as 3 instruction program.
NOTE: The size of each instruction is 32 bits.

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 The 3 instruction program is stored in the successive memory locations of the

processor is as shown in the fig.

 The system bus consists of uni-directional address bus,bi-directional data bus and control bus
“It is the process of accessing the 1st instruction from memory whose address is stored in program
counter into Instruction Register (IR) by means of bi-directional data bus and at the same time
after instruction access the contents of PC are incremented by 4 in order to access the next
instruction. Such a process is called as “Straight Line Sequencing”.

INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
There are 4 steps for instruction execution
1 Fetch the instruction from memory into the Instruction Register (IR) whose address
is stored in PC.
IR ← [ [PC] ]
2 Decode the instruction.
3 Perform the operation according to the opcode of an instruction
4 Load the result into the destination.
5 During this process, Increment the contents of PC to point to next instruction ( In
32 bit machine increment by 4 address)
PC ← [PC] + 4.
6 The next instruction is fetched, from the address pointed by PC.

BRANCHING
Suppose a list of „N‟ numbers have to be added. Instead of adding one after the other, the
add statement can be put in a loop. The loop is a straight-line of instructions executed as many
times as needed.

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The „N‟ value is copied to R1 and R1 is decremented by 1 each time in loop. In the loop find the
value of next elemet and add it with Ro.
In conditional branch instruction, the loop continues by coming out of sequence only if
the condition is true. Here the PC value is set to „LLOP‟ if the condition is true.

Branch > 0 LOOP // if >0 go to LOOP

The PC value is set to LOOP, if the previous statement value is >0 ie. after decrementing R1 value
is greater than 0.

If R1 value is not greater than 0, the PC value is incremented in a mormal sequential way and the
next instruction is executed.

CONDITION CODE BITS

 The processor consists of series of flip-flops to store the status information after ALU
operation.
 It keeps track of the results of various operations, for subsequent usage.
 The series of flip-flip-flops used to store the status and control information of the processor
is called as “Condition Code Register”. It defines 4 flags. The format of condition code register
is as follows.

C V Z N

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1 N (NEGATIVE) Flag:
It is designed to differentiate between positive and negative result.
It is set 1 if the result is negative, and set to 0 if result is positive.
2 Z (ZERO) Flag:
It is set to 1 when the result of an ALU operation is found to zero, otherwise it is cleared.
3 V (OVER FLOW) Flag:
In case of 2s Complement number system n-bit number is capable of representing a
range of numbers and is given by -2n-1 to +2n-1. . The Over-Flow flag is set to 1 if the result
is found to be out of this range.
4 C (CARRY) Flag :
This flag is set to 1 if there is a carry from addition or borrow from subtraction,
otherwise it is cleared.

8. Addressing Modes
The various formats of representing operand in an instruction or location of an operand is called
as “Addressing Mode”. The different types of Addressing Modes are

a) Register Addressing
b) Direct Addressing
c) Immediate Addressing
d) Indirect Addressing
e) Index Addressing
f) Relative Addressing
g) Auto Increment Addressing
h) Auto Decrement Addressing

a. REGISTER ADDRESSING:
In this mode operands are stored in the registers of CPU. The name of the register is directly
specified in the instruction.
Ex: MOVE R1,R2 Where R1 and R2 are the Source and Destination registers respectively. This
instruction transfers 32 bits of data from R1 register
into R2 register. This instruction does not refer
memory for operands. The operands are directly
available in the registers.

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b. DIRECT ADDRESSING
It is also called as Absolute Addressing Mode. In this addressing mode operands are stored in the
memory locations. The name of the memory location is directly specified in the instruction.

Ex: MOVE LOCA, R1 : Where LOCA is the memory location and R1 is the Register.

This instruction transfers 32 bits of data from memory location X into the General Purpose
Register R1.

c. IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING
In this Addressing Mode operands are directly specified in the instruction. The source field is used
to represent the operands. The operands are represented by # (hash) sign.

Ex: MOVE #23, R0

d. INDIRECT ADDRESSING
In this Addressing Mode effective address of an operand is stored in the memory location or
General Purpose Register.

The memory locations or GPRs are used as the memory pointers.

Memory pointer: It stores the address of the memory location.

There are two types Indirect Addressing

i) Indirect through GPRs

ii) Indirect through memory location

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i) Indirect Addressing Mode through GPRs

In this Addressing Mode the effective address of an operand is stored in the one of the General

Purpose Register of the CPU.

Ex: ADD (R1), R0 ; Where R1 and R0 are GPRs

This instruction adds the data from the memory location whose address is stored in R1 with the
contents of R0 Register and the result is stored in R0 register as shown in the fig.

The diagrammatic representation of this addressing mode is as shown in the fig.

ii) Indirect Addressing Mode through Memory Location.

In this Addressing Mode, effective address of an operand is stored in the memory location.
Ex: ADD (X), R0

This instruction adds the data from the memory location whose address is stored in „X‟
memory location with the contents of R0 and result is stored in R0 register.

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The diagrammatic representation of this addressing mode is as shown in the fig.

e. INDEX ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the effective address of an operand is computed by adding constant
value with the contents of Index Register and any one of the General Purpose Register namely
R0 to Rn-1 can be used as the Index Register. The constant value is directly specified in the
instruction.
The symbolic representations of this mode are as follows

1. X (Ri) where X is the Constant value and Rj is the GPR.

It can be represented as
EA of an operand = X + (Ri )
2. (Ri , RJ) Where Ri and Rj are the General Purpose Registers used to store
addresses of an operand and constant value respectively. It can be represented as
The EA of an operand is given by
EA = (Ri) + (Rj)
3. X (Ri , Rj) Where X is the constant value and RI and RJ are the General Purpose Registers
used to store the addresses of the operands.It can be represented as
The EA of an operand is given by
EA = (Ri) + (Rj) + X
There are two types of Index Addressing Modes

i) Offset is given as constant.

ii) Offset is in Index Register.

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Note : Offset : It is the difference between the starting effective address of the memory location
and the effective address of the operand fetched from memory.

i) Offset is given as constant

Ex: ADD 20(R1), R2

The EA of an operand is given by
EA = 20 + [R1]

This instruction adds the contents of memory location whose EA is the sum of contents of R1
with 20 and with the contents of R2 and result is placed in R2 register. The diagrammatic
representation of this mode is as shown in the fig.

ii) Offset is in Index Register

Ex: ADD 1000(R1) , R2 R1 holds the offset address of an operand.
The EA of an operand is given by
EA = 1000 + [R1]

This instruction adds the data from the memory location whose address is given by [1000 +
[R1] with the contents of R2 and result is placed in R2 register.

The diagrammatic representation of this mode is as shown in the fig.

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f. RELATIVE ADDRESSING MODE:

In this Addressing Mode EA of an operand is computed by the Index Addressing Mode. This
Addressing Mode uses PC (Program Counter)to store the EA of the next instruction instead of
GPR.

The symbolic representation of this mode is X (PC).Where X is the offset value and PC is the
Program Counter to store the address of the next instruction to be executed.

It can be represented as
EA of an operand = X + (PC).
This Addressing Mode is useful to calculate the EA of the target memory location.

g. AUTO INCREMENT ADDRESSING MODE

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In this Addressing Mode , EA of an operand is stored in the one of the GPR s of the CPU. This
Addressing Mode increment the contents of memory register by 4 memory locations after operand
access.
The symbolic representation is
(RI)+ Where Ri is the one of the GPR.
Ex: MOVE (R1)+ , R2

This instruction transfer‟s data from the memory location whose address is stored in R1 into R3
register and then it increments the contents of R1 by 4 memory locations.

h. AUTO DECREMENT ADDRESSING MODE

In this Addressing Mode , EA of an operand is stored in the one of the GPR s of the CPU. This
Addressing Mode decrements the contents of memory register by 4 memory locations and then
transfers the data to destination.

The symbolic representation is

-(RI) Where Ri is the one of the GPR.
Ex: MOVE - (R1) , R2
This instruction first decrements the contents of R1 by 4 memory locations and then transfer‟s data
of that location to destination register.

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