NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: CIT421

COURSE TITLE: Net-Centric Computing

CIT421 COURSE GUIDE

CIT421
NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING

Course Team Oguntunde T (Ph.D) (Developer/Writer) - UI

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CIT421 COURSE GUIDE

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters

University Village, Plot 91 Cadastral Zone, Nnnamdi Azikiwe Expressway Jabi, Abuja

LAGOS OFFICE
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island , Lagos

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria
First Printed 2021

ISBN:

All Rights Reserved

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CIT421 COURSE GUIDE

Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................... iii
What You Will Be Learning in this Course ......................................................................... iii
Course Aim ...................................................................................................................... iv
Course Objectives ............................................................................................................ iv
Working through this course ............................................................................................. v
Course Material ............................................................................................................... vi
Study Units ...................................................................................................................... vi
Presentation Schedule ................................................................................................... viii
Assessment ................................................................................................................... viii
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs) ................................................................................. viii
Final Examination and Grading ........................................................................................ ix
Course Marking Scheme .................................................................................................. ix
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ....................................................................................... x
Summary .......................................................................................................................... x

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Introduction

What You Will Be Learning in this Course

This course consists of units and a course guide. This course guide tells you briefly what the
course is about, what course material you will be using and how you can work through these
materials. In addition, it advocates some general guidelines for the amount of time you are
likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to complete it successfully.

It gives you guidance in respect of your Tutor-Marked Assignments which will be made
available in the assignment file. There will be regular tutorial classes that are related to the
course. It is advisable for you to attend these tutorial sessions.

This course teaches the technology on which everything in the world, ranging from education,
commerce, communication to even the home, runs which is inter-network.

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Course Aim
The aim of the course is to furnish you with full knowledge on inter-networking. It teaches
how systems connect one with the other, communication modes, two or more systems
processing, a single but divided large tasks, together simultaneously, transmission technologies
and much more.

Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set out, the course has a set of objectives. Each unit has specific objectives
which are included at the beginning of the unit.

You may wish to refer to them during your study to check on your progress. You should always
look at the unit objectives after completion of each unit. By doing so, you would know whether
you have followed the instruction in the unit.

Below are the comprehensive objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting these objectives,
you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. In addition to the aims earlier
stated, this course sets to achieve some objectives. Thus, after going through the course, you
should be able to:

 Identify the configurations of Distributed systems

 Describe the standards of wireless technology
 Implement security schemes or ciphers on the network
 Explain the categories of networks
 Define the concept of Parallel Systems
 Classify parallel Programming Models
 Describe Message Passing Programming
 Explain the concept of:
o Dependence Analysis
o Open MP Programming
o Evaluation of Programs
o Optimizations for Scalar Architectures and Models for Parallel Computing
 Dependence Analysis, Open MP Programming, Evaluation of Programs, Optimizations
for Scalar Architectures and Models for Parallel Computing.
 Explain the concepts of Distributed systems:
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o Characterization of Distributed systems
o system models
o distributed objects and
o remote method invocation
 Implement the concept of Distributed transactions:
o Explain flat & nested distributed transactions and concurrency
 Explain Service-oriented architectures:
o Identify the characteristics of SOAs, Hadoop and Spark
 Define Mobile and wireless computing
o Enumerate the Technologies for Wireless Communication
o Explain wireless cellular systems
o Appreciate wireless network technologies
 Discuss Wireless Application Protocols: Mobile IP, WAP, SMS, Bluetooth
 Implement the Frameworks for mobile application development (e.g Ionic, React
Native, Xamarin, Adobe PhoneGap, J2ME)
 Define Cloud computing:
o Explain the cloud computing technologies, infrastructure, and architecture
 Discuss Cloud computing development models (public, private, community and hybrid
cloud), service models (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS).Improve their data privacy through hardware
protection

Working through this course

To complete this course, you are required to read each study unit, read the textbooks and read
other materials which may be provided by the National Open University of Nigeria.

Each unit contains self-assessment exercises and at certain point in the course you would be
required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course there is a
final examination. The course should take you about a total of 17 weeks to complete. Below
you will find listed all the components of the course, what you have to do and how you should
allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the course on time and successfully.

This course entails that you spend a lot time reading. I would advise that you avail yourself the
opportunity of comparing your knowledge with that of other learners.
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Course Material
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Presentation Schedule
4. Tutor-Marked Assignments
5. References/Further Reading

Study Units
The study units in this course are as follows:

Module 1 Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Computing
Unit 2 Mobile and Wireless Computing
Unit 3 Network Security
Unit 4 Client/ Server Computing (Using the web)
Unit 5 Building Web Application

Module 2 Parallel Systems

Unit 1 Introduction to Parallel Systems
Unit 2 Parallel Programming Models
Unit 3 Message Passing Programming
Unit 4 Dependence Analysis
Unit 5 Open MP Programming
Unit 6 Evaluation of Programs
Unit 7 Optimization for Scalar Architectures
Unit 8 Modules for Parallel Computing

Module 3 Distributed Systems

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Systems
Unit 2 Characterization of Distributed Systems
Unit 3 Systems Models
Unit 4 Distributed Objects
Unit 5 Remote Methods Invocation

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Unit 6 Using UML for Component Based Designs

Module 4 Distributed Transactions

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Transactions

Unit 2 Flat and Nested Distributed Transactions

Unit 3 Concurrency

Unit 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture- Hadoop & Spark

Module 5 Mobile & Cloud Computing

Unit 1 Introduction to Mobile and Cloud Computing
Unit 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications
Unit 3 Wireless Cellular Systems
Unit 4 Overview of Wireless LAN, IEEE 802.11, Personal Area Network,
Bluetooth
Unit 5 High Speed Wireless Network: HiperLAN

The first module introduces Distributed Computing, dynamic devices and mode of
transmission, security of connected and communicating systems using ciphers, Client and
Servers communication and building of web applications.

Module Two explains parallel systems and parallel programming models. Other issues treated
are Message passing Programming, Dependence Analysis, Open MP Programming, Program
Evaluation using Algorithms, Optimizations for Scalar Architectures and Models for Parallel
Computing.

In the module Three, we have discussed connected Systems, its models and characteristics,
Distributed Objects, remote method Invocation and using UML for Component Based Design

Module Four treated Transactions on Connected Systems, Flat and Nested Distributed
Transactions, Simultaneity or Concurrency.

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Module Five introduces Mobile devices and the Internet, Wireless Communications
Technologies, Wireless Cellular Systems, Wireless Local Area Networks, Personal Area
Networks, IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth and High-speed Wireless Networks

Each unit consists of one or two weeks’ work and include an introduction, objectives, reading
materials, exercises, conclusion, summary, tutor-marked assignments (TMAs), references and
other resources. The units direct you to work on exercises related to the required reading. In
general, these exercises test you on the materials you have just covered or require you to apply
it in some way and thereby assist you to evaluate your progress and to reinforce your
comprehension of the material. Together with TMAs, these exercises will help you in achieving
the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course as a whole.

Presentation Schedule
Your course materials have important dates for the early and timely completion and submission
of your TMAs and attending tutorials. You should remember that you are required to submit
all your assignments by the stipulated time and date. You should guide against falling behind
in your work.

Assessment
There are three aspects to the assessment of the course. First is made up of self-assessment
exercises. Second, consists of the tutor-marked assignments and third is the written
examination/end of course examination.

You are advised to do the exercises. In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply
information, knowledge and techniques you have gathered during the course. The assignments
must be submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment in accordance with the deadline
stated in the presentation schedule and the assessment file. The work you submit to your tutor
for assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will
need to sit for a final or end of course examination of about three hours duration. This
examination will count for 70% of your total course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)

The TMA is a continuous assessment component of your course. It accounts for 30% of the
total score. You will be given four TMAs to answer. Three of these must be answered before

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you are allowed to sit for end of course examination. The TMAs would be given to you by your
facilitator and should be returned after you have done the assignment. Assignment questions
for the units in this course are contained in the assignment file. You will be able to complete
your assignments from the information and material contained in your reading, references and
study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level of education to demonstrate that you
have read and researched more into your references, which will give a wider view point and
may provide you with a deeper understanding of the subject.

Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or before the deadline given in the
presentation schedule and assignment file. If for any reason you cannot complete your work on
time, contact your facilitator before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an
extension. Extension will not be granted after the due date unless in exceptional circumstances.

Final Examination and Grading

The end of course examination for Net-centric Computing (CIT412) will be for three (2) hours
and it has a value of 70% of the total course score. The examination will consist of questions,
which will reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor-marked assignment
problems you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination to revise the whole
course. You might find it useful to review your self-test, TMAs and comments on them before
the examination. The end of course examination covers information from all parts of the course.

Course Marking Scheme

Assignment Marks
Assignment 1 – 4 For assignment, best three marks of the four counts at
10% each, i.e., 30% of Course Marks.
End of Course Examination 70% 0f the overall Course Marks.
Total 100% of Course Material.

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Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 16 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the
dates, time, and location of these tutorials as well as the name and phone number of your
facilitator, as soon as you are allocated to a tutorial group.

Your facilitator will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your
progress and any difficulties you might face and provide assistance to you during the course.
You are expected to mail your Tutor-Marked Assignments to your facilitator before the
schedule date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail if you need assistance.

The following might be circumstances in which you would find assistance necessary, hence
you would have to contact your facilitator if:
 You do not understand any part of the study or assigned readings
 You have difficulty with self-tests
 You have question or problem with an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should endeavor to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face contact
with your course facilitator and to ask questions which may be answered instantly. You can
raise any problem encountered in the course of your study.

To have more benefits from course tutorials, you are advised to prepare a list of questions
before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating actively in discussions.

Summary
Net-centric Computing is a course that intends to intimate the learner with basic facts on
computer networks, network types and categories, distributed systems. Distributed systems
models, parallel systems, concurrency, wireless networks and standards. cloud computing and
wireless application protocols. Upon completing this course, you would have been equipped
with the knowledge of Net-centric computing fundamentals, what network is all about and
wireless technologies, cloud computing and service models.

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I wish you success in the course and I hope you find it very interesting.

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals……………………………………1

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Computing……………………………………… 2
Unit 2 Mobile and Wireless Computing ……………………….…………………... 9
Unit 3 Network Security ….………………………………………………………. 15
Unit 4 Client/ Server Computing (Web Application) ……………………………..
Unit 5 Building Web Application

Module 2 Parallel Systems …………..………………………………………………. 25

Unit 1 Introduction to Parallel Systems ……………………………………………26
Unit 2 Parallel Programming Models ……………………………………………..
Unit 3 Message Passing Programming ……………………………………………. 37
Unit 4 Dependence Analysis ………………………………………………………. 46
Unit 5 Open MP Programming …………..………………………………………… 55
Unit 6 Evaluation of Programs ………………………………………………….
Unit 7 Optimizations for Scalar Architecture ……………………………………
Unit 8 Models for Parallel Computing …………………………………………..

Module 3 Distributed Systems ………………………………………………………. 62

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Transactions…………………………………….63
Unit 2 Characterization of Distributed Systems…………..………………………… 72
Unit 3 Systems Models……...………………..……………………………………. 84
Unit 4 Distributed Objects…………………………………………………….…… 94
Unit 5 Remote Method Invocation ………………………………………………….
Unit 6 Using UML for Component Based Design ………………………………….

Module 4 Distributed Transactions …………….……………………………………102

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Transactions…………………………………… 103

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Unit 2 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions ……………………………………110

Unit 3 Concurrency………….…………………………………………………….. 121

Unit 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture (Hadoop & Spark)……… 128

Module 5 Mobile & Cloud Computing ………………………………………………..

Unit 1 Introduction to Mobile & Cloud Computing ……………………………….

Unit 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications ………………………………..

Unit 3 Wireless Cellular Systems ……………………………………………………

Unit 4 Overview of Wireless LAN, IEEE 802.11, Personal Area Network & Bluetooth

Unit 5 High Speed Wireless Networks: HiperLAN

…………………….

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Module 1: Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals

Introduction of Module

Net-Centric or network centered computing is an ongoing area in the twenty-first century with

a great interest among software engineers as it is an enabling technology for modern distributed

computing systems and applications. Today, Net-Centric applications have invaded the lives

of people in many ways. Net-Centric Computing (NCC) is a distributed environment where

applications and data are downloaded from servers and exchanged with peers across a network.

Net-centric Computing focuses on large-scale distributed computing systems and applications

that communicate through open, wide-area networks like the Internet. General examples of

large-scale network-centric systems are the World-Wide Web and Computational Grids. For

several years, major changes are being brought to the world by universal networking

capabilities, such as the Internet. Today’s technology solutions represent the convergence of

computing power, networking capability and the information, data or knowledge that forms the

content of these solutions. At the center these solutions net-centric computing lies. Net-centric

computing refers to an emerging technology architecture and an evolutionary stage of

client/server computing. It is a common architecture built on open standards that supports in

different ways for different people to collaborate and to reach different information sources. The

evolutionary nature of net-centric computing links technological capabilities and strategic

opportunities, helping people in facing today’s new problems and providing the flexibility to

meet tomorrow’s challenges.

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Unit 1: Introduction to Distributed Computing

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Computing
3.2 Web 2.0 Technologies
3.3 Service Orientation
3.4 Virtualization
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked

computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one
another from any system in order to appear as a single system to the end-user. The computers
that are in a distributed system can be physically together and connected by a local network, or
they can be geographically distant and connected by a wide area network. A distributed system
can consist of any number of possible components, such as mainframes, personal computers,
workstations, minicomputers, and so on. Common use cases of a distributed systems are
electronic banking systems, massive multiplayer online games, and sensor networks.
1.1 Functionality
There are two general ways that distributed systems function:
a. Each component of the system works to achieve a common goal and the end-
user views results as one combined unit.
b. Each component has its own end-user and the distributed system facilitates
sharing resources or communication services.
1.2 Architectural models
Distributed systems generally consist of four different basic architectural models:
a. Client-server — Clients contact the server for data, then format it and display it
to the end-user.
b. Three-tier — Information about the client is stored in a middle tier rather than
on the client, to simplify application deployment.
c. n-tier — Generally used when the server needs to forward requests to additional
enterprise services on the network.
d. Peer-to-peer — There are no additional nodes used to provide services or
manage resources. Responsibilities are uniformly distributed among
components in the system, known as peers, which can serve as either client or
server.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

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 Explain the concept of distributed systems

 Describe the Architectural Models of Distributing Computing
 Explain the term Service Orientation
 Describe the concept, Virtualization

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Distributed computing

Distributed Computing is a much broader technology that has been around for more than three
decades now. Distributed computing is computing over distributed autonomous computers that
communicate only over a network. Distributed computing systems are usually treated
differently from parallel computing systems or shared-memory systems, where multiple
computers share a common memory pool that is used for communication between the
processors. Distributed memory systems use multiple computers to solve a common problem,
with computation distributed among the connected computers (nodes) and using message-
passing to communicate between the nodes.
Example of distributed computing is the grid computing where the nodes may belong to
different administrative domains. Another example is the network-based storage
virtualization solution which used distributed computing between data and metadata servers.

Figure 1: Distributed Computing Systems

Distributed computing, however, can include heterogeneous computations where some nodes
may perform a lot more computation, some perform very little computation and a few others
may perform specialized functionality (like processing visual graphics).

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One of the main advantages of using distributed computing is that efficient scalable programs
can be designed so that independent processes are scheduled on different nodes and they
communicate only occasionally to exchange results – as opposed to working out of a shared
memory with multiple simultaneous accesses to a common memory.
It is obvious that cloud computing is also a specialized form of distributed computing, where
distributed Software as a Service (SaaS) applications utilize thin clients (such as browsers)
which offload computation to cloud-hosted servers (and services).
Distributed computing, virtualization, service orientation, and Web 2.0 form the core
technologies enabling the provisioning of cloud services from anywhere on the globe.
Distributed computing is a foundational model for cloud computing because cloud systems are
distributed systems. Besides administrative tasks mostly connected to the accessibility of
resources in the cloud, the extreme dynamism of cloud systems—where new nodes and
services are provisioned on demand—constitutes the major challenge for engineers and
developers.
3.2 Web 2.0 technologies
Web 2.0 technologies constitute the interface through which cloud computing services are
delivered, managed, and provisioned. Besides the interaction with rich interfaces through the
Web browser, Web services have become the primary access point to cloud computing
systems from a programmatic standpoint.
3.3 Service Orientations
Service orientation is the underlying paradigm that defines the architecture of a cloud
computing system. Cloud computing is often summarized with the acronym XaaS meaning,
Everything-as-a-Service—that clearly underlines the central role of service orientation
Infrastructure-as-a-Service solutions provide the capabilities to add and remove resources, but
it is up to those who deploy systems on this scalable infrastructure to make use of such
opportunities with wisdom and effectiveness.

Platform-as-a-Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control
the provisioning process and the lease of resources. These can be either completely transparent
to developers or subject to fine control. Integration between cloud resources and existing
system deployment is another element of concern.

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3.4 Virtualization
Virtualization is another element that plays a fundamental role in cloud computing. This
technology is a core feature of the infrastructure used by cloud providers. Virtualization
concept is more than 40 years old, but cloud computing introduces new challenges, especially
in the management of virtual environments, whether they are abstractions of virtual hardware
or a runtime environment

Discussion
Which of the security infrastructure is most critical and why?

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Describe two Service Orientations

Answer
Infrastructure-as-a-Service solutions provide the capabilities to add and remove resources, but
it is up to those who deploy systems on this scalable infrastructure to make use of such
opportunities with wisdom and effectiveness.

Platform-as-a-Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control
the provisioning process and the lease of resources. These can be either completely transparent
to developers or subject to fine control. Integration between cloud resources and existing
system deployment is another element of concern.

5.0 Conclusion
Distributed computing is computing over distributed autonomous computers that communicate
only over a network. Distributed computing systems are usually treated differently from
parallel computing systems or shared-memory systems, where multiple computers share a
common memory pool that is used for communication between the processors

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6.0 Summary
Virtualization is another element that plays a fundamental role in cloud computing. Platform-
as-a-Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control the
provisioning process and the lease of resources. Infrastructure-as-a-Service solutions provide
the capabilities to add and remove resources, but it is up to those who deploy systems on this
scalable infrastructure to make use of such opportunities with wisdom and effectiveness.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Moving To The Cloud | ScienceDirect

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Unit 2: Mobile & Wireless Computing

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mobile and Wireless Computing
3.1.1 Mobile Computing
3.2 Mobile Communications
3.3 Mobile Hardware
3.4 Mobile Software
3.5 Mobile Classification
3.6 Advantages
3.7 Security Issues
3.8 Current Trends
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be

transported during normal usage. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile
hardware, and mobile software.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define Wireless Communication

 Classify Mobile and Cloud Computing
 Mention 5 mobile hardware
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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Mobile & Wireless Computing
3.1.1 Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a
computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed
physical link
Mobile computing involves human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to
be transported during normal usage

Figure 2: Internet with Mobile Devices

3.2 Mobile communication

• The mobile communication refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that
seamless and reliable communication goes on
• These would include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and
portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services
• The data format is also defined at this stage
• This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems which offer
the same service.

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• the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is basically
radio wave-oriented
That is, the signals are carried over the air to intended devices that are capable of receiving and
sending similar kinds of signals.
3.3 Mobile hardware
• mobile devices or device components that receive or access the service of mobility
• They would range from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital
Assistants
•

Figure 3: Mobile Hardware

3.4 Mobile Software

• Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware
• It deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications
• This is the engine of the mobile device
• It is the operating system of the appliance

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• Its the essential component that operates the mobile device

Figure 4: Mobile Software

• Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users
are not tied or pinned to a single physical location, but are able to operate from
anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless communications
3.5 Mobile Classification
• Mobile computing is not only limited to mobile phones, but there are various gadgets
available in the market that are built on a platform to support mobile computing
• They are usually classified in the following categories:
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
• The main purpose of this device is to act as an electronic
organizer or day planner that is portable, easy to use and
capable of sharing information with your computer systems.
• PDA is an extension of the PC, not a replacement
• These systems are capable of sharing information with a
computer system through a process or service known as
synchronization
• Both devices will access each other to check for changes or
updates in the individual devices
• The use of infrared and Bluetooth connections enables these
devices to always be synchronized.
Figure 5: Personal Data Assistant

• With PDA devices, a user can browse the internet, listen to

audio clips, watch video clips, edit and modify office
documents, and many more services
• The device has a stylus and a touch sensitive screen for input
and output purposes
 Smartphones
 It combines the features of a PDA with that of a mobile phone or camera
phone
 It has a superior edge over other kinds of mobile phones.
 Smartphones have the capability to run multiple programs concurrently
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 These phones include high-resolution touch screens, web browsers that
can:
 access and properly display standard web pages rather than just mobile-
optimized sites
 high-speed data access via Wi-Fi and high speed cellular broadband.
 The most common mobile Operating Systems (OS) used by modern
smartphones include:
a. Google's Android
b. Apple's iOS
c. Nokia's Symbian
d. RIM's BlackBerry OS
e. Samsung's Bada
f. Microsoft's Windows Phone, and embedded Linux distributions such as
Maemo and MeeGo. Such operating systems can be installed on different
phone models, and typically each device can receive multiple OS software
updates over its lifetime.

Figure 6: Smart Phones

 Tablet PC and iPads

• This mobile device is larger than a mobile phone or a PDA and
integrates into a touch screen and is operated using touch sensitive
motions on the screenThey are often controlled by a pen or by the
touch of a finger
• They are usually in slate form and are light in weight. Examples would
include ipads, Galaxy Tabs, Blackberry Playbooks etc.
• They offer the same functionality as portable computers
• They support mobile computing in a far superior way and have
enormous processing horsepower

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• Users can edit and modify document files, access high speed internet,
stream video and audio data, receive and send e-mails, attend/give
lectures and presentations among its very many other functions
• They have excellent screen resolution and clarity

Figure 7: Ipads & PCs

3.6 Advantages
• Location Flexibility
• This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection
established
• A user can work without being in a fixed position
• Their mobility ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the
same time and perform their stated jobs.
• Saves Time
• The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to
the office and back, has been slashed
• One can now access all the important documents and files over a secure
channel or portal and work as if they were on their computer
• It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies
• It has also reduced unnecessary incurred expenses
• Enhanced Productivity
• Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find
comfortable
• This in turn enhances their productivity level
• Ease of Research
• Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the
field and search for facts and feed them back into the system
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• It has also made it easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed
data from wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to and from the
office to the field
• Entertainment
• Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing
• It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and informative
material
• With the improvement and availability of high speed data connections at
considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they want as they
browse the internet for streamed data
• One is able to watch news, movies, and documentaries among other
entertainment offers over the internet
• This was not possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing
world.
• Streamlining of Business Processes
• Business processes are now easily available through secured connections
• Looking into security issues, adequate measures have been put in place to
ensure authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services
• Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of
information between business partners can also take place
• Meetings, seminars and other informative services can be conducted using
video and voice conferencing
• Travel time and expenditure is also considerably reduced
3.7 Security Issues
• Mobile computing has its fair share of security concerns as any other technology
• Due to its nomadic nature, it's not easy to monitor the proper usage
• Users might have different intentions on how to utilize this privilege
• Improper and unethical practices such as hacking, industrial espionage, pirating,
online fraud and malicious destruction are some but few of the problems experienced
by mobile computing
• Another big problem plaguing mobile computing is credential verification
• As other users share username and passwords, it poses as a major threat to security
• This being a very sensitive issue, most companies are very reluctant to implement
mobile computing to the dangers of misrepresentation
• The problem of identity theft is very difficult to contain or eradicate

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• Issues with unauthorized access to data and information by hackers, is also an
enormous problem
• Outsiders gain access to steal vital data from companies, which is a major hindrance
in rolling out mobile computing services.
• No company wants to lay open their secrets to hackers and other intruders, who will
in turn sell the valuable information to their competitors
• It's also important to take the necessary precautions to minimize these threats from
taking place
• Some of those measures include:
• Hiring qualified personnel.
• Installing security hardware and software
• Educating the users on proper mobile computing ethics
• Auditing and developing sound, effective policies to govern mobile computing
• Enforcing proper access rights and permissions
• In the absence of such measures, it's possible for exploits and other unknown threats
to infiltrate and cause irrefutable harm
• These may be in terms of reputation or financial penalties
• In such cases, it's very easy to be misused in different unethical practices.
• If these factors aren’t properly worked on, it might be an avenue for constant threat
• Various threats still exist in implementing this kind of technology
3.8 Current Trends
• These are the list of the current mobile technologies starting from 5G technologies
which is the hottest mobile technology available in the market.
• 5G
• In telecommunications, 5G is the fifth generation technology
standard for broadband cellular networks, which cellular phone
companies began deploying worldwide in 2019, and is the planned successor to
the 4G networks which provide connectivity to most current cellphones. 5G
networks are predicted to have more than 1.7 billion subscribers worldwide by
2025, according to the GSM Association.[1] Like its predecessors, 5G networks
are cellular networks, in which the service area is divided into small
geographical areas called cells. All 5G wireless devices in a cell are connected
to the Internet and telephone network by radio waves through a local antenna in
the cell. The main advantage of the new networks is that they will have
greater bandwidth, giving higher download speeds, eventually up to 10 gigabits
per second (Gbit/s).[2] In addition to 5G being faster than existing networks, 5G
can connect more different devices, and even if people are in crowded areas, the
servers will be more unified, improving the quality of Internet services.[3] Due
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to the increased bandwidth, it is expected the networks will increasingly be used
as general internet service providers (ISPs) for laptops and desktop computers,
competing with existing ISPs such as cable internet, and also will make possible
new applications in internet-of-things (IoT) and machine-to-machine areas
• 4G
• 4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology,
succeeding 3G, and preceding 5G. A 4G system must provide capabilities
defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include
amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-
definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.
• The first-release WIMAX standard was commercially deployed in South Korea
in 2006 and has since been deployed in most parts of the world.
• The first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard was commercially
deployed in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden in 2009, and has since been
deployed throughout most parts of the world. It has, however, been debated
whether first-release versions should be considered 4G LTE. The 4G wireless
cellular standard was defined by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) and specifies the key characteristics of the standard, including
transmission technology and data speeds.

• 3G or third generation
• 3G mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile phones
and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide-area wireless
voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a
mobile environment.
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation
system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere
on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites
• The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and
commercial users around the world
• In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system,
weather, and location services.
• Long Term Evolution (LTE)
• LTE is a standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile
phones and data terminals
• It is based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies,
increasing the capacity and speed using new modulation techniques

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• It is related with the implementation of fourth Generation (4G) technology
• WiMAX
• WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second
data rates, with the latest update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations
• It is a part of a fourth generation or 4G wireless-communication technology
• WiMAX far surpasses the 30-metre wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi
Local Area Network (LAN), offering a metropolitan area network with a
signal radius of about 50 km
• WiMAX offers data transfer rates that can be superior to conventional cable-
modem and DSL connections, however, the bandwidth must be shared among
multiple users and thus yields lower speed in practice
• Near Field Communication
• Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and
similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching
them together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a
few centimeters
• Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data
exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-
Fi. Communication is also possible between an NFC device and an unpowered
NFC chip, called a "tag"
3.9 Conclusion
• Today's computing has rapidly grown from being confined to a single location
• With mobile computing, people can work from the comfort of any location they wish
to as long as the connection and the security concerns are properly factored
• In the same light, the presence of high speed connections has also promoted the use of
mobile computing
• Being an ever growing and emerging technology, mobile computing will continue to
be a core service in computing, and Information and Communications Technology

Discussion

Why is the Mobile Software important in Mobile and Cloud Computing?

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4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. Define Mobile Computing.

Answer
Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to
be transported during normal usage.

2. Explain Near Field Communication as one of the current trends in Mobile Computing

Answer
• Near Field Communication
• Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and
similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching
them together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a
few centimeters
• Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data
exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-
Fi. Communication is also possible between an NFC device and an unpowered
NFC chip, called a "tag"

5.0 Conclusion
Mobile and Wireless Computing has come to stay in every of our life endeavors ranging from
homes, commerce, education as well as finance. I doubt if we can recover from it.

6.0 Summary
Being an ever growing and emerging technology, mobile computing will continue to be a
core service in computing, and Information and Communications Technology

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7.0 References/Further Reading

file:///C:/Tech-U%20Issues/CSC%20412-%20Netcetric%20Computing/CSC%20412-
Content/MOBILE%20AND%20WIRELESS%20COMPUTING.pdf

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UNIT 3 Network Security

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Fundamentals of Network Security
3.1 Network Security
3.2 Data as the Life-Blood of Business
3.3 Three Keys Focuses of Network Security
3.4 Benefits of Network Security
3.5 Network Security Tools and Techniques
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

The transmission of data from one point, A on the network to the other point, B is a great
concern and therefore, there is the need to deploy measure that can secure the transmission of
data away from unauthorized individuals. Hence, the need for network security.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Explain the concept of network
 Understand the importance of network security
 Identify and explain the network security tools and techniques.

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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Network Security
Network security is a term that describes the security tools, tactics and security policies designed
to monitor, prevent and respond to unauthorized network intrusion, while also protecting digital
assets, including network traffic. Network security includes hardware and software technologies
(including resources such as savvy security analysts, hunters, and incident responders) and is
designed to respond to the full range of potential threats targeting your network.
Network security is the defense you use to protect yourself against ever-increasing cybercrime.
It is predicted that by 2021, cybercrime damages will amount to an annual total world cost of
$6 trillion, even outpacing the yearly cost of damages attributed to natural disasters. And on an
individual company level these damages can be just as catastrophic; the average cost of
a cyberattack is currently $1.67 million,2 with operational and productivity loss, along with negative
customer experience, being the primary consequences of suffering an attack.

3.2 Data as the Life-Blood of Businesses

Data is the lifeblood of any business. It supports business growth, carries vital resources and helps
the organization stay healthy. And if data is blood, then the network is the beating heart that pumps
it through the business system. But modern cyber threats are like vampires, doing everything
possible to get at the blood that keeps any business going.
In order to defend against these vampiric threats and save your business from potentially millions
of dollars in data loss, you need more than just a stake and some cloves of garlic; you need effective,
robust network security and network visibility.
3.3 The Three Key Focuses of Network Security
There are three key focuses that should serve as a foundation of any network security strategy:
protection, detection and response.
3.3.1 Protection entails any tools or policies designed to prevent network security intrusion.
3.3.2 Detection refers to the resources that allow you to analyze network traffic and quickly
identify problems before they can do harm.
3.3.3 Response is the ability to react to identified network security threats and resolve them as
quickly as possible.

3.4 Benefits of Network Security

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Network security tools and devices exist to help organizations protect, not only its sensitive
information, but also its overall performance, reputation and even its ability to stay in business.
Continued operational ability and an intact reputation are two key benefits of effective network
security.
Companies that fall prey to cyberattacks often find themselves crippled from the inside out, unable
to deliver services or effectively address customer needs. Similarly, networks play a major role in
internal company processes, and when they come under attack, those processes may grind to a halt,
further hampering an organization’s ability to conduct business or even resume standard operations.
But perhaps even more damaging is the detrimental effect that a network breach can have on your
business’s reputation.
Given the rising tide of identity theft and other dangers related to the theft of personal information,
many customers are already hesitant when it comes to sharing data with businesses. And if a
cyberattack should occur, many of these customers are likely to withdraw in favor of more secure
alternatives. The loss or corruption of valuable data, along with a significant disruption to customer
services and internal process, topped off with reputational injury that may persist long after other
damages have been repaired — it’s not hard to see what’s at stake when it comes to network security.
In fact, it’s been suggested that 66 percent of SMBs would have to shut down (either temporarily or
permanently) after experiencing a data breach. And even larger, more established businesses may
be unable to reclaim their former standing.
On the other hand, reliable tools in network security software and hardware, coupled with the right
policies and strategies, can help ensure that when cyberattacks occur, their impact will be minimal.

3.5 Network Security Tools and Techniques

Enterprises’ network face threats of all shapes and sizes, and thus should be prepared to defend,
identify and respond to a full range of attacks. But the reality is that the biggest danger to most
companies are not fly-by-night threat actors, but rather attackers that are well-funded and are
targeting specific organizations for specific reasons. For that reason, your network security strategy
needs to be able to address the various methods these actors might employ.
Here are 14 different network security tools and techniques designed to help you do just that:
1. Access control
If threat actors cannot access your network, the amount of damage they will be able to do
will be extremely limited. But in addition to preventing unauthorized access, be aware that
even authorized users can also be potential threats. Access control allows you to increase

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your network security by limiting user access and resources to only the parts of the
network that directly apply to individual users’ responsibilities.
2. Anti-malware software
Malware, in the form of viruses, trojans, worms, keyloggers, spyware, etc. are designed to
spread through computer systems and infect networks. Anti-malware tools are a kind of
network security software designed to identify dangerous programs and prevent them from
spreading. Anti-malware and antivirus software may also be able to help resolve malware
infections, minimizing the damage to the network.
3. Anomaly detection
It can be difficult to identify anomalies in your network without a baseline understanding
of how that network should be operating. Network anomaly detection engines (ADE)
allow you to analyze your network, so that when breaches occur, you’ll be alerted to them
quickly enough to be able to respond.
4. Application security
For many attackers, applications are a defensive vulnerability that can be exploited.
Application security helps establish security parameters for any applications that may be
relevant to your network security.
5. Data loss prevention (DLP)
Often, the weakest link in network security is the human element. DLP technologies and
policies help protect staff and other users from misusing and possibly compromising
sensitive data or allowing said data out of the network.
6. Email security
As with DLP, email security is focused on shoring up human-related security weaknesses.
Via phishing strategies (which are often very complex and convincing), attackers persuade
email recipients to share sensitive information via desktop or mobile device, or
inadvertently download malware into the targeted network. Email security helps identify
dangerous emails and can also be used to block attacks and prevent the sharing of vital
data.
7. Endpoint security
The business world is becoming increasingly bring your own device (BYOD), to the point
where the distinction between personal and business computer devices is almost non-
existent. Unfortunately, sometimes the personal devices become targets when users rely on
them to access business networks. Endpoint security adds a layer of defense between
remote devices and business networks.
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8. Firewalls
Firewalls function much like gates that can be used to secure the borders between your
network and the internet. Firewalls are used to manage network traffic, allowing authorized
traffic through while blocking access to non-authorized traffic.
9. Intrusion prevention systems
Intrusion prevention systems (also called intrusion detection) constantly scan and analyze
network traffic/packets, so that different types of attacks can be identified and responded to
quickly. These systems often keep a database of known attack methods, so as to be able to
recognize threats immediately.
10. Network segmentation
There are many kinds of network traffic, each associated with different security risks.
Network segmentation allows you to grant the right access to the right traffic, while
restricting traffic from suspicious sources.
11. Security information and event management (SIEM)
Sometimes simply pulling together the right information from so many different tools and
resources can be prohibitively difficult — particularly when time is an issue. SIEM tools
and software give responders the data they need to act quickly.
12. Virtual private network (VPN)
VPN tools are used to authenticate communication between secure networks and an
endpoint device. Remote-access VPNs generally use IPsec or Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
for authentication, creating an encrypted line to block other parties from eavesdropping.
13. Web security
Including tools, hardware, policies and more, web security is a blanket term to describe the
network security measures businesses take to ensure safe web use when connected to an
internal network. This helps prevent web-based threats from using browsers as access
points to get into the network.
14. Wireless security
Generally speaking, wireless networks are less secure than traditional networks. Thus,
strict wireless security measures are necessary to ensure that threat actors aren’t gaining
access.

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Discussion
What tools can be used to secure the network? Discuss

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercise
Identify and explain the benefits of network security?

5.0 Conclusion
Network security tools and devices exist to help your organization protect not only its
sensitive information, but also its overall performance, reputation and even its ability to
stay in business.

6.0 Summary
Protection entails any tools or policies designed to prevent network security intrusion.
Detection refers to the resources that allow you to analyze network traffic and quickly identify
problems before they can do harm.
Response is the ability to react to identified network security threats and resolve them as quickly as
possible.

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7.0 References/Further Reading

Application Intelligence |Application Visibility | Gigamon

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CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

UNIT 4 Client-Server Computing

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Fundamentals of Client Server Computing
3.1 Client Server Computing
3.2 Characteristics of Client Server Computing
3.3 Difference Between Client Server and Peer-to-Peer Computing
3.4 Advantages of Client Server Computing
3.5 Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

There are two configurations of networks: Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer networks. In client
server, the client requests resources while the server serves same. In Peer-to-peer configuration,
each node is free to communicate with others or not. The nodes under this configuration are
not over-seen by any node or the other, they relate in a workgroup

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Explain the concept of Client Server category of networks.
 Describe a client

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CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

 Identify the differences between the Client-Server and the Peer-to-peer configuration
of networks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Client Server Computing

In client-server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides that resource.
A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact with only one
server. Both the client and server usually communicate via a computer network but sometimes
they may reside in the same system.

Figure 8: Client-Server Computing

3.2 Characteristics of Client Server Computing

The salient points for client server computing are as follows:
 The client server computing works with a system of request and response. The client
sends a request to the server and the server responds with the desired information.
 The client and server should follow a common communication protocol so they can
easily interact with each other. All the communication protocols are available at the
application layer.
 A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time. So it uses
a system based to priority to respond to the requests.
 Denial of Service (DoS) attacks hindera servers’ ability to respond to authentic client
requests by inundating it with false requests.

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 An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It returns the web
pages to the clients that requested them.

3.3 Difference between Client Server and Peer to Peer Computing

The major differences between client server computing and peer to peer computing are as
follows:

 In client server computing, a server is a central node that services many client nodes.
On the other hand, in a peer to peer system, the nodes collectively use their resources
and communicate with each other.
 In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the other nodes.
In peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal and share data with each other
directly.
 Client Server computing is believed to be a subcategory of the peer to peer computing.

3.4 Advantages of Client Server Computing

The different advantages of client server computing are −
 All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So it is easy to
protect the data and provide authorisation and authentication.
 The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the data can be
accessed efficiently.
 It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server model because
all the nodes are independent and request data only from the server.
 All the nodes i.e clients and server may not be build on similar platforms yet they can
easily facilitate the transfer of data.
3.5 Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
The different disadvantages of client server computing are −
 If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get overloaded.
This may lead to congestion in the network.
 If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients can be fulfilled.
This leads of failure of the client server network.
 The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.

Discussion
What makes the Client Server configuration peculiar from the Peer-to-peer ? Discuss
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4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercise
1. Discuss the advantages of client Server computing
2. Identify the characteristics of client server computing?

5.0 Conclusion
Client server and peer-to-peer computing are unique one from the other and so, have their
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of either is dependent on the intention of creating
your network.

6.0 Summary
 In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the other nodes.
In peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal and share data with each other
directly. A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time.
So it uses a system based to priority to respond to the requests.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Andrew S., T., & David J., W. (2011). COMPUTER NETWORKS (M. Horton, H. Michael, D.
Tracy, & H. Melinda (eds.); fifth). Pearson Education.

Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal:
Libraries and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017

Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in

Stewart, J. M., Tittel, E., & Chapple, M. (2011). CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security
Professional Study Guide. Wiley.

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UNIT 5 Building Web Applications

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Fundamentals Building a Web Applications
3.1 Building a Web Application
3.1.1 A Web app
3.2 Prerequisites for Building a Web Application
3.3 Steps to Building a Web Application
3.3.1 Source an Idea
3.3.2. Do Market Research
3.3.3 Define your Web App Functionality
3.3.4 Sketch Your Web Application
3.3.5 Plan Your Web App Workflow
3.3.6 Wire-framing/ Prototyping Your Web Application
3.3.7 Seek Early Validation
3.3.8 Before Starting the Development Stage
3.3.9 Architect and Build Your Database
3.3.9.1 A Database
3.3.9.2 Database Types
3.3.10 Build the Front End
3.3.10.1 A Front End
3.3.11 Build Your Back-End
3.3.12 Host Your Web Application
3.3.13 Deploy Your Web Application
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

A Web app
An interactive computer program, built with web technologies (HTML, CSS, JS), which stores
(Database, Files) and manipulates data (CRUD), and is used by a team or single user to perform
tasks over the internet. The HTML and the CSS serves as the front-end to receive data from
the user while the database, programming like Javascript and PHP serves as the back-end.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Explain the concept of an App
 Enumerate the prerequisite for building a web application
 Describe the steps for building a web application

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Building a Web Application (app)
3.1.1 A Web app
An interactive computer program, built with web technologies (HTML, CSS, JS), which stores
(Database, Files) and manipulates data (CRUD), and is used by a team or single user to perform
tasks over the internet.
3.2 Prerequisites for Building a Web Application
To make a data-centric web app from the bottom-up, it is advantageous to understand:
1. Backend language (e.g. Python, Ruby) - control how your web app works
2. Web front end (HTML, CSS, Javascript) - for the look and feel of your web app
3. DevOps (Github, Jenkins) - Deploying / hosting your web app
If you do not have any experience with the points above, you need not worry. You have two
options:
1. Learn the points above - there are lots of resources online to help you. I’d
recommend Codecademy .

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2. Use a web app builder like Budibase - As a builder, Budibase will remove the need to
learn a backend language. On top of that, Budibase will also take care of a lot of your
DevOps tasks such as hosting.

3.3 Building a Web Application

3.3.1 Step 1 – Source an idea
Before making a web app, you must first understand what you intend on building, and more
importantly, the reason for it.
Your idea should stem from solving someone’s problem. Ideally, your own problem.
It is important that developer choose an idea which interests him /her. Ask yourself:
 How much time do I have to build this app?
 What am I interested in?
 What apps do I enjoy using?
 What do I like about these apps?
 How much time/money will this app save or generate for me (as a user)?
 How much will it improve my life

3.3.2 Step 2 – Market Research

Once you have chosen your idea(s), it is important to research the market to see:
1. If a similar product exists
2. If a market exists
The number 1 reason start-ups fail, is the failure to achieve product-market fit.
“Product/market fit means being in a good market with a product that can satisfy that market.”
To quickly find out if a similar web app exists, use the following tools to search for your idea:
1. Google
2. Patent and trademark search
3. Betalist
4. Product hunt
If a similar product exists, do not worry. This can be a sign a market for your new idea exists.
Your future competitors have laid the groundwork, educated the market. It’s time for you to
swoop in and steal the thunder.
If a similar product does not exist, it is a possibility you have struck lucky. On the other hand,
it is a possibility someone before has ventured down this path and hit a dead-end.

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Nobody wants to experience that, so it is important to dive deep into the market and source the
wisdom of:
1. Your Web App’s target market - Share your web app idea on forums related to your
target market. If you know anyone who works within your target market, explain your
idea to them. The more you talk and receive validation from your target market, the
better.
2. Google Trends - A quick search of your web app idea will reveal relating trends.
3. SEO tool – I had recommend MOZ/Ahrefs. Google’s keyword planner will suffice.
Write a list of keywords relating to your web app. If it’s an ‘OKR tool’, use the tools to
search ‘OKR tool’, ‘OKR app’, and ‘objectives and key results software’. If the SEO
tool indicates there are lots of people searching for your keyword terms, this is a small
indicator you have a target market.
4. Social Media - Jump over to Twitter/Facebook groups and present your idea to your
target market.
5. Events - If there is a local event in your area attracting people from your target market,
go to it. Share your idea and record the feedback.
After completing the above steps, you should have enough information to understand if there’s
a market for your product. If there is a market for your product, and there’s also established
competition, it’s important to research them.

3.3.3 Step 3 - Define your web apps functionality

You have got your idea, you have validated the market, it is now time to list everything you
want your app to do.
A common mistake here is to get carried away. The more functionality you add, the longer it
will take to build your web app. Quite often, the longer a web app takes to build, the more
frustration you will experience.
Only define functionality which solves your target markets problems. Remember, your web
app is a work in progress and the first goal is version 1. It will still have cool features and
delight your users, but you must keep things simple.
For direction, I have included a list of basic functions required for a simple CRM app.
 Users can create an account
 Users can retrieve lost passwords
 Users can change their passwords
 Users can create new contacts
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 Users can upload new contacts
 Users can assign a value to contacts
 Users can write notes under contacts
 Users can label a contact as a lead, customer, or associate
 Users can filter contacts by lead, customer, or associate
 Users can view the total value of leads, customers and associates
The above list will help you define your features. Once you’re done, roll up your sleeves.
It’s time to get creative! Moving from the Ideation stage, to design stage.

3.3.4 Step 4 - Sketch your web app

There are multiple stages of designing a web app.
The first stage is sketching using a notebook (with no lines) and pen/pencil
After step 1, 2 and 3, you should have an idea of what your web app is, who your users are,
and the features it will have. Sketch out the wireframe of your web apps UI (User Interface) -
it does not have to be exact - this is just a sketch. When sketching, consider the following:
 Navigation
 Branding
 Forms
 Buttons
 Any other interactive elements
Sketch different versions of your web app. Consider how your web app’s functionality will
affect the overall design. Annotate your sketch and outline how your app should work. Taking
notes will help you clarify and understand why you have designed certain elements at a later
stage. Overcomplicating the design at this stage will only lead to frustration.

3.3.5 Step 5 – Plan your web apps workflow

It is time to put yourself in the shoes of your user. Here, we are going to plan your web apps
workflow.
Now is the time to go back to step 2 and look at your market research. Take your list of
competitors and sign up to their free trials. Have a quick play around with their product.
Write notes on what you thought was good and what you thought was bad. Pay particular
attention to the workflow.
After you have finished analysing your competitor’s web apps, it is time to write down different
workflows for your app. Consider the following points:
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 How does a user signup
 Do they receive a verification email
 How does a user login
 How does a user change their password
 How does a user navigate through the app
 How does a user change their user settings
 How does a user pay for the app
 How does a user cancel their subscription
All of a sudden our one-page web app turns into a 10-page web app. Write a list of all the
different pages your web application will have. Consider the different states of pages. For
example, the homepage will have two states; logged in and logged out. Logged in users will
see a different page than logged out users.

3.3.6 Step 6 – Wireframing / Prototyping Your Web Application

Ok, it’s time to turn those sketches and that new-found understanding of your web application
into a wireframe/prototype.
What is wireframing / prototyping
Wireframing is the process of designing a blueprint of your web application. Prototyping is
taking wireframing a step further, adding an interactive display.
The decision is to wireframe or prototype is up to you. If you have the time, I would have
recommended prototyping as it will make it easier to communicate your web app when seeking
validation.
You can prototype/wireframe using the following tools:
 Sketch (macOS)
 InVision Studio (macOs)
 Adobe XD (macOS, Windows)
 Figma (Web, macOS, Windows, Linux)
 Balsamiq (macOS, Windows, Web)
I recommend you create a design system / style guide first. You can find inspiration at UXPin.
Design systems improve design consistency. But it’s not required.

3.3.7 Step 7 – Seek early validation

You have now got a beautiful wireframe/prototype which visually describes your web app.

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It is time to show your beautiful wireframe to the world. At this stage we want constructive
feedback.
Simply asking your friends would they use your new web app is not enough. You should start
with a small number of representative users. Go to your target market’s forums, watering holes,
their places of work and verify the problem with them, and present your solution. Try to build
a rapport with these representatives as they could become your customers.
I like to use this stage to test my sales pitch - the ultimate tokens of validation are pre-launch
sales. Takes notes and document all feedback. The learning from these meetings will help direct
the development of your MEP (Minimal Excellent Product).
Ok, now you have got great feedback and product validation. It is time to start building your
web app.
3.3.8 Before Starting the development stage.
Before we make our web app, I would like to share the following tips:
1. Attempt to get a small section of your app fully working. What we would call a
“Complete Vertical”.
o Building the smallest possible section will allow you to piece all the bits
together, and iron out those creases early.
o You will get great satisfaction early by having something working - great
motivation.
o Create things that you know you will throw away later - if it gets you something
working now.
2. At the start - expect things to change a lot as you learn and discover what you have not
thought about.
o Have faith that your app will stabilise.
o Do not be afraid to make big changes.
3. Spend time learning your tools.
o You may feel like you are wasting your time, reading, or experimenting with
“hello world”. Learning the correct way to do things will have a huge positive,
cumulative effect on your productivity over time.
o Where possible, “Go with the grain” of your tools. Realise that as soon as you
step out of the normal flow / usage of your toolset, you are on your own and
could be in a deep time sink. There are always exceptions to this of course!
4. Do not avoid issues that need to be fixed.
o Face your issues head on - they will never go away and will only grow in stature.
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o However, If things are still likely to change - its best to spend as little time as
possible on things… It’s a tricky balance!

3.3.10 Step 8 – Architect and build your database

So, we know roughly our web application’s functionality, what it looks like, and the pages
required. Now it is time to determine what information we will store in our database.

3.3.10.1 A Database
A database is simply a collection of data! Data can be stored to disk, or in memory on a server,
or both. You could create a folder on your hard drive, store a few documents, and call it a
database.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a system that provides you with consistent APIs
to (most commonly):
 Create databases, update and delete databases
 Read and write data to databases
 Secure access to a database by providing levelled access to different areas and functions
What data you need to store and what your users need to do, will determine the type of database
required to run your web app.
3.3.10.2 Database types
There are many types of database for many different purposes. A web app will most commonly
use one of the following:
a. SQL
You should use a SQL database if your data is very relational. Your data is relational if you
have multiple, well defined record types that have relationships between them. For example, a
“Customer” may have many “Invoices” stored against their record. Typically, you would create
a Customer table and an Invoice table - which could be linked together by “Foreign Key”
columns. E.g. Customer.Id = Invoice.CustomerId.
SQL databases have an extremely powerful query language that allows you to present your
data in all sorts of useful ways.
They have been around for decades, are very well understood, and usually a safe choice.
MySQL, Postgresql, Microsoft SQLServer are some of the most common - along with many
more modern offerings.
The downside of SQL databases is that you must declare all your tables and columns up front.
There can be a lot of overhead to manage. If you have never used one before – you are in for a
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pretty steep learning curve. However, there are plenty of learning resources available, and it is
always a great skill to have.
b. Document Database
You should use a document database if your data is not very relational. Document databases
store “documents”. Each record in your database is simply a big blob of structured data - often
in JSON format.
If you need to store relationships between your records, you will have to write code to manage
this yourself. However, many other aspects of using document databases are much simpler.
Your database can be “schemaless” - meaning that you do not have to declare your records’
definitions up front.
Generally speaking, the bar to entry to a document database is much lower. They also tend to
be much more scalable than SQL databases. They usually offer some querying capabilities,
although sometimes not as powerful as SQL. Examples of document databases are: MongoDb,
CouchDb, Firebase (serverless), Dynamo Db (AWS). Decide how to segregate your data
Each of your clients has their own, private dataset. One of the worst things that can happen to
your app is for one client’s data to be seen by another client.
Even if there is only a small amount of non-sensitive leaked data, and no damage is done, an
event like this will massively erode trust in the security of your app.
You must architect a solid strategy for segregating your clients’ data to make sure that this
never happens.
Broadly speaking, you have two options - Physical Separation and Logical Separation.
Physical separation
Every one of your clients has a separate database (although could share a database server with
others). This makes it much more difficult to make a mistake that leads to data leakage.
Pros:
 Most secure
 More scalable
Cons:
 Managing, maintaining and upgrading is more complex
 Query all your clients’ data together is more difficult
For example, listing all Invoices in a database will only return Invoices for one of your clients.
In order to get another Client’s invoices, you need to connect to another database.

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Since each of your client’s data is in its own database, you can easily spread them all across
many database servers, without the need for “sharding”. Your app will be much easier to scale
this way.
The code you will need to write:
 When creating a new client, you need to create a new database and populate with any
seed data.
 You need to keep a record somewhere of all your clients, and how to connect to each
client’s database.
 If you need to upgrade your database (e.g. add a new table), you need to code to upgrade
each separately.
 If you need to query all your client’s data into one, you need to pull the data out of each
and aggregate it.
Logical separation
All of your clients are stored in one giant database.
Every time you need to get data for a single client, you must remember to include a filter for
the client. E.g. ‘select’ from customers where customerClientId = 1234”
Pros:
 Easier to get started
 Easier to maintain and upgrade
 Can easily query all your clients’ data with one query
Cons:
 Easy to make a mistake that will result in a data breach
 More difficult to scale
You now only have one database to manage. Setting this up and connecting to your database
is easy. Your speed to market increases.
When you need to upgrade your database, you can do so with a few clicks, or by typing a few
commands. It’s very easy to add new features.
As you gain more users, your database will grow to millions of rows. Put some effort into how
your database handles this extra volume and load. You will have to start tuning your queries.
When you’re under pressure, it is so easy to forget to include that “where clientId = 1234”
filter.
Doing so could result in a business ending data breach.

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Ensure your database is secured. You should look into best practices for securing your
particular database. Some databases come with a default administrator login, which people
often forget to change. This could leave your data open to the world.
From the start, you should create a login with “Just Enough” access. If your app only reads and
writes data, then it should authenticate to your database using a login with only data reading
and writing access.

3.3.11 Step 9 - Build the frontend

Note: In reality, you will build your backend and frontend at the same time. But for this post,
we’ll keep it simple.
3.3.11.1 A frontend
The Frontend is the visual element of your web application. It defines what you see and interact
with. The frontend is developed with HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
If using server pages, getting started is super easy. Your backend framework is all set up and
ready to start building. This is where the huge benefit lies with server pages.
With SPA, it’s a little trickier.
First, you need to set up your development environment. The components of this will be:
1. A code editor, such as VS Code, Sublime Text
2. A compilation, and packaging framework:
1. Webpack
2. Gulp
3. Grunt
This is also used for serving and “Hot Loading” your application at development
time, on a nodejs web server, running on localhost.
3. A frontend framework (strictly not necessary, but highly advised unless you are an
experienced frontend developer):
1. React
2. Ember
3. Vue
4. Svelte
The list is endless!
4. Configuring your packaging tool to talk to your backend - which is most likely running
on a different port on localhost. Usually, this is done using Node’s HTTP proxy. Most
packaging solutions have this option built-in, or available as plugins. This point
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commonly gets people stuck, and may need a diagram. Remember - if you write your
backend API in C Sharp (for example) then at dev time, you will be running it on a
local web server, through your code editor. i.e. your frontend and backend are running
on 2 different web servers, in dev. However, in production, your frontend should
(probably) be running on the SAME web server as your backend - mainly because you
want them to run under the same domain.
This means a few things
1. At dev time, your frontend should make API requests to its own (Nodejs server
- e.g. Webpack dev server). This Nodejs server should then proxy all “/api”
request to your backend server.
2. When building for production, you need to get your compiled frontend files into
your backend server - so they can be served as static files. You can copy and
paste the files in when you deploy, but you will want to set up some sort of
script to do this.
There is always a significant time required to set up your dev environment for a SPA. There
are plenty of boilerplate templates out there for your frameworks of choice. However, I have
never written an app that has not eventually needed some custom code on top of the boilerplate.
Still, I always choose a SPA.
 The end product for a web app is a much more usable application.
 When you are up and running with your dev environment, I find SPAs much more
productive to work with - which is more likely to do with the capabilities of modern
javascript frameworks than anything else.
 Writing a SPA is really the only way to make a Progressive Web Application.
You should now have a better idea of how to setup your frontend and define the look and feel
of your web app. In most cases I build the fontend and backend together.

3.3.12 Step 10 - Build your backend

What do we mean by the backend?
The backend is typically what manages your data. This refers to databases, servers, and
everything the user can’t see within a web application.
Building your backend is one of the toughest parts of web app development. If you feel
overwhelmed, a tool like Budibase can take away many of the complexities - including the
follow tasks.
If you feel confident, continue on.
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When building your web app, you need to choose between:
1. Server Pages (Multiple Page Application)
2. Single Page Application
“But isn’t this the frontend?” - I hear you say. Yes! But your choice will affect how you develop
your backend.
The primary jobs of the backend will be to:
 Provide HTTP endpoints for your frontend, which allow it to operate on your data. E.g.
Create, Read, Update and Delete (“CRUD”) records.
 Authenticate users (verify they are who they say they are: aka log them in).
 Authorization. When a logged in user makes a request, the backend will determine
whether they are allowed (authorized) to perform the requested action.
 Serve the frontend
If you have chosen Server Pages, your backend will also be generating your frontend and
serving it to your user.
With a single page app, the backend will simply serve your static frontend files (i.e. your
“Single Page” and it’s related assets).
When choosing your backend:
 Go with what’s familiar.
 Try Budibase
 Server Pages / SPA should inform your decision of framework choices within your
chosen language. For example, a SPA will only require an API only framework. Server
pages need their own framework.
o Django
o Express
o Flask
Login/User & Session Management
 How will users authenticate?
o Username and password?
o Open ID (i.e. sign in as Google, FB, etc)
 Be sure to read up on security best practices. I highly recommend: OWASP
 What user levels will you create in the system?
Environments. You will usually need to create multiple environments. For example:
 Testing - for all the latest development features.
 Beta - to give early releases to clients.
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 Production - Your live system.

3.3.13 Step 11 - Host your web application

What is hosting
Hosting involves running your web app on a particular server.
When using Budibase, this step can be automated with Budibase hosting . With Budibase, you
are still required to buy a domain.
If you are not using Budibase to host your web application, follow these quick steps: \
1. Buy a domain - Namecheap
2. Buy/Setup an SSL certificate - Let’s Encrypt
3. Choose a cloud provider:
1. Amazon
2. MS Azure
3. Google Cloud Platform
4. Lower cost: Digital Ocean / Linode - if you are happy managing your own VMs
5. Zeit Now, Heroku, Firebase are interesting alternatives that aim to be faster and
easier to get things done - you should read about what they offer.
Choosing one of these hosting options will almost certainly provide you with everything you
need. They have ample documentation and community support, and are generally reliable
options.

3.3.14 Step 12 - Deploy your web app

You have sourced your idea, validated it, designed and developed your web app, and chosen
your hosting provider.
You’re now at the last step. Well done!
The deployment step includes is how your web application gets from your source control on
your computer to your cloud hosting from step 11.
How does your application get from Source Control / Your computer to your cloud hosting
provider?
The following development tools provide continuous integration and will help you with
deploying your web app to your cloud hosting:
1. GitLab
2. Bitbucket
3. Jenkins
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There are many of course.
To start with, you can just deploy directly from your machine of course.
And that’s it. You have made a web application. Well done. You should take some time to
celebrate this achievement. You’re the proud owner of a new web app.

Discussion
How can cybercrime be mitigated? Discuss

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercise
1. Mention and explain the Database types.

2. What do we mean by the backend? Explain.

5.0 Conclusion
You should look into best practices for securing your particular database. Some databases come
with a default administrator login, which people often forget to change. This could leave your
data open to the world.
From the start, you should create a login with “Just Enough” access. If your app only reads and
writes data, then it should authenticate to your database using a login with only data reading
and writing access.

6.0 Summary
The backend is typically what manages your data. This refers to databases, servers, and
everything the user can’t see within a web application.

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Building your backend is one of the toughest parts of web app development. If you feel
overwhelmed, a tool like Budibase can take away many of the complexities - including the
follow tasks.

7.0 References/Further Reading

The web framework for perfectionists with deadlines | Django (djangoproject.com)
Studio | InVision (invisionapp.com)

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Module 2: Parallel Systems

Introduction of Module
In network security, threat prevention refers to policies and tools that protect your corporate
network.
In the past, threat prevention primarily focused on the perimeter. With an increasing array of
threats such as malware and ransomware arriving via email spam and phishing attacks,
advanced threat prevention requires an integrated, multilayered approach to security. This may
include tools for intrusion threat detection and prevention, advanced malware protection, and
additional endpoint security threat prevention.
This module will consist of four units are follows
Unit 1: Firewalls
Unit 2: Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
Unit 3: Security Control Management
Unit 4: Hardware and Software Prevention

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UNIT 1 – Introduction to Parallel Systems

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 What is firewall?
3.1.1 Characteristics of Firewall
3.1.2 Needs for Firewall
3.1.3 Limitation of Firewalls
3.2 Type of Firewalls
3.3 How firewall work
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
A firewall forms a barrier through which the traffic going in each direction must pass. A
firewall security policy dictates which traffic is authorized to pass in each direction. Firewall
may be designed to operate as a filter at the level of IP packets, or may operate at a higher
protocol layer.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Demonstrate the concept of firewall
 Explore the importance of firewalls

3.0 Main Content

Discussion
What is the difference of firewalls at Application security and internet security?

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
1. What is Personal Firewall
Answer
A personal firewall controls the traffic between a personal computer or workstation on one side
and the Internet or enterprise network on the other side. Personal firewall functionality can be
used in the home environment and on corporate intranets. Typically, the personal firewall is a
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software module on the personal computer. In a home environment with multiple computers
connected to the Internet, firewall functionality can also be housed in a router that connects all
of the home computers to a DSL, cable modem, or other Internet interface.

1. What are the benefits of host-based firewall?

Answer

A host-based firewall is a software module used to secure an individual host. Such modules are
available in many operating systems or can be provided as an add-on package. Like
conventional stand-alone firewalls, host-resident firewalls filter and restrict the flow of packets.
A common location for such firewalls is a server.
There are several benefits to the use of a server-based or workstationbased firewall:
• Filtering rules can be tailored to the host environment. Specific corporate security
policies for servers can be implemented, with different filters for servers used for
different application.
• Protection is provided independent of topology. Thus both internal and external
attacks must pass through the firewall.
• Used in conjunction with stand-alone firewalls, the host-based firewall provides an
additional layer of protection.
A new type of server can be added to the network, with its own firewall, without the necessity
of altering the network firewall configuration.

5.0 Conclusion

Internet connectivity is no longer optional for organizations. The information and services
available are essential to the organization. Moreover, individual users within the organization
want and need Internet access, and if this is not provided via their LAN, they will use dial-up
capability from their PC to an Internet service provider (ISP). However, while Internet access
provides benefits to the organization, it enables the outside world to reach and interact with
local network assets. This creates a threat to the organization.

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6.0 Summary

Firewalls can be an effective means of protecting a local system or network of systems from
network-based security threats while at the same time affording access to the outside world via
wide area networks and the Internet.

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7.0 References/Further Reading

Andrew S., T., & David J., W. (2011). COMPUTER NETWORKS (M. Horton, H. Michael, D.
Tracy, & H. Melinda (eds.); fifth). Pearson Education.

Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal:
Libraries and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017

Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in

Stewart, J. M., Tittel, E., & Chapple, M. (2011). CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security
Professional Study Guide. Wiley.

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UNIT 2 Parallel Programming Models

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Parallel Programming Models
3.2 MPI
3.3 OpenMP
3.4 MapReduce
3.5 OpenCL
3.6 CUDA
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

A parallel programming model is a set of program abstractions for fitting parallel activities
from the application to the underlying parallel hardware. It spans over different layers:
applications, programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O
systems.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to

 Explain the Parallel programming
 Enumerate and explain 4 of the parallel programming models

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Parallel Programming Models
A parallel programming model is a set of program abstractions for fitting parallel activities
from the application to the underlying parallel hardware. It spans over different layers:
applications, programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O
systems. Two widely known parallel programming models are:
a. shared memory and
b. message passing
but there are also different combinations of both.

Data-parallel programming model is also among the most important ones as it was revived
again with increasing popularity of MapReduce and GPGPU (General-Purpose computing on
Graphics Processing Units).

a. In the shared-memory programming model, tasks share a common address space, which
they read and write in an asynchronous manner. The communication between tasks is
implicit. If more than one task accesses the same variable, the semaphores or locks can

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be used for synchronization. By keeping data local to the processor and making private
copies, expensive memory accesses are avoided, but some mechanism of coherence
maintenance is needed when multiple processors share the same data with the
possibility of writing.
b. In the message-passing programming model, tasks have private memories, and they
communicate explicitly via message exchange. To exchange a message, each sends
operation needs to have a corresponding receive operation. Tasks are not constrained
to exist on the same physical machine.
A suitable combination of two previous models is sometimes appropriate. Processors can
directly access memory on another processor. This is achieved via message passing, but what
the programmer actually sees is shared-memory model.
Mainstream parallel programming environments are based on augmenting traditional
sequential programming languages with low-level parallel constructs (library function calls
and/or compiler directives).
3.2 MPI
The MPI is a library of routines with the bindings in Fortran, C, and C++ and it is an example
of an explicitly parallel API that implements the message-passing model via library function
calls. The set of processes with separate address spaces coordinate the computation by
explicitly sending and receiving messages. Each process has a separate address space, its own
program counter, and its own call stack.
However, high-level constructs such as synchronization, communication, and mapping data to
processes are left to a programmer to implement. MPI supports point-to-point communication
between any two processes. It also enables the collective communication operations where a
group of processes perform global/collective operations, such as gather, scatter, reduce, and
scan.

In a heterogeneous environment, in order to optimize the performance, an MPI implementation

may map processes to processors in a particular way. Similarly, an MPI implementation may
optimize the way processes communicate during a global operation. For example, in case
of MPI_Reduce, the communicating nodes do not have to form a tree structure, if an alternative
structure brings better performance for the underlying parallel machine.

3.3 OpenMP

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On the other side, OpenMP is an example of mainly implicit parallel API intended for shared-
memory multiprocessors. It exploits parallelism through compiler directives and the library
function calls. Unlike MPI, where all threads are spawned at the beginning of the execution
and are active until the program terminates, in OpenMP, a single master thread starts execution,
and additional threads are active only during the execution of a parallel region. To reduce the
overheads, these threads are spawned when the program enters a parallel region for the first
time, and they are blocked while the program is executing a nonparallel region.

Sections work-sharing construct breaks work into multiple distinct sections, such that each
section is entirely executed by a single thread. It is an example of task parallelism paradigm.
Its general form is presented in Table 5.4.

The Sections Construct

#pragma omp parallel{

#pragma omp sections{
#pragma omp section
block1
#pragma omp section
block2
}
}

For work-sharing construct splits iterations of a loop among different threads, such that each
iteration is entirely executed by a single thread. It is an example of data-parallelism paradigm.
Its general form is shown in Table 5.5.

The For Construct

#pragma omp parallel for

for(i=0; i<n; i++)
a[i] = b[i] + c[i];

Cilk is a language extension for C programming language with parallel constructs, resembling
to OpenMP. Both OpenMP and Cilk can automatically choose parallelism to achieve good
performance. Cilk++ brings the same for C++ language.

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Nesting OpenMP is unfortunately not fully composable, which can be a serious limitation when
compared with the other abstract parallel programming models. Nesting of OpenMP can create
explosive numbers of threads in recursive situations, which rapidly exhaust system resources,
especially stack space, and require that the program be shut down. To prevent this, the
maximum number of levels of parallel nesting that will activated when using OpenMP is set to
one by default. While this is somewhat limiting (nested parallelism as supported by TBB and
Cilk Plus is incredibly useful), it avoids a generally intolerable condition. With the continued
popularity of OpenMP being so strong, we can expect additional proposals to refine OpenMP
into a better ability to exploit nested parallelism opportunities when they exist. Without such
solutions, programs are best to avoid relying on nesting of parallelism in order to get
performance if using OpenMP.

3.4 MapReduce
One of the most widely used parallel programming models today is MapReduce. MapReduce
is easy both to learn and use, and is especially useful in analyzing large datasets. While it is not
suitable for several classes of scientific computing operations that are better served
by message-passing interface or OpenMP, such as numerical linear algebra or finite element
and finite difference computations, MapReduce's utility in workflows frequently called “big
data” has made it a mainstay in high performance computing. MapReduce programming model
and the Hadoop open-source framework supports it.

3.5 OpenCL
OpenCL has some advantages over other parallel programming models. First of all, it is the
only one of the “open” standards for which there actually are implementations by all major
vendors—unlike for OpenMP or OpenACC. The level of vendor support, however, is a
different story. OpenCL is a library that can be used with any C/C++ compiler, which makes
it independent of additional tools. The kernels are written separately in a C-like language and
compiled at runtime for the present hardware. The kernel compiler comes with the OpenCL
implementation provided by the hardware vendor. A kernel written in OpenCL will run
everywhere, including conventional CPUs, Intel Xeon Phi coprocessors, GPGPUs, some
FPGAs, and even mobile devices.

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OpenCL programs are divided into host and kernel code. Only the latter is executed on the
compute device. In the host program, kernels and memory movements are queued into
command queues associated with a device. The kernel language provides features like vector
types and additional memory qualifiers. A computation must be mapped to work-groups of
work-items that can be executed in parallel on the compute units (CUs) and processing
elements (PEs) of a compute device. A work-item is a single instance of a kernel function. For
each kernel-call, an NDRange (n-dimensional range) specifies the dimension, number, and
shape of the work-groups. Global synchronization during the execution of a kernel is
unavailable. Work-items inside a work-group can be synchronized. OpenCL provides a
complex memory model with a relaxed consistency.

3.6 The CUDA programming model

The CUDA programming model is a parallel programming model that provides an abstract
view of how processes can be run on underlying GPU architectures. The evolution of GPU
architecture and the CUDA programming language have been quite parallel and
interdependent. Although the CUDA programming model has stabilized over time, the
architecture is still evolving in its capabilities and functionality. GPU architecture has also
grown in terms of the number of transistors and number of computing units over years, while
still supporting the CUDA programming model.
Until 2000 GPU architectures supported fixed pipeline functionality tightly coupled
with graphics pipeline. Separate silicon real estate was dedicated to each state of the pipeline.
Around 2001 programmability for 2D operations (pixel shaders) and 3D operations (vertex
shaders) were introduced. Then from approximately 2006 through 2008 all these operations
were combined to be executed by a shared and common computational unit using a much
higher-level programmable feature. This programmability was introduced as the CUDA
programming model. Since then the CUDA programming model has been used to implement
many algorithms and applications other than graphics, and this explosion of use and
permeability of CUDA with hitherto unknown applications has catapulted the GPU’s near
ubiquitous use in many domains of science and technology. Since then all the GPUs designed
are CUDA-capable. It should be noted that before CUDA was released, there were attempts to
create high-level languages and template libraries such as Glift [2] and Scout [3]. But such
efforts tapered down with the introduction of CUDA, and more effort was spent on refining
CUDA and building libraries using its constructs.
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Discussion
Explain the peculiarities of the CUDA programming model.

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
Mention and explain two widely known parallel programming models:
Answer
a. shared memory and
b. message passing
a. In the shared-memory programming model, tasks share a common address space, which
they read and write in an asynchronous manner. The communication between tasks is implicit.
If more than one task accesses the same variable, the semaphores or locks can be used for
synchronization. By keeping data local to the processor and making private copies, expensive
memory accesses are avoided, but some mechanism of coherence maintenance is needed when
multiple processors share the same data with the possibility of writing.
b. In the message-passing programming model, tasks have private memories, and they
communicate explicitly via message exchange. To exchange a message, each sends operation
needs to have a corresponding receive operation. Tasks are not constrained to exist on the same
physical machine.

5.0 Conclusion
A suitable combination of two previous parallel programming models is sometimes
appropriate. Processors can directly access memory on another processor. This is achieved via
message passing, but what the programmer actually sees is shared-memory model

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6.0 Summary
A parallel programming model is a set of program abstractions for fitting parallel activities
from the application to the underlying parallel hardware. It spans over different layers:
applications, programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O
systems. Two widely known parallel programming models are:
a. shared memory and
b. message passing

7.0 References/Further Reading

1. Linköping University Electronic Press ttp://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-
40734
2. High-Performance Computing - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

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UNIT 3 Message Passing Programming

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Message-Passing Programming
3.2 Messages
3.3 Message-Passing Programming Model
3.4 Single-Program-Multiple-Data (SPMD)
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
As long as you are carrying an access card or ID badge, it means that your office uses an access
system. How does it really work? It's difficult since most people have never seen an access
system. Most people believe it is just a card reader on the wall. Of course there is a little bit
more to it in reality. It’s not very difficult though, there are just a few parts behind the scenes
that make the magic of easily unlocking a door every time.
This unit will give you a full and comprehensive understanding how access control systems,
how it work, control list and AAA framework.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Explain the concept access control
 Manage access control

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The message-passing programming
3.2 Messages
A message transfer is when data moves from variables in one sub-program to variables in
another sub-program. The message consists of the data being sent. The message passing system
has no interest in the value of this data. It is only concerned with moving it. In general the
following information has to be provided to the message passing system to specify the message
transfer.
 Which processor is sending the message.
 Where is the data on the sending processor.
 What kind of data is being sent.
 How much data is there.
 Which processor(s) are receiving the message.
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 Where should the data be left on the receiving processor.
 How much data is the receiving processor prepared to accept.
In general the sending and receiving processors will cooperate in providing this information.
Some of this information provided by the sending processor will be attached to the message as
it travels through the system and the message passing system may make some of this
information available to the receiving processor.
As well as delivering data the message passing system has to provide some information about
progress of communications. A receiving processor will be unable to use incoming data if it is
unaware of its arrival. Similarly a sending processor may wish to find out if its message has
been delivered. A message transfer therefore provides synchronisation information in addition
to the data in the message.
The essence of message passing is communication and many of the important concepts can be
understood by analogy with the methods that people use to communicate, phone, fax, letter,
radio etc. Just as phones and radio provide different kinds of service different message passing
systems can also take very different approaches. For the time being we are only interested in
general concepts rather than the details of particular implementations.

3.3 The message-passing programming model

The sequential paradigm for programming is a familiar one. The programmer has a simplified
view of the target machine as a single processor which can access a certain amount of memory.
He or she therefore writes a single program to run on that processor. The paradigm may in fact
be implemented in various ways, perhaps in a time-sharing environment where other processes
share the processor and memory, but the programmer wants to remain above such
implementation-dependent details, in the sense that the program or the underlying algorithm
could in principle be ported to any sequential architecture -- that is after all the point of a
paradigm.

Figure 1: The sequential programming paradigm

The message-passing paradigm is a development of this idea for the purposes of parallel
programming. Several instances of the sequential paradigm are considered together. That is,
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the programmer imagines several processors, each with its own memory space, and writes a
program to run on each processor. So far, so good, but parallel programming by definition
requires co-operation between the processors to solve a task, which requires some means of
communication. The main point of the message-passing paradigm is that the processes
communicate by sending each other messages. Thus the message-passing model has no concept
of a shared memory space or of processors accessing each other's memory directly -- anything
other than message-passing is out with the scope of the paradigm. As far as the programs
running on the individual processors are concerned, the message passing operations are just
subroutine calls.
Those with experience of using networks of workstations, client-server systems or even object-
oriented programs will recognise the message-passing paradigm as nothing novel.

3.4 Single-Program-Multiple-Data (SPMD )

Message-passing paradigm involves a set of sequential programs, one for each processor. In
reality, it is rare for a parallel programmer to make full use of this generality and to write a
different executable for each processor. Indeed, for most problems this would be perverse --
usually a problem can naturally be divided into sub-problems each of which is solved in broadly
the same way. An example is the transformation or iterative update of a regular grid (perhaps
in image processing or the numerical modelling of a problem from physics). The same
operation is to be applied at every grid point. A typical parallel algorithm divides the grid into
sub-grids and each sub-grid is processed in the same way.
Typically then, a programmer will want to write one program which is to be replicated across
multiple processors (probably as many as possible!), often with a one-off controller process
and possibly with other one-off processes like a name-server etc.
The acronym "SPMD" stands for single-program-multiple-data and refers to a restriction of the
message-passing model which requires that all processes run the same executable. Some
vendors provide parallel environments which only support SPMD parallel programs. In
practice this is not usually a problem to the programmer, who can incorporate all the different
types of process he or she requires into one overall executable. For example, here a controller
process performs a different task (e.g. reading, checking and distributing initial data) to a
worker process:
main(int argc, char **argv)
if(process is to become a controller process)
Controller( /* Arguments */ );
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else
Worker( /* Arguments */ );
or in Fortran,
PROGRAM
IF (process is to become a controller process) THEN
CALL CONTROLLER( /* Arguments */ )
ELSE
CALL WORKER( /* Arguments */ )
ENDIF
END
Often, for related reasons of efficiency, some vendors do not allow time-sharing i.e. multiple
processes per processor (some authorities understand the term ``SPMD" to include this further
restriction). The programmer should bear in mind that in a SPMD environment in which
multiple processes per processor are not allowed, having special lightly-loaded one-off
processes such as "controllers" or name-servers may be inefficient because a whole processor
will be taken up with that process.

Figure 2: The message-passing programming paradigm.

The message-passing paradigm has become increasingly popular in recent times. One reason
for this is the wide number of platforms which can support a message-passing model. Programs
written in a message-passing style can run on distributed or shared-memory multi-processors,
networks of workstations, or even uni-processor systems. The point of having the paradigm,
just as in the sequential case, is that the programmer knows that his or her algorithms should
in principle be portable to any architecture that supports a message-passing model. Message-
passing is popular, not because it is particularly easy, but because it is so general.

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Discussion
Discuss Single Program multiple Data (SPMD).

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
1. What actually is the interest of a Message-passing System?

Answer

The message passing system has no interest in the value of this data. It is only concerned with
moving it. In general the following information has to be provided to the message passing
system to specify the message transfer. Which processor is sending the message:
o Where is the data on the sending processor.
o What kind of data is being sent.
o How much data is there.
o Which processor(s) are receiving the message.

5.0 Conclusion
The message-passing paradigm is a development of this idea for the purposes of parallel
programming. Several instances of the sequential paradigm are considered together. That is,
the programmer imagines several processors, each with its own memory space, and writes a
program to run on each processor. So far, so good, but parallel programming by definition
requires co-operation between the processors to solve a task, which requires some means of
communication

6.0 Summary
Message-passing paradigm involves a set of sequential programs, one for each processor. In
reality, it is rare for a parallel programmer to make full use of this generality and to write a
different executable for each processor. Indeed, for most problems this would be perverse --
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usually a problem can naturally be divided into sub-problems each of which is solved in broadly
the same way

7.0 References/Further Reading

1. Neil MacDonald, Elspeth Minty, Tim Harding, Simon Brown, Edinburgh Parallel
Computing Centre, The University of Edinburgh. (Course Notes)
2. Advances in GPU Research and Practice | ScienceDirect

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UNIT 4 Dependence Analysis

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Dependency Analysis
3.2 How Dependencies are Found

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This
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unit will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or
damage of organization data.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
 Protect their selves from software and internet attacks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Dependency analysis
When examining an artifact for re-use you might want to understand what it depends on.
Developing a service that has a dependency on a large number of other distinct systems is likely
to result in something that has to be revalidated every time each of those dependencies changes
(which might therefore be quite often).
To undertake a typical dependency analysis, perform the following steps:
1. Identify the artefact with dependencies you want to analyze.
2. Trace through any relationships defined on that artefact and identify the targets of the
relationships. This impact analysis thus results in a list of "dependencies" that the
selected artefact depends on.
3. If these "dependencies" also depend on other artefacts, then the selected artefact will
also have an indirect dependency. The impact analysis must therefore act recursively
looking for relationships from any of the "dependencies".
This process continues until a complete graph is obtained starting at the selected artefact and
finishing with artefacts that have no further dependencies. The selected artefact might have a
dependency on any artefact in the graph.
Note that an object can exist multiple times in the graph if it can be reached in different ways.

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3.2 How dependencies are found
When impact analysis is started, it does not change the direction of processing through the
graph. For example, an object, B, has a dependency on object C, and object B is depended
on by objects A and D, as shown in Figure 1 below.
If object A is selected for analysis, the results list includes object B and object C. Despite
object D also having a dependency on objects B and C, the analysis keeps tracing down
through the dependencies and will not find any objects which are backwards in the
dependency hierarchy that are not directly linked to the selected object, so object D will not
be in the results list.

Figure 1. Dependency analysis graph

Discussion

What is dependence Analysis and how are dependencies found?

5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.

Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.

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6.0 Summary
To undertake a typical dependency analysis, perform the following steps:
1. Identify the artefact with dependencies you want to analyze.
2. Trace through any relationships defined on that artefact and identify the targets of the
relationships. This impact analysis thus results in a list of "dependencies" that the
selected artefact depends on.
3. If these "dependencies" also depend on other artefacts, then the selected artefact will
also have an indirect dependency. The impact analysis must therefore act recursively
looking for relationships from any of the "dependencies".

7.0 References/Further Reading

1. WebSphere Service Registry and Repository /8.5.6/

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UNIT 5 Open MP programming

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Introduction to Open Specification for Multi-Processing (OpenMP)
3.2 Brief History to OpenMP
3.3 A Thread
3.4 A Process
3.5 Differences between Threads and Processes
3.6 OpenMP Programming Model
3.6.1 Explicit Parallelism
3.6.2 Compiler Directive Based
3.6.3 Fork-Join Parallelism
3.6.4 Join
3.7 A Program
3.8 OpenMP/ Hello World
3.8.1 Steps to Create a Parallel Program
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This
unit will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or
damage of organization data.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
 Protect their selves from software and internet attacks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Introduction to Open Specification for Multi-Processing (OpenMP)
Open MP means Open specifications for MultiProcessing via collaborative work between
interested parties from the hardware and software industry, government and academia. It is an
Application Program Interface (API) that is used to explicitly direct multi-threaded, shared
memory parallelism. API components include Compiler directives, Runtime library routines
and Environment variables. Portable because API is specified for C/C++ and Fortran &
Implementations on almost all platforms including Unix/Linux and Windows. Standardization
is ensured by Jointly defined and endorsed by major computer hardware and software vendors
and it is possible to become ANSI standard.
3.2 Brief History of OpenMP
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In 1991, Parallel Computing Forum (PCF) group invented a set of directives for specifying
loop parallelism in Fortran programs. X3H5, an ANSI subcommittee developed an ANSI
standard based on PCF. In 1997, the first version of OpenMP for Fortran was defined by
OpenMP Architecture Review Board. Binding for C/C++ was introduced later. Version 3.1 of
it was available since 2011.

Figure 9: Open Specification for MultiProcessing (OpenMP)

3.3 Thread
A process is an instance of a computer program that is being executed. It contains the program
code and its current activity. A thread of execution is the smallest unit of processing that can
be scheduled by an operating system. Thread model is an extension of the process model. Each
process consists of multiple independent instruction streams (or threads) that are assigned
computer resources by some scheduling procedure. Threads of a process share the address
space of this process. Global variables and all dynamically allocated data objects are accessible
by all threads of a process. Each thread has its own run-time stack, register, program counter.
Threads can communicate by reading/writing variables in the common address space.
3.4 A Process
A process contains all the information needed to execute the program.
 Process ID
 Program code
 Data on run time stack
 Global data

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 Data on heap
Each process has its own address space. In multitasking, processes are given time slices in a
round robin fashion. If computer resources are assigned to another process, the status of the
present process has to be saved, in order that the execution of the suspended process can be
resumed at a later time.

3.5 Differences between threads and processes

A thread is contained inside a process. Multiple threads can exist within the same process and
share resources such as memory. The threads of a process share the latter’s instructions (code)
and its context (values that its variables reference at any given moment). Different processes
do not share these resources.

3.6 OpenMP Programming Model

Shared memory, thread-based parallelism. OpenMP is based on the existence of multiple
threads in the shared memory programming paradigm. A shared memory process consists of
multiple threads.
3.6.1 Explicit Parallelism
In Explicit Parallelism, a Programmer has full control over parallelization. OpenMP is not an
automatic parallel programming model.
3.6.2 Compiler Directive Based
Most OpenMP parallelism is specified through the use of compiler directives which are
embedded in the source code.
OpenMP is not necessarily implemented identically by all vendors. Meant for distributed-
memory parallel systems (it is designed for shared address spaced machines). Guaranteed to
make the most efficient use of shared memory. Required to check for data dependencies, data
conflicts, race conditions, or deadlocks. Required to check for code sequences, meant to cover
compiler-generated automatic parallelization and directives to the compiler to assist such
parallelization. Designed to guarantee that input or output to the same file is synchronous when
executed in parallel.

3.6.3 Fork-Join Parallelism.

OpenMP program begin as a single process: the master thread. The master thread executes
sequentially until the first parallel region construct is encountered. When a parallel region is
encountered, master thread create a group of threads by FORK and becomes the master of this
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group of threads, and is assigned the thread id 0 within the group. The statement in the program
that are enclosed by the parallel region construct are then executed in parallel among these
threads.
3.6.4 JOIN
When the threads complete executing the statement in the parallel region construct, they
synchronize and terminate, leaving only the master thread. Master thread is shown in red. 10
I/O • OpenMP does not specify parallel I/O. • It is up to the programmer to ensure that I/O is
conducted correctly within the context of a multithreaded program. Memory Model • Threads
can “cache” their data and are not required to maintain exact consistency with real memory all
of the time. • When it is critical that all threads view a shared variable identically, the
programmer is responsible for insuring that the variable is updated by all threads as needed.
3.7 A “Pragma”
It stands for “pragmatic information”. A pragma is a way to communicate the information to
the compiler. The information is non-essential in the sense that the compiler may ignore the
information and still produce correct object program.

3.8 OpenMP | Hello World program

Prerequisite: OpenMP | Introduction with Installation Guide

In this section, we will learn how to create a parallel Hello World rogram using OpenMP.

3.8.1 Steps to Create a Parallel Program

1. Include the header file: We have to include the OpenMP header for our program along
with the standard header files.

//OpenMP header
#include <omp.h>
2. Specify the parallel region:
In OpenMP, we need to mention the region which we are going to make it as parallel using
the keyword pragma omp parallel. The pragma omp parallel is used to fork additional
threads to carry out the work enclosed in the parallel. The original thread will be denoted
as the master thread with thread ID 0. Code for creating a parallel region would be,

#pragma omp parallel

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{
//Parallel region code
}
So, here we include

#pragma omp parallel

{
printf("Hello World... from thread = %d\n",
omp_get_thread_num());
}

3. Set the number of threads:

we can set the number of threads to execute the program using the external variable.

export OMP_NUM_THREADS=5

Figure 10: Diagram of parallel region

As per the above figure, once the compiler encounters the parallel regions code, the master
thread (thread which has thread id 0) will fork into the specified number of threads. Here it
will get forked into 5 threads because we will initialise the number of threads to be executed
as 5, using the command export OMP_NUM_THREADS=5. Entire code within the parallel
region will be executed by all threads concurrently.

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Once the parallel region ended, all threads will get merged into the master thread.

4. Compile and Run:

4.1 Compile:

gcc -o hello -fopenmp hello.c

4.2 Execute:

./hello
Below is the complete program with the output of the above approach:
Program: Since we specified the number of threads to be executed as 5, 5 threads will
execute the same print statement at the same point of time. Here we cannot assure the order
of execution of threads, i.e Order of statement execution in the parallel region would not
be the same for all executions. In the below picture, while executing the program for first-
time, thread-1 gets completed first whereas, in the second run, thread-0 completed first.
omp_get_thread_num() will return the thread number associated with the thread.

4.2.1 OpenMP Hello World program

// OpenMP program to print Hello World

// using C language
// OpenMP header
#include <omp.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
// Beginning of parallel region
#pragma omp parallel
{
printf("Hello World... from thread = %d\n",
omp_get_thread_num());
}
// Ending of parallel region
}

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Output:
When run for 1st time:

 When run for multiple time: Order of execution of threads changes every time.

Discussion

Is it possible to implement One Time Password on system logon security?

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5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.

Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.

6.0 Summary
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft,
corruption and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive. System security includes the development and implementation of
security countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system
security, including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

7.0 References/Further Reading

1. OpenMP | Introduction with Installation Guide
2. In C/C++/Fortran, parallel programming can be achieved using OpenMP.
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)

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UNIT 6 Evaluation of Programs

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Program Evaluation
3.2 Definition of Program Evaluation
3.2.1 Purposes for Program Evaluation
3.3 Barriers
3.3.1 Overcoming Barriers
3.4 Types of Evaluations
3.4.1 Current Evaluation
3.4.2 Formative Evaluation
3.4.3 Process Evaluation
3.4.4 Impact Evaluation
3.4.5 Outcome Evaluation
3.5 Performance or Program Monitoring
3.6 Evaluation Standards and Designs
3.7 Logic Models
3.8 Communicating Evaluation Findings
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This
unit will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or
damage of organization data.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
 Protect their selves from software and internet attacks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Programs Evaluation

3.2 Definition of Program Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design,
implementation, improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short,
Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). The term "program" may include any organized action such as
media campaigns, service provision, educational services, public policies, research projects,
etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1999).

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3.2.1 Purposes for Program Evaluation

Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders

Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs

Better manage limited resources

Document program accomplishments

Justify current program funding

Support the need for increased levels of funding

Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of

program participation (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).

Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication

3.3 Barriers

Program evaluations require funding, time and technical skills: requirements that are often
perceived as diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff are often
concerned that evaluation activities will inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise
the safety of clients. Evaluation can necessitate alliances between historically separate
community groups (e.g. academia, advocacy groups, service providers; Short, Hennessy, &
Campbell, 1996). Mutual misperceptions regarding the goals and process of evaluation can
result in adverse attitudes (CDC, 1999; Chalk & King, 1998).

3.3.1 Overcoming Barriers

Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology,

stakeholders are defined as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its
evaluation (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; CDC, 1999). Involvement of these stakeholders is an integral
part of program evaluation. Stakeholders include but are not limited to program staff, program
clients, decision makers, and evaluators. A participatory approach to evaluation based on
respect for one another's roles and equal partnership in the process overcomes barriers to a
mutually beneficial evaluation (Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King,
1998). Identifying an evaluator with the necessary technical skills as well as a collaborative
approach to the process is integral. Programs have several options for identifying an evaluator.
Health departments, other state agencies, local universities, evaluation associations and other
83
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
programs can provide recommendations. Additionally, several companies and university
departments providing these services can be located on the internet. Selecting an evaluator
entails finding an individual who has an understanding of the program and funding
requirements for evaluations, demonstrated experience, and knowledge of the issue that the
program is targeting (CDC, 1992).

3.4 Types of Evaluation

Various types of evaluation can be used to assess different aspects or stages of program
development. As terminology and definitions of evaluation types are not uniform, an effort has
been made to briefly introduce a number of types here.
3.4.1 Context Evaluation
Investigating how the program operates or will operate in a particular social, political, physical
and economic environment. This type of evaluation could include a community needs or
organizational assessment (http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).
Sample question: What are the environmental barriers to accessing program services?

3.4.2 Formative Evaluation

Assessing needs that a new program should fulfill (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996),
examining the early stages of a program's development (Rossi & Freeman, 1993), or testing a
program on a small scale before broad dissemination (Coyle, Boruch, & Turner, 1991). Sample
question: Who is the intended audience for the program?

3.4.3 Process Evaluation

Examining the implementation and operation of program components. Sample question: Was
the program administered as planned?

3.4.4 Impact Evaluation

Investigating the magnitude of both positive and negative changes produced by a program
(Rossi & Freeman, 1993). Some evaluators limit these changes to those occurring immediately
(Green & Kreuter, 1991). Sample question: Did participant knowledge change after attending
the program?

3.4.5 Outcome Evaluation

Assessing the short and long-term results of a program. Sample question: What are the long-
term positive effects of program participation?

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3.5 Performance or Program Monitoring

Similar to process evaluation, differing only by providing regular updates of evaluation results
to stakeholders rather than summarizing results at the evaluation's conclusion (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993; Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997).

3.6 Evaluation Standards and Designs

Evaluation should be incorporated during the initial stages of program development. An initial
step of the evaluation process is to describe the program in detail. This collaborative activity
can create a mutual understanding of the program, the evaluation process, and program and
evaluation terminology. Developing a program description also helps ensure that program
activities and objectives are clearly defined and that the objectives can be measured. In general,
the evaluation should be feasible, useful, culturally competent, ethical and accurate (CDC,
1999). Data should be collected over time using multiple instruments that are valid, meaning
they measure what they are supposed to measure, and reliable, meaning they produce similar
results consistently (Rossi & Freeman, 1993). The use of qualitative as well as quantitative data
can provide a more comprehensive picture of the program. Evaluations of programs aimed at
violence prevention should also be particularly sensitive to issues of safety and confidentiality.
Experimental designs are defined by the random assignment of individuals to a group
participating in the program or to a control group not receiving the program. These ideal
experimental conditions are not always practical or ethical in "real world" constraints of
program delivery. A possible solution to blending the need for a comparison group with
feasibility is the quasi-experimental design in which an equivalent group (i.e. individuals
receiving standard services) is compared to the group participating in the target program.
However, the use of this design may introduce difficulties in attributing the causation of effects
to the target program. While non-experimental designs may be easiest to implement in a
program setting and provide a large quantity of data, drawing conclusions of program effects
are difficult.

3.7 Logic Models

Logic models are flowcharts that depict program components. These models can include any
number of program elements, showing the development of a program from theory to activities
and outcomes. Infrastructure, inputs, processes, and outputs are often included. The process of
developing logic models can serve to clarify program elements and expectations for the
stakeholders. By depicting the sequence and logic of inputs, processes and outputs, logic
85
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models can help ensure that the necessary data are collected to make credible statements of
causality (CDC, 1999).

3.8 Communicating Evaluation Findings

Preparation, effective communication and timeliness in order to ensure the utility of evaluation
findings. Questions that should be answered at the evaluation's inception include: what will be
communicated? to whom? by whom? and how? The target audience must be identified and the
report written to address their needs including the use of non-technical language and a user-
friendly format (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control, 1989). Policy makers,
current and potential funders, the media, current and potential clients, and members of the
community at large should be considered as possible audiences. Evaluation reports describe
the process as well as findings based on the data

Discussion

Is it possible to implement One Time Password on system logon security?

5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.

Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.

86
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

6.0 Summary
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft,
corruption and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive. System security includes the development and implementation of
security countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system
security, including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

7.0 References/Further Reading

References

Burt, M. R., Harrell, A. V., Newmark, L. C., Aron, L. Y., & Jacobs, L. K. (1997). Evaluation
guidebook: Projects funded by S.T.O.P. formula grants under the Violence Against Women
Act. The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/crime/evalguide.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). Handbook for evaluating HIV education.
Division of Adolescent and School Health, Atlanta.

CDC. Framework for program evaluation in public health. MMWR Recommendations and
Reports 1999;48(RR11):1-40.

Chalk, R., & King, P. A. (Eds.). (1998). Violence in Families: Assessing prevention and
treatment programs. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Coyle, S. L., Boruch, R. F., & Turner, C. F. (Eds.). (1991). Evaluating AIDS prevention
programs: Expanded edition. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and
environmental approach (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the
challenge. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(Suppl. 3).

Rossi, P. H., & Freeman, H. E. (1993). Evaluation: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Short, L., Hennessy, M., & Campbell, J. (1996). Tracking the work. In Family violence:
Building a coordinated community response: A guide for communities.

Witwer, M. (Ed.) American Medical Association. Chapter 5.

87
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
W.K. Kellogg Foundation. W.K. Kellogg evaluation
handbook. http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm

(http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).

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CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

UNIT 7 Optimization for Scalar Architectures

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Hardware Protection Mechanism
3.1.1 CPU Protection
3.1.2 Memory Protection
3.1.3 I/O Protection
3.2 Software and OS security
3.2.1 Authentication
3.2.2 One Time Password
3.2.3 Program Threat
3.2.4 System Threat
3.3 Case/Example
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This
unit will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or
damage of organization data.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
 Protect their selves from software and internet attacks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Programs Evaluation

Contributed by
Robin Puett, MP

3.2 Definition of Program Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design,
implementation, improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short,
Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). The term "program" may include any organized action such as
media campaigns, service provision, educational services, public policies, research projects,
etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1999).

3.2.1 Purposes for Program Evaluation

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Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders

Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs

Better manage limited resources

Document program accomplishments

Justify current program funding

Support the need for increased levels of funding

Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of

program participation (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).

Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication

3.3 Barriers

Program evaluations require funding, time and technical skills: requirements that are often
perceived as diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff are often
concerned that evaluation activities will inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise
the safety of clients. Evaluation can necessitate alliances between historically separate
community groups (e.g. academia, advocacy groups, service providers; Short, Hennessy, &
Campbell, 1996). Mutual misperceptions regarding the goals and process of evaluation can
result in adverse attitudes (CDC, 1999; Chalk & King, 1998).

3.3.1 Overcoming Barriers

Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology,

stakeholders are defined as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its
evaluation (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; CDC, 1999). Involvement of these stakeholders is an integral
part of program evaluation. Stakeholders include but are not limited to program staff, program
clients, decision makers, and evaluators. A participatory approach to evaluation based on
respect for one another's roles and equal partnership in the process overcomes barriers to a
mutually beneficial evaluation (Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King,
1998). Identifying an evaluator with the necessary technical skills as well as a collaborative
approach to the process is integral. Programs have several options for identifying an evaluator.
Health departments, other state agencies, local universities, evaluation associations and other
programs can provide recommendations. Additionally, several companies and university

91
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
departments providing these services can be located on the internet. Selecting an evaluator
entails finding an individual who has an understanding of the program and funding
requirements for evaluations, demonstrated experience, and knowledge of the issue that the
program is targeting (CDC, 1992).

3.4 Types of Evaluation

Various types of evaluation can be used to assess different aspects or stages of program
development. As terminology and definitions of evaluation types are not uniform, an effort has
been made to briefly introduce a number of types here.
3.4.1 Context Evaluation
Investigating how the program operates or will operate in a particular social, political, physical
and economic environment. This type of evaluation could include a community needs or
organizational assessment (http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).
Sample question: What are the environmental barriers to accessing program services?

3.4.2 Formative Evaluation

Assessing needs that a new program should fulfill (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996),
examining the early stages of a program's development (Rossi & Freeman, 1993), or testing a
program on a small scale before broad dissemination (Coyle, Boruch, & Turner, 1991). Sample
question: Who is the intended audience for the program?

3.4.3 Process Evaluation

Examining the implementation and operation of program components. Sample question: Was
the program administered as planned?

3.4.4 Impact Evaluation

Investigating the magnitude of both positive and negative changes produced by a program
(Rossi & Freeman, 1993). Some evaluators limit these changes to those occurring immediately
(Green & Kreuter, 1991). Sample question: Did participant knowledge change after attending
the program?

3.4.5 Outcome Evaluation

Assessing the short and long-term results of a program. Sample question: What are the long-
term positive effects of program participation?

3.5 Performance or Program Monitoring

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Similar to process evaluation, differing only by providing regular updates of evaluation results
to stakeholders rather than summarizing results at the evaluation's conclusion (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993; Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997).

3.6 Evaluation Standards and Designs

Evaluation should be incorporated during the initial stages of program development. An initial
step of the evaluation process is to describe the program in detail. This collaborative activity
can create a mutual understanding of the program, the evaluation process, and program and
evaluation terminology. Developing a program description also helps ensure that program
activities and objectives are clearly defined and that the objectives can be measured. In general,
the evaluation should be feasible, useful, culturally competent, ethical and accurate (CDC,
1999). Data should be collected over time using multiple instruments that are valid, meaning
they measure what they are supposed to measure, and reliable, meaning they produce similar
results consistently (Rossi & Freeman, 1993). The use of qualitative as well as quantitative data
can provide a more comprehensive picture of the program. Evaluations of programs aimed at
violence prevention should also be particularly sensitive to issues of safety and confidentiality.
Experimental designs are defined by the random assignment of individuals to a group
participating in the program or to a control group not receiving the program. These ideal
experimental conditions are not always practical or ethical in "real world" constraints of
program delivery. A possible solution to blending the need for a comparison group with
feasibility is the quasi-experimental design in which an equivalent group (i.e. individuals
receiving standard services) is compared to the group participating in the target program.
However, the use of this design may introduce difficulties in attributing the causation of effects
to the target program. While non-experimental designs may be easiest to implement in a
program setting and provide a large quantity of data, drawing conclusions of program effects
are difficult.

3.7 Logic Models

Logic models are flowcharts that depict program components. These models can include any
number of program elements, showing the development of a program from theory to activities
and outcomes. Infrastructure, inputs, processes, and outputs are often included. The process of
developing logic models can serve to clarify program elements and expectations for the
stakeholders. By depicting the sequence and logic of inputs, processes and outputs, logic

93
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
models can help ensure that the necessary data are collected to make credible statements of
causality (CDC, 1999).

3.8 Communicating Evaluation Findings

Preparation, effective communication and timeliness in order to ensure the utility of evaluation
findings. Questions that should be answered at the evaluation's inception include: what will be
communicated? to whom? by whom? and how? The target audience must be identified and the
report written to address their needs including the use of non-technical language and a user-
friendly format (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control, 1989). Policy makers,
current and potential funders, the media, current and potential clients, and members of the
community at large should be considered as possible audiences. Evaluation reports describe
the process as well as findings based on the data

Discussion

Is it possible to implement One Time Password on system logon security?

5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.

Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.

94
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

6.0 Summary
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft,
corruption and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive. System security includes the development and implementation of
security countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system
security, including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

7.0 References/Further Reading

References

Burt, M. R., Harrell, A. V., Newmark, L. C., Aron, L. Y., & Jacobs, L. K. (1997). Evaluation
guidebook: Projects funded by S.T.O.P. formula grants under the Violence Against Women
Act. The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/crime/evalguide.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). Handbook for evaluating HIV education.
Division of Adolescent and School Health, Atlanta.

CDC. Framework for program evaluation in public health. MMWR Recommendations and
Reports 1999;48(RR11):1-40.

Chalk, R., & King, P. A. (Eds.). (1998). Violence in Families: Assessing prevention and
treatment programs. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Coyle, S. L., Boruch, R. F., & Turner, C. F. (Eds.). (1991). Evaluating AIDS prevention
programs: Expanded edition. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and
environmental approach (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the
challenge. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(Suppl. 3).

Rossi, P. H., & Freeman, H. E. (1993). Evaluation: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Short, L., Hennessy, M., & Campbell, J. (1996). Tracking the work. In Family violence:
Building a coordinated community response: A guide for communities.

Witwer, M. (Ed.) American Medical Association. Chapter 5.

95
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
W.K. Kellogg Foundation. W.K. Kellogg evaluation
handbook. http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm

(http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).

96
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

UNIT 8 Models for Parallel Computing

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Models for Parallel Computing
3.1.2 Shared Memory Model
3.1.3 Thread Model
3.1.4 Message Passing Model
3.1.5 Data Parallel Model
3.16 Hybrid Model
3.1.7 Single Program Multiple Data (SPMD)
3.18 Multiple Program Multiple Data (MPMD)
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This
unit will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or
damage of organization data.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
 Protect their selves from software and internet attacks

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Models for Parallel Computing
A Model for Parallel Programming is an abstraction and is machine architecture independent.
A model can be implemented on various hardware and memory architectures. There are several
parallel programming models like Shared Memory model, Threads model, Message Passing
model, Data Parallel model and Hybrid model etc. As these models are hardware independent,
the models can (theoretically) be implemented on a number of different underlying types of
hardware. The decision about which model to use in an application is often a combination of a
number of factors including the available resources and the nature of the application. There is
no universally best implementation of a model, though there are certainly some
implementations of a model better than others. Next, we discuss briefly some popular models.
3.1.2 Shared Memory Model
Recent Trends in Parallel Computing in the shared-memory programming model, tasks share
a common address space, which they read and write asynchronously. Various mechanisms
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such as locks / semaphores may be used to control access to the shared memory. An advantage
of this model from the programmer's point of view is that program development can often
be simplified. An important disadvantage of this model (in terms of performance) is that for
this model, data management is difficult.
3.1.3 Threads Model
In this model a single process can have multiple, concurrent execution paths. The main
program is scheduled to run by the native operating system. It loads and acquires all the
necessary softwares and user resources to activate the process. A thread's work may best be
described as a subroutine within the main program. Any thread can execute any one subroutine
and at the same time it can execute other subroutine. Threads communicate with each other
through global memory. This requires Synchronization constructs to insure that more than one
thread is not updating the same global address at any time. Threads can be created and
destroyed, but the main program remains live to provide the necessary shared resources until
the application has completed. Threads are commonly associated with shared memory
architectures and operating systems.
3.1.4 Message Passing Model
In the message-passing model, there exists a set of tasks that use their own local memories
during computation. Multiple tasks can reside on the same physical machine as well across
an arbitrary number of machines. Tasks exchange data by sending and receiving messages.
In this model, data transfer usually requires cooperation among the operations that are
performed by each process. For example, a send operation must have a matching receive
operation.
3.1.5 Data Parallel Model
In the data parallel model, most of the parallel work focuses on performing operations on a
data set. The data set is typically organised into a common structure, such as an array or a
cube. A set of tasks work collectively on the same data structure with each task working on
a different portion of the same data structure. Tasks perform the same operation on their
partition of work, for example, “add 3 to every array element” can be one task. In shared
memory architectures, all tasks may have access to the data structure through the global
memory. In the distributed memory architectures, the data structure is split up and data resides
as “chunks” in the local memory of each task.

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3.1.6 Hybrid model
The hybrid models are generally tailor-made models suiting to specific applications. Actually,
these fall in the category of mixed models. Such type of application-oriented models keep
cropping up.
Other parallel programming models also exist, and will continue to evolve corresponding to
new applications. In this types of models, any two or more parallel programming models are
combined. Currently, a common example of a hybrid model is the combination of the message
passing model (MPI) with either the threads model (POSIX threads) or the shared memory
model (OpenMP). This hybrid model lends itself well to the increasingly common hardware
environment of networked SMP machines. Another common example of a hybrid model is
combining data parallel model with message passing model. As mentioned earlier in the data
parallel model, data parallel implementations (F90, HPF) on distributed memory architectures
actually use message passing to transmit data transparently between tasks and the programmer.
3.1.7 Single Program Multiple Data (SPMD)
SPMD is actually a "high level" programming model that can be built upon any combination
of the previously mentioned parallel programming models. A single program is executed by
all tasks simultaneously. SPMD programs usually have the necessary logic programmed into
them to allow different tasks to branch or conditionally execute only those parts of the program
they are designed to execute. That is, tasks do not necessarily have to execute the entire
program, they may execute only a portion of it. In this model, different tasks may use different
data.
3.1.8 Multiple Program Multiple Data (MPMD)
Like SPMD, MPMD is actually a “high level” programming model that can be built upon any
combination of the previously mentioned parallel programming models. MPMD applications
typically have multiple executable object files (programs). While the application is being run
in parallel, each task can be executed on the same or different program. In this model, all tasks
may use different data.

Discussion

Is it possible to implement One Time Password on system logon security?

100
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing

5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.

Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.

6.0 Summary
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft,
corruption and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive. System security includes the development and implementation of
security countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system
security, including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

7.0 References/Further Reading

References

Burt, M. R., Harrell, A. V., Newmark, L. C., Aron, L. Y., & Jacobs, L. K. (1997). Evaluation
guidebook: Projects funded by S.T.O.P. formula grants under the Violence Against Women
Act. The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/crime/evalguide.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). Handbook for evaluating HIV education.
Division of Adolescent and School Health, Atlanta.

CDC. Framework for program evaluation in public health. MMWR Recommendations and
Reports 1999;48(RR11):1-40.

101
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
Chalk, R., & King, P. A. (Eds.). (1998). Violence in Families: Assessing prevention and
treatment programs. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Coyle, S. L., Boruch, R. F., & Turner, C. F. (Eds.). (1991). Evaluating AIDS prevention
programs: Expanded edition. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and
environmental approach (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the
challenge. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(Suppl. 3).

Rossi, P. H., & Freeman, H. E. (1993). Evaluation: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Short, L., Hennessy, M., & Campbell, J. (1996). Tracking the work. In Family violence:
Building a coordinated community response: A guide for communities.

Witwer, M. (Ed.) American Medical Association. Chapter 5.

W.K. Kellogg Foundation. W.K. Kellogg evaluation

handbook. http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm

(http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).

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Module 3: Distributed Systems

Introduction of Module

Digital devices such as cell phones, tablets, gaming consoles, laptop and desktop
computershave become indispensable part of the modern society. With the proliferation of
these devices in our everyday lives, there is the tendency to use information derived from them
for criminal activities. Crimes such as fraud, drug trafficking, homicide, hacking, forgery, and
terrorismoften involve computers. To fight computer crimes, digital forensics (DF) originated
in law enforcement, computer security, and national defense. Law enforcement agencies,
financial institutions, and investment firms are incorporating digital forensics into their
infrastructure. Digital forensics is used to help investigate cybercrime or identify direct
evidence of a computer-assisted crime. The concept of digital forensics dates back to late 1990s
and early 2000s when it was considered as computer forensics. The legal profession, law
enforcement, policy makers, the business community, education, and government all have a
vested interestin DF. Digital forensics is often used in both criminal law and private
investigation. It has beentraditionally associated with criminal law. It requires rigorous
standards to stand up to crossexamination in court

This module will consist of four units are follows

Unit 1: Computer Forensics
Unit 2: Network, Disk, Malware and Database Forensics
Unit 3: Email, Memory and Mobile Forensics
Unit 4: Malware Analysis

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Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Systems

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Systems
3.2 Elements of Distributed Systems
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

Computer Forensics is a scientific method of investigation and analysis in order to gather

evidence from the digital devices or computer networks and components which is suitable for
presentation in a court of law or legal body. It involves performing a structured investigation
while maintaining a documented chain of evidence to find out exactly what happened on a
computer and who was responsible for it. Crimes committed within electronic or digital
domains, particularly within cyberspace, have become extremely common these days.
Criminals are using technology to a great extent in committing various digital offences and
creating new challenges for law enforcement agents, attorneys, judges, military, and security
professionals. Digital forensics has become an incredibly useful and invaluable tool in the
detection of criminal activities, identifying and solving computer-based and computer-assisted
crimes.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of computer forensics

 Explain the characteristics of digital forensics
 Explain digital forensics procedure
 Explain the advantages of computer forensics
 Disadvantages of computer forensics

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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Distributed Systems

A distributed system is a computing environment in which various components are spread
across multiple computers (or other computing devices) on a network. These devices split up
the work, coordinating their efforts to complete the job more efficiently than if a single device
had been responsible for the task. Distributed systems reduce the risks involved with having a
single point of failure, bolstering reliability and fault tolerance. Modern distributed systems are
generally designed to be scalable in near real-time and additional computing resources can be
added on the fly to increasing performance and further reducing time to completion.
Earlier, distributed computing was expensive, complex to configure and difficult to manage
But, Software as a Service (SaaS) platforms has offered expanded functionality, distributed
computing has become more streamlined and affordable for businesses, large and small, all
types of computing jobs be it database management, video games or Softwares cryptocurrency
systems, scientific simulations, blockchain technologies and AI platforms all use Distributed
Systems platforms.
3.2 Elements of Distributed Systems
Distributed systems have evolved over time but today’s most common implementations are
largely designed to operate via the internet and, more specifically, the cloud
For Example:
• A distributed system begins with a task, such as rendering a video to create a finished
product ready for release.
• The web application, or distributed applications, managing this task — like a video
editor on a client computer:
• splits the job into pieces
• An algorithm gives one frame of the video to each of a dozen different
computers (or nodes) to complete the rendering
• Once the frame is complete, the managing application gives the node a new
frame to work on
• This process continues until the video is finished and all the pieces are put back
together
Distributed Systems turns a task that might have taken days for a single computer to complete
into one that is finished in a matter of minutes.
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Figure 11: Distributed Operating Systems

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

2. Define Computer Forensics and what are the Characteristics of Digital Forensics
Answer
Computer forensics is the process of extracting data and information from computer systems
to function as digital evidence for civic purposes, or in most cases to prove and legally impeach
cybercrime.
Characteristics of Digital Forensics

 Identification:
 Preservation
 Analysis
 Documentation
 Presentation

5.0 Conclusion
Digital forensics involves the process of identifying, collecting, acquiring, preserving,
analysing, and presenting of digital evidence. Digital evidence must be authenticated to ensure

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its admissibility in a court of law. Ultimately, the forensic artefacts and forensic methods used
(e.g., static or live acquisition) depend on the device, its operating system, and its security
features.

6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline computer forensics history, characteristics of digital
forensics, digital forensics procedure, advantages of computer forensics and disadvantages of
computer forensics

7.0 References/Further Reading

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics

Årnes, A. (Ed.). (2017). Digital forensics. John Wiley & Sons.

Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.

Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.

Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education.
In 2019 2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 1-
7). IEEE.

Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..

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Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer
International Publishing.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.

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Unit 2 Characterization of Distributed Systems

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Patterns in a Distributed Systems
3.2 Benefits of Distributed Systems
3.3 Challenges of Distributed Systems

3.3.1 Increased Opportunities for Failures

3.3.2 Synchronization Process Challenges

3.3.3 Imperfect Scalability

3.3.4 More Complex Security

3.3.5 Increased Complexity

3.4 Risks of Distributed Systems

3.4.1 Security

3.4.2 Risks of Network Failures

3.4.3 Governance and Control Issues

3.5 Access Control in Distributed Systems

3.6 Application of Distributed Systems

3.7 Types of Distributed Systems

3.8 Factors Determining the Need for a Distributed Systems

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion

6.0 Summary
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7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

Digital Forensics is defined as the process of preservation, identification, extraction, and

documentation of computer evidence which can be used by the court of law. It is a science of
finding evidence from digital media like a computer, mobile phone, server, or network. It
provides the forensic team with the best techniques and tools to solve complicated digital-
related cases. Digital Forensics helps the forensic team to analyzes, inspect, identifies, and
preserve the digital evidence residing on various types of electronic devices.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of Disk Forensics

 Explain the process of Disk Forensics
 Explain Network Forensics procedure
 Explain Network Forensics
 Explain Examinations of Network Forensics
 Explain Malware Forensics

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Patterns in a Distributed System

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A Software Design Pattern is a programming language defined as an ideal solution to a
contextualized programming problem. Patterns are reusable solutions to common problems
that represent the best practices available at the time. Patterns do not provide finished code,
they provide replication capabilities but offer guidance on how to solve a certain issue or
implement a needed feature. When thinking about the challenges of a distributed computing
platform, the trick is to:
• break it down into a series of interconnected patterns
• simplifying the system into smaller, more manageable and more easily understood
components which helps abstract a complicated architecture
Patterns are commonly used to describe distributed systems, such as:
• Command and Query Responsibility Segregation (CQRS) and
• two-phase commit (2PC)
Different combinations of patterns are used to design distributed systems, and each approach
has unique benefits and drawbacks.

3.2 Benefits of Distributed Systems

• Greater flexibility: It is easier to add computing power as the need for services grows.
In most cases today, you can add servers to a distributed system on the fly.
• Reliability: A well-designed distributed system can withstand failures in one or more
of its nodes without severely impacting performance. In a monolithic system, the entire
application goes down if the server goes down.
• Enhanced speed: Heavy traffic can bog down single servers when traffic gets heavy,
impacting performance for everyone. The scalability of distributed databases and other
distributed systems makes them easier to maintain and also sustain high-performance
levels.
• Geo-distribution: Distributed content delivery is both intuitive for any internet user,
and vital for global organizations

3.3 Challenges of Distributed Systems

Distributed systems are considerably more complex than monolithic computing environments,
and raise a number of challenges around design, operations and maintenance vis-à-vis:
3.3.1 Increased opportunities for failure:
• The more systems added to a computing environment, the more opportunity there is for
failure
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• If a system is not carefully designed and a single node crashes, the entire system can go
down
• Distributed systems are designed to be fault tolerant, that fault tolerance isn’t automatic or
fool-proof
3.3.2 Synchronization process challenges:
• Distributed systems work without a global clock
• It requires careful programming to ensure that processes are properly synchronized to avoid
transmission delays that result in errors and data corruption
• In a complex system — such as a multiplayer video game — synchronization can be
challenging, especially on a public network that carries data traffic
3.3.3 Imperfect scalability:
• Doubling the number of nodes in a distributed system does not necessarily double
performance
• Architecting an effective distributed system that maximizes scalability is a complex
undertaking that needs to take into account load balancing, bandwidth management and
other issues.
3.3.4 More complex security:
• Managing a large number of nodes in a heterogeneous or globally distributed environment
creates numerous security challenges
• A single weak link in a file system or larger distributed system network can expose the entire
system to attack.
3.3.5 Increased complexity:
• Distributed systems are more complex to design, manage and understand than traditional
computing environments.

3.4 Risks of Distributed Systems

The challenges of distributed systems as outlined above create a number of correlating risks
such as:
3.4.1 Security:
• Distributed systems are as vulnerable to attack as any other system
• their distributed nature creates a much larger attack surface that exposes organizations
to threats.
3.4.2 Risk of network failure:

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• Distributed systems are beholden to public networks in order to transmit and receive
data
• If one segment of the internet becomes unavailable or overloaded, distributed system
performance may decline.
3.4.3 Governance and control issues:
• Distributed systems lack the governability of monolithic, single-server-based systems,
creating auditing and adherence issues around global privacy laws such as GDPR
• Globally distributed environments can impose barriers to providing certain levels of
assurance and impair visibility into where data resides.

3.4.4 Cost control:

Unlike centralized systems, the scalability of distributed systems allows administrators to
easily add additional capacity as needed, which can also increase costs.
• Pricing for cloud-based distributed computing systems are based on usage (such as the
number of memory resources and CPU power consumed over time)
• If demand suddenly spikes, organizations can face a massive bill.

3.5 Access Control in Distributed Systems

Administrators use a variety of approaches to manage access control in distributed computing
environments, ranging from:
• traditional access control lists (ACLs) to
• role-based access control (RBAC)
• One of the most promising access control mechanisms for distributed systems is
attribute-based access control (ABAC), which controls access to objects and processes
using rules that include:
• information about the user
• the action requested and
• the environment of that request.
• Administrators can also refine these types of roles to restrict access to certain times of
day or certain locations.

3.6 Application of distributed systems

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• Distributed systems are used when a workload is too great for a single computer or
device to handle
• They are also helpful in situations when the workload is subject to change, such as e-
commerce traffic on Cyber Monday
• Distributed system is used virtually for every internet-connected web application that
exists is built on top of some form of.
• Some of the most common examples of distributed systems:
• Telecommunications networks (including cellular networks and the fabric of the
internet)
• Graphical and video-rendering systems
• Scientific computing, such as protein folding and genetic research
• Airline and hotel reservation systems
• Multiuser video conferencing systems
• Cryptocurrency processing systems (e.g. Bitcoin)
• Peer-to-peer file-sharing systems (e.g. BitTorrent)
• Distributed community compute systems (e.g. Folding@Home)
• Multiplayer video games
• Global, distributed retailers and supply chain management (e.g. Amazon)

3.7 Types of Distributed Deployments

• Distributed deployments can range from tiny:
• single department deployments on local area networks to
• large-scale, global deployments
• In addition to their size and overall complexity, organizations can consider deployments
based on:
• the size and capacity of their computer network
• the amount of data they’ll consume
• how frequently they run processes
• whether they’ll be scheduled or ad hoc
• the number of users accessing the system
• capacity of their data center and the necessary data fidelity and availability
requirements.
Based on these considerations, distributed deployments are categorized as:
• Departmental, small enterprise
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• Medium enterprise or large enterprise
• Distributed systems can also evolve over time, transitioning from departmental
to small enterprise as the enterprise grows and expands.

3.8 Factors Determining the need for a Distributed Systems

• They’re essential to the operations of wireless networks, cloud computing services and
the internet
• Distributed systems provide scalability and improved performance in ways that
monolithic systems cannot
• Distributed systems can offer features that would be difficult or impossible to develop
on a single system
• if the Master Catalog does not see the segment bits it needs for a restore, it can ask the
other off-site node or nodes to send the segments
• Virtually everything you do now with a computing device takes advantage of the power
of distributed systems
• sending an email
• playing a game or
• reading this article on the web.

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Explain the following
i. Disk Forensics
ii. Network Forensics
iii. Methods of Network Forensic
iv. Database Forensics
v. Malware Forensics
3. Explain the symptoms of infected systems
4. Explain different ways malware can get into system

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5.0 Conclusion

The forensic examination of electronic systems has undoubtedly been a huge success in the
identification of cyber and computer-assisted crime. Organisations are placing an increasing
importance on the need to be equipped with appropriate incident management capabilities to
handle misuse of systems. Computer forensics is an invaluable tool in the process.The domain
of computer forensics has grown considerably in the last decade. Driven by industry, focus was
initially placed upon developing tools and techniques to assist in the practical application of
the technology

6.0 Summary

 Digital Forensics is the preservation, identification, extraction, and documentation of

computer evidence which can be used in the court of law
 Process of Digital forensics includes 1) Identification, 2) Preservation, 3) Analysis, 4)
Documentation and, 5) Presentation
 Different types of Digital Forensics are Disk Forensics, Network Forensics, Wireless
Forensics, Database Forensics, Malware Forensics, Email Forensics, Memory
Forensics, etc.

Digital forensic Science can be used for cases like 1) Intellectual Property theft, 2) Industrial
espionage 3) Employment disputes, 4) Fraud investigations

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7.0 References/Further Reading

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics

Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.

Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.

Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education.
In 2019 2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 1-
7). IEEE.

Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..

Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer
International Publishing.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.

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Unit 3 Systems Models

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Models and Architectures of Distributed Systems
3.2 Characteristics of a Distributed Systems
3.3 Distributed tracing

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

The Internet is a very easy way to reach any system. If confidential data is not properly
protected, then it becomes opens to vulnerable access and misuse. Cyber-crime can cause
varying degrees of damage by hackers. So, detailed forensic analysis is required to come to a
conclusion about an incident and to prove or disprove someone’s guilt. Some criminal activities
like child pornography, hacking, and identity theft can be traced and the criminals can be
punished if proper evidence is found against them. Email communication is also on target.
Because it is one of the most popular and commonalty used means of online communication,
for both prospects individuals and businesses, emails are normally used by organizations to
exchange most simple information, such as meeting schedules, document distribution and some
sensitive information

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of Email Forensics

 Explain the concept of Memory Forensics
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 Explain the concept of Mobile Phone Forensics

 Explain ddigital Forensic Examination Process

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Models and Architectures of Distributed Systems

There are two Models and Architecture of distributed systems:
• Client-server systems:
• the most traditional and simple type of distributed system, involve a multitude
of networked computers that interact with a central server for data storage,
processing or other common goal
• the client requests a resource and the server provides that resource
• A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact
with only one server
• Both the client and server usually communicate via a computer network and so
they are a part of distributed systems.
• Cell phone networks are an advanced type of distributed system that share
workloads among handsets, switching systems and internet-based devices
• Peer-to-peer networks:
• workloads are distributed among hundreds or thousands of computers all
running the same software
• The peer to peer systems contains nodes that are equal participants in data
sharing
• All the tasks are equally divided between all the nodes
• The nodes interact with each other as required as they share resources
• This is done with the help of a network.
The most common forms of distributed systems in the enterprise today are those that operate
over the web. They hand off workloads to dozens of cloud-based virtual server instances that
are created as needed, then terminated when the task is complete.

3.2 Characteristics of a Distributed system

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• Scalability: The ability to grow as the size of the workload increases is an essential
feature of distributed systems, accomplished by adding additional processing units or
nodes to the network as needed.
• Concurrency: Distributed system components run simultaneously. They’re also
characterized by the lack of a “global clock,” when tasks occur out of sequence and at
different rates.
• Availability/fault tolerance: If one node fails, the remaining nodes can continue to
operate without disrupting the overall computation.
• Transparency: An external programmer or end user sees a distributed system as a
single computational unit rather than as its underlying parts, allowing users to interact
with a single logical device rather than being concerned with the system’s architecture.
• Heterogeneity: In most distributed systems, the nodes and components are often
asynchronous, with different hardware, middleware, software and operating systems.
This allows the distributed systems to be extended with the addition of new
components.
• Replication: Distributed systems enable shared information and messaging, ensuring
consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components,
improving fault tolerance, reliability and accessibility.

3.3 Distributed Tracing

Distributed tracing is a method for monitoring applications — typically those built on a micro-
services architecture — which are commonly deployed on distributed systems. Distributed
tracing is essentially a form of distributed computing in that is commonly used to monitor the
operations of applications running on distributed systems. In software development and
operations, tracing is used to follow the course of a transaction as it travels through an
application
• For example, an Online Credit Card Transaction as it winds its way from a customer’s
initial purchase to the verification and approval process to the completion of the
transaction
For instance, a tracing system monitors this process step by step, helping a developer to uncover
bugs, bottlenecks, latency or other problems with the application. A distributed tracing system
is designed to operate on a distributed services infrastructure, where it can track multiple
applications and processes simultaneously across numerous concurrent nodes and computing
environments. Without distributed tracing, an application built on a micro-services architecture
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and running on a system as large and complex as a globally distributed system environment
would be impossible to monitor effectively.

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Explain email forensics

Email forensics is the analysis of source and content of the email message, identification of
sender and receiver, date and time of email and the analysis of all the entities involved. Email
forensics also reforms to the forensics of client or server systems suspected in an email forgery.

2. What is the purpose of email header analysis

Email header analysis helps in identifying most of the email related crimes like spear phishing,
spamming, email spoofing etc. Spoofing is a technique using which one can pretend to be
someone else, and a normal user would think for a moment that it’s his friend or some person
he already knows

3. List the common techniques used in email forensic investigation

 Header Analysis
 Server investigation
 Network Device Investigation
 Sender Mailer Fingerprints
 Software Embedded Identifiers

5.0 Conclusion
Email evidence often plays a pivotal role in digital forensics investigations and eDiscovery.
When preserving emails from the cloud, forensics experts have to consider issues such as multi-
factor authentication, running-in-place searches on the server before the acquisition, handling
server errors and throttling, privacy issues, and time constraints.

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6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline email forensics, email header analysis, mobile
forensics and mobile device forensics examination process.

7.0 References/Further Reading

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics

Årnes, A. (Ed.). (2017). Digital forensics. John Wiley & Sons.

Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.

Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.

Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education.
In 2019 2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 1-
7). IEEE.

Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..

Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer
International Publishing.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.

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Unit 4 Distributed Objects

Contents
1.0 Introduction
1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Objects Introduction
3.2 Local Objects Vs. Distributed Objects
3.3 The Distributed Objects Paradigm
3.4 Distributed Objects
3.5 Distributed Objects Systems/ Protocols
3.6 Remote procedure Call & Remote Method Invocation
3.6.1 Remote procedure Call
3.6.2 Remote Procedure Call Model
3.7 Local Procedure Call and Remote Procedure Call
3.7.1 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have
become a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of
computer use, viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs
that attack the computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily
corrupt or delete data from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the
computer. It is important that we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at
all cost.

Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network.
Malware is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to
spread itself in the network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system
or network, persistence. They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to
knees and can cause a destruction of the network. Consider the case when the computer
becomes infected and is no longer usable, the data inside becomes unavailable – these are some
of the malware damage scenarios. Malware attacks can be traced back to the time, even before
the internet became widespread.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain Malware Analysis
 Explain the Types of Malwares
 Explain the Types of Malware Analysis

3.1 Distributed Objects

The distributed object paradigm

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It provides abstractions beyond those of the message-passing model. In object-oriented
programming, objects are used to represent an entity significant to an application.
Each object encapsulates:
 the state or data of the entity: in Java, such data is contained in the instance variables of
each object;
 the operations of the entity, through which the state of the entity can be accessed or
updated.

3.2 Local Objects vs. Distributed Objects

 Local objects are those whose methods can only be invoked by a local process, a
process that runs on the same computer on which the object exists.
 A distributed object is one whose methods can be invoked by a remote process,
a process running on a computer connected via a network to the computer on which
the object exists.
3.3 The Distributed Object Paradigm
 In a distributed object paradigm, network resources are represented by distributed
objects.
 To request service from a network resource, a process invokes one of its operations
or methods, passing data as parameters to the method.
 The method is executed on the remote host, and the response is sent back to the
requesting process as a return value.
 Message-passing paradigm is data-oriented while Distributed
objects paradigm is action-oriented: the focus is on the invocation of the
operations, while the data passed takes on a secondary role.
 Although less intuitive to human-beings, the distributed-object paradigm is more
natural to object-oriented software development.

3.4 Distributed Objects

A distributed object is provided, or exported, by a process called the object server. A facility,
here called an object registry, must be present in the system architecture for the distributed
object to be registered. To access a distributed object, a process –an object client – looks up
the object registry for a reference to the object. This reference is used by the object client to
make calls to the methods.
Logically, the object client makes a call directly to a remote method. In reality, the call is
handled by a software component, called a client proxy, which interacts which the software on
the client host that provides the runtime support for the distributed object system. The runtime
support is responsible for the inter-process communication needed to transmit the call to the
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remote host, including the marshalling of the argument data that needs to be transmitted to the
remote object.
A similar architecture is required on the server side, runtime support for the distributed object
system handles the receiving of messages and the un-marshalling of data, and forwards the call
to a software component called the server proxy. The server proxy interfaces with the
distributed object to invoke the method call locally, passing in the un-marshalled data for the
arguments. The method call results in the performance of some tasks on the server host. The
outcome of the execution of the method, including the marshalled data for the return value, is
forwarded by the server proxy to the client proxy, via the runtime support and network
support on both sides.

3.5 Distributed Object Systems/Protocols

The distributed object paradigm has been widely adopted in distributed applications, for which
a large number of mechanisms based on the paradigm are available. Among the most well-
known of such mechanisms are:
 Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI),
 the Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) systems,
 the Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM),
 mechanisms that support the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP).
Of these, the most straightforward is the Java RMI.

3.6 Remote Procedure Call & Remote Method Invocation

3.6.1 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)
Remote Method Invocation has its origin in a paradigm called Remote Procedure Call
3.6.2 Remote procedure call model:
A procedure call is made by one process to another, with data passed as arguments.
Upon receiving a call:
1. the actions encoded in the procedure are executed
2. the caller is notified of the completion of the call and
3. a return value, if any, is transmitted from the callee to the caller

3.7 Local Procedure Call and Remote Procedure Call

3.7.1 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)
Since its introduction in the early 1980s, the Remote Procedure Call model has been widely in
use in network applications.

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There are two prevalent APIs for this paradigm.
 the Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call, evolved from the RPC API
originated from Sun Microsystems in the early 1980s.
 The other well-known API is the Open Group Distributed Computing
Environment (DCE) RPC.
Both APIs provide a tool, rpcgen, for transforming remote procedure calls to local procedure
calls to the stub.

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. Define Malware Analysis

Malware analysis is the process of determining the purpose and functionality of a piece of
malware. This process will reveal what type of harmful program has infected your network,
the damage it’s capable of causing, and most importantly how to remove it.

ii. List and explain Types of Malwares

 Virus: Viruses are pieces of malware that require human intervention to propagate to
other machines.
 Worm: Unlike Viruses, Worms do not need the help of humans to move to other
machines. They can spread easily and can infect a high number of machines in a short
amount of time.
 Trojan: These appear to be normal programs that have a legitimate function, like a
game or a utility program. But underneath the innocent looking user interface, a Trojan
performs malicious tasks without the user being aware.
 Spyware: Spyware is software that gathers personal or confidential information from
user systems without their knowledge.
 Keylogger: This is a special type of spyware. It is specialized in recording the
keystrokes made by the user.
 Ransomware: Ransomware is a form of malware that encrypts a victim's files. The
attacker then demands a ransom from the victim to restore access to the data upon
payment.

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iii. Explain Static and Dynamic Analysis

Dynamic analysis also called malware behavior analysis runs the malware program to examine
its behavior, while Static analysis examines a malware file without actually running the
program.

5.0 Conclusion

Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The
best defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet,
proper computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when
surfing the web, not opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly
updating and running an anti-malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold
dangers of the Internet.

6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware
analysis

7.0 References/Further Reading

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics

Årnes, A. (Ed.). (2017). Digital forensics. John Wiley & Sons.

Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.

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Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.

Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education.
In 2019 2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 1-
7). IEEE.

Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..

Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer
International Publishing.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.

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Unit 5 Remote Method Invocation

Contents
2.0 Introduction
1.1 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Java Remote Method Invocation
3.1.1 Remote Method Invocation
3.2 The Java RMI Architecture
3.2.1 Object Registry
3.3 The Interaction between the Stub and the Skeleton
3.4 The Remote Interface
3.4.1 A Sample Remote Interface
3.5 The Server-Side Software
3.6 The Remote Interface Implementation
3.7 UML Diagram for the SomeImpl class
3.7.1 Stub and Skeleton Generations
3.7.2 The Stub File for the Object
3.8 The Object Server
3.9 The RMI Registry
3.10 The Client-Side Software
3.11 Looking up the Remote Object
3.12 Invoking the Remote Method

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion

6.0 Summary

7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have
become a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of
computer use, viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs
that attack the computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily
corrupt or delete data from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the
computer. It is important that we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at
all cost.

Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network.
Malware is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to
spread itself in the network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system
or network, persistence. They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to
knees and can cause a destruction of the network. Consider the case when the computer
becomes infected and is no longer usable, the data inside becomes unavailable – these are some
of the malware damage scenarios. Malware attacks can be traced back to the time, even before
the internet became widespread.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain Malware Analysis
 Explain the Types of Malwares
 Explain the Types of Malware Analysis

3.1 Java Remote Method Invocation

3.1.1 Remote Method Invocation
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is an object-oriented implementation of the Remote
Procedure Call model. It is an API for Java programs only. Using RMI, an object
server exports a remote object and registers it with a directory service. The object provides
remote methods, which can be invoked in client programs.
Syntactically:

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1. A remote object is declared with a remote interface, an extension of
the Java interface.
2. The remote interface is implemented by the object server.
3. An object client accesses the object by invoking the remote methods associated
with the objects using syntax provided for remote method invocations.

3.2 The Java RMI Architecture

3.2.1 Object Registry
 The RMI API allows a number of directory services to be used[ for registering a
distributed object.
 A simple directory service called the RMI registry, rmiregistry, which is provided with
the Java Software Development Kit
 The RMI Registry is a service whose server, when active, runs on the object server’s
host machine, by convention and by default on the TCP port 1099.
3.3 The Interaction between the Stub and the Skeleton
A time-event diagram describing the interaction between the stub and the skeleton:
The API for the Java RMI
 The Remote Interface
 The Server-side Software
 The Remote Interface Implementation
 Stub and Skeleton Generations
 The Object Server
 The Client-side Software

3.4 The Remote Interface

A Java interface is a class that serves as a template for other classes:
 it contains declarations or signatures of methods whose implementations are to be
supplied by classes that implements the interface.
 A java remote interface is an interface that inherits from the Java Remote class,
which allows the interface to be implemented using RMI syntax.
 Other than the Remote extension and the Remote exception that must be specified
with each method signature, a remote interface has the same syntax as a regular or
local Java interface.

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3.4.1 A sample remote Interface

// file: SomeInterface.java
// to be implemented by a Java RMI server class.

import java.rmi.*
public interface SomeInterface extends Remote {
// signature of first remote method
public String someMethod1( )
throws java.rmi.RemoteException;
// signature of second remote method
public int someMethod2( float ) throws java.rmi.RemoteException;
// signature of other remote methods may follow

} // end interface

A sample remote interface

The java.rmi.Remote Exception must be listed in the throw clause of each method signature.
 This exception is raised when errors occur during the processing of a remote method
call, and the exception is required to be caught in the method caller’s program.
 Causes of such exceptions include exceptions that may occur during inter-
process communications, such as access failures and connection failures, as well as
problems unique to remote method invocations, including errors resulting from the
object, the stub, or the skeleton not being found.

3.5 The Server-side Software

An object server is an object that provides the methods of and the interface to a distributed
object.
Each object server must
 implement each of the remote methods specified in the interface,
 register an object which contains the implementation with a directory service.
It is recommended that the two parts be provided as separate classes.

3.6 The Remote Interface Implementation

 A class which implements the remote interface should be provided.
 The syntax is similar to a class that implements a local interface.

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import java.rmi.*;
import java.rmi.server.*;

/**
* This class implements the remote interface SomeInterface.
*/

public class SomeImpl extends UnicastRemoteObject

implements SomeInterface {
public SomeImpl() throws RemoteException {
super( );
}
public String someMethod1( ) throws RemoteException {
// code to be supplied
}
public int someMethod2( ) throws RemoteException {
// code to be supplied
}
} // end class

3.7 UML diagram for the SomeImpl class

3.7.1 Stub and Skeleton Generations
 In RMI, each distributed object requires a proxy each for the object server and the object
client, known as the object’s skeleton and stub, respectively.
 These proxies are generated from the implementation of a remote interface using a tool
provided with the Java SDK:
 the RMI compiler rmic.
o rmic <class name of the remote interface implementation>
 For example:
o rmic SomeImpl
 As a result of the compilation, two proxy files will be generated, each prefixed with the
implementation class name:
SomeImpl_skel.class
SomeImpl_stub.class.

3.7.2 The stub file for the object

 The stub file for the object, as well as the remote interface file, must be shared with
each object client – these file are required for the client program to compile.

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 A copy of each file may be provided to the object client by hand.

 In addition, the Java RMI has a feature called “stub downloading” which allows a stub
file to be obtained by a client dynamically.

3.8 The Object Server

 The object server class is a class whose code instantiates and exports an object of the
remote interface implementation.

A template for the object server class.

import java.rmi.*;
……
public class SomeServer {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try{
// code for port number value to be supplied
SomeImpl exportedObj = new SomeImpl();
startRegistry(RMIPortNum);
// register the object under the name “some”
registryURL = "rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
Naming.rebind(registryURL, exportedObj);
System.out.println("Some Server ready.");
}// end try
} // end main

// This method starts a RMI registry on the local host, if it

// does not already exists at the specified port number.
private static void startRegistry(int RMIPortNum)
throws RemoteException{
try {
Registry registry= LocateRegistry.getRegistry(RMIPortNum);
registry.list( );
// The above call will throw an exception
// if the registry does not already exist

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}
catch (RemoteException ex) {
// No valid registry at that port.
System.out.println(
"RMI registry cannot be located at port " + RMIPortNum);
Registry registry= LocateRegistry.createRegistry(RMIPortNum);
System.out.println(
"RMI registry created at port " + RMIPortNum);
}
} // end startRegistry

 In our object server template, the code for exporting an object is as follows:
// register the object under the name “some”
registryURL = "rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
Naming.rebind(registryURL, exportedObj);

 The Naming class provides methods for storing and obtaining references from the
registry.
o In particular, the rebind method allow an object reference to be stored in the
registry with a URL in the form of:
 rmi://<host name>:<port number>/<reference name>
o The rebind method will overwrite any reference in the registry bound with the
given reference name.
o If the overwriting is not desirable, there is also a bind method.
o The host name should be the name of the server, or simply “localhost”.
o The reference name is a name of your choice, and should be unique in the
registry.
 When an object server is executed, the exporting of the distributed object causes the
server process to begin to listen and wait for clients to connect and request the service
of the object.

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 An RMI object server is a concurrent server: each request from an object client is
serviced using a separate thread of the server.
 Note that if a client process invokes multiple remote method calls, these calls will be
executed concurrently unless provisions are made in the client process to synchronize
the calls.

3.9 The RMI Registry

 A server exports an object by registering it by a symbolic name with a server known as
the RMI registry.

// Create an object of the Interface

SomeInterfacel obj = new SomeInterface(“Server1”);

// Register the object; rebind will overwirte existing

// registration by same name – bind( ) will not.

Naming.rebind(“Server1”, obj);

 A server, called the RMI Registry, is required to run on the host of the server which
exports remote objects.
 The RMIRegistry is a server located at port 1099 by default
 It can be invoked dynamically in the server class:

import java.rmi.registry.LocateRegistry;
…
LocateRegistry.createRegistry ( 1099 );…

 Alternatively, an RMI registry can be activated by hand using the rmiregistry utility :
rmiregistry <port number>
where the port number is a TCP port number.
 If no port number is specified, port number 1099 is assumed.

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 The registry will run continuously until it is shut down (via CTRL-C, for example)

3.10 The Client-side Software

 The program for the client class is like any other Java class.
 The syntax needed for RMI involves
o locating the RMI Registry in the server host,
and
o looking up the remote reference for the server object; the reference can then be
cast to the remote interface class and the remote methods invoked.

import java.rmi.*;
….
public class SomeClient {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
String registryURL =
"rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
SomeInterface h =
(SomeInterface)Naming.lookup(registryURL);
// invoke the remote method(s)
String message = h.method1();
System.out.println(message);
// method2 can be invoked similarly
} // end try
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Exception in SomeClient: " + e);
}
} //end main
// Definition for other methods of the class, if any.
}//end class

3.11 Looking up the remote object

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 The lookup method of the Naming class is used to retrieve the object reference, if any,
previously stored in the registry by the object server.
 Note that the retrieved reference must be cast to the remote interface (not its
implementation) class.

String registryURL =
"rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
SomeInterface h =
(SomeInterface)Naming.lookup(registryURL);

3.12 Invoking the Remote Method

 The remote interface reference can be used to invoke any of the methods in the remote
interface, as in the example:
String message = h.method1();
System.out.println(message);
 Note that the syntax for the invocation of the remote methods is the same as for local
methods.
 It is a common mistake to cast the object retrieved from the registry to the interface
implementation class or the server object class.
 Instead it should be cast as the interface class.

5.0 Conclusion

Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The
best defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet,
proper computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when
surfing the web, not opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly
updating and running an anti-malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold
dangers of the Internet.
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6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware
analysis

7.0 References/Further Reading

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics

Årnes, A. (Ed.). (2017). Digital forensics. John Wiley & Sons.

Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.

Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.

Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education.
In 2019 2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 1-
7). IEEE.

Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..

Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer
International Publishing.

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Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.

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Unit 6 Using UML for Component-based Designs

Contents
3.0 Introduction
3.13 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 UML component Diagrams
3.2 Component Diagram at a Glance
3.3 Basic Concepts of Component Diagram
3.4 Interface
3.4.1 Provided Interface
3.4.2 Required Interface
3.5 Subsystems
3.6 Port
3.7 Relationships
3.8 Modelling Source Code
3.9 Modelling an Executable Release
3.10 Modelling a Physical Database

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction

We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have
become a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of
computer use, viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs
that attack the computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily
corrupt or delete data from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the
computer. It is important that we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at
all cost.

Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network.
Malware is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to
spread itself in the network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system
or network, persistence. They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to
knees and can cause a destruction of the network. Consider the case when the computer
becomes infected and is no longer usable, the data inside becomes unavailable – these are some
of the malware damage scenarios. Malware attacks can be traced back to the time, even before
the internet became widespread.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain Malware Analysis
 Explain the Types of Malwares
 Explain the Types of Malware Analysis

3.1 UML Component Diagrams

UML Component diagrams are used in modelling the physical aspects of object-oriented
systems that are used for visualizing, specifying, and documenting component-based systems
and also for constructing executable systems through forward and reverse engineering.
Component diagrams are essentially class diagrams that focus on a system's components that
often used to model the static implementation view of a system.

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Figure 12: UML Diagram for Systems Designs

3.2 Component Diagram at a Glance

A component diagram breaks down the actual system under development into various high
levels of functionality. Each component is responsible for one clear aim within the entire
system and only interacts with other essential elements on a need-to-know basis.

Figure 13: Component Diagram

The example above shows the internal components of a larger component:

 The data (account and inspection ID) flows into the component via the port on the
right-hand side and is converted into a format the internal components can use. The
interfaces on the right are known as required interfaces, which represents the services
the component needed in order to carry out its duty.

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 The data then passes to and through several other components via various connections
before it is output at the ports on the left. Those interfaces on the left are known as
provided interface, which represents the services to deliver by the exhibiting
component.
 It is important to note that the internal components are surrounded by a large 'box'
which can be the overall system itself (in which case there would not be a component
symbol in the top right corner) or a subsystem or component of the overall system (in
this case the 'box' is a component itself).

3.3 Basic Concepts of Component Diagram

A component represents a modular part of a system that encapsulates its contents and whose
manifestation is replaceable within its environment. In UML 2, a component is drawn as a
rectangle with optional compartments stacked vertically. A high-level, abstracted view of a
component in UML 2 can be modeled as:
1. A rectangle with the component's name
2. A rectangle with the component icon
3. A rectangle with the stereotype text and/or icon

Figure 14: A high-level, abstracted view of a component

3.4 Interface
In the example below shows two type of component interfaces:
3.4.1 Provided Interface symbols with a complete circle at their end represent an interface
that the component provides - this "lollipop" symbol is shorthand for a realization
relationship of an interface classifier.
3.4.2 Required Interface symbols with only a half circle at their end (a.k.a. sockets)
represent an interface that the component requires (in both cases, the interface's name is
placed near the interface symbol itself).

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Figure 15: Component Diagram Example - Using Interface (Order System)

3.5 Subsystems
The subsystem classifier is a specialized version of a component classifier. Because of this,
the subsystem notation element inherits all the same rules as the component notation element.
The only difference is that a subsystem notation element has the keyword of subsystem
instead of component.

Figure 16: A Sub-system

3.6 Port
Ports are represented using a square along the edge of the system or a component. A port is
often used to help expose required and provided interfaces of a component.

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Figure 17: A Port

3.7 Relationships
Graphically, a component diagram is a collection of vertices and arcs and commonly contain
components, interfaces and dependency, aggregation, constraint, generalization, association,
and realization relationships. It may also contain notes and constraints.

Relationships Notation
Association:
 An association specifies a semantic relationship that
can occur between typed instances.
 It has at least two ends represented by properties,
each of which is connected to the type of the end.
More than one end of the association may have the
same type.

Composition:
 Composite aggregation is a strong form of
aggregation that requires a part instance be included
in at most one composite at a time.
 If a composite is deleted, all of its parts are normally
deleted with it.

Aggregation
 A kind of association that has one of its end marked
shared as kind of aggregation, meaning that it has a
shared aggregation.

Constraint
 A condition or restriction expressed in natural
language text or in a machine readable language for
the purpose of declaring some of the semantics of an
element.

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Dependency
 A dependency is a relationship that signifies that a
single or a set of model elements requires other model
elements for their specification or implementation.
 This means that the complete semantics of the
depending elements is either semantically or
structurally dependent on the definition of the
supplier element(s).

Links:
 A generalization is a taxonomic relationship between
a more general classifier and a more specific
classifier.
 Each instance of the specific classifier is also an
indirect instance of the general classifier.
 Thus, the specific classifier inherits the features of the
more general classifier.

3.8 Modelling Source Code

 Either by forward or reverse engineering, identify the set of source code files of
interest and model them as components stereotyped as files.
 For larger systems, use packages to show groups of source code files.
 Consider exposing a tagged value indicating such information as the version number
of the source code file, its author, and the date it was last changed. Use tools to manage
the value of this tag.
 Model the compilation dependencies among these files using dependencies. Again,
use tools to help generate and manage these dependencies.

Figure 18: Component Diagram Example - C++ Code with versioning

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3.9 Modelling an Executable Release

 Identify the set of components you'd like to model. Typically, this will involve some
or all the components that live on one node, or the distribution of these sets of
components across all the nodes in the system.
 Consider the stereotype of each component in this set. For most systems, you'll find
a small number of different kinds of components (such as executables, libraries,
tables, files, and documents). You can use the UML's extensibility mechanisms to
provide visual cues (clues) for these stereotypes.
 For each component in this set, consider its relationship to its neighbors. Most often,
this will involve interfaces that are exported (realized) by certain components and
then imported (used) by others. If you want to expose the seams in your system, model
these interfaces explicitly. If you want your model at a higher level of abstraction,
elide these relationships by showing only dependencies among the components.

3.10 Modelling a Physical Database

 Identify the classes in your model that represent your logical database schema.
 Select a strategy for mapping these classes to tables. You will also want to consider
the physical distribution of your databases. Your mapping strategy will be affected
by the location in which you want your data to live on your deployed system.
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 To visualize, specify, construct, and document your mapping, create a component
diagram that contains components stereotyped as tables.
 Where possible, use tools to help you transform your logical design into a physical
design.

5.0 Conclusion

Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The
best defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet,
proper computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when
surfing the web, not opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly
updating and running an anti-malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold
dangers of the Internet.

6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware
analysis

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7.0 References/Further Reading

What is Component Diagram? (visual-paradigm.com)

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Module 4: Distributed Transactions

Introduction to Module
As soon as cyberspace and e-commerce were created in the mid-1990s, cybercrime flourished
on a parallel track. Today, cybercrime has been doubling every single year in the number of
incidents, as well as monetary losses. It is impossible to truly quantify cybercrime because
most victims only see further losses in publicizing their inability to defend themselves from
this modern day menace. The interesting note is that, of the cybercriminals who have been
caught, the vast majority have pleaded guilty. The word ethics comes from the ancient Greek
word eché, which means character. Every human society practices ethics in some way because
every society attaches a value on a continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s
actions according to where that individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s
rules and canons. In this module, Cyber crime Acts will be address which provide legal
backings to human data and privacy.

Unit 1: Concept of Cyber Law

Unit 2: The INDIA cyber-Acts

Unit 3: The International Laws

Unit 4: Cyber Ethics

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UNIT 1 Distributed Transactions

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Distributed Transactions
3.2 Two Types of Permissible Operations in Distributed Transactions
3.2.1 DML and DDL Transactions
3.2.2 Transactions Control Statements
3.3 Session Trees for Distributed Transactions
3.4 Node Rules
3.4.1 Clients
3.4.2 Database Servers
3.4.3 Local Coordinators
3.4.4 Global Coordinators
3.4.5 Commit Point Site
3.5 How a Distributed Transactions Commits
3.6 Commit Point Strength
3.7 Two-Phase Commit Mechanism
3.7.1 Prepare Phase
3.7.2 Steps in the Prepare Phase
3.7.3 Commit Phase
3.7.3.1 Steps in the Commit Phase
3.8 Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency
3.9 Forget Phase
3.10 In-Doubt Transactions
3.10.1 Automatic Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions
3.11 Failure During the Prepare Phase
3.12 Failure During the Commit Phase
3.13 Manual Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions
3.14 Relevance of Systems Change Numbers for In-Doubt Transactions

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4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
Technology has engendered new types of lawsuits or modified old ones. As, for example, the
next generation of offences arose within the field of computer crimes (e.g., identity thefts),
technology impacted on traditional rights such as copyright (1709) and privacy (1890), turning
them into a matter of access, control, and protection over information in digital environments.
This unit we explain the concepts of cyber law, the need of cyber law in the IT world and why
is important to actually address cyber crime issues.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, student will able to
 Justify cyber crimes as sanctioned in cyber laws
 Demonstrate the concept of cyber law

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Distributed Transactions
A distributed transaction includes one or more statements that, individually or as a group,
update data on two or more distinct nodes of a distributed database.

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Figure 19: Sample Database on a Distributed Systems

The following distributed transaction executed by scott updates the local sales database,
the remote hq database, and the remote maint database:

UPDATE [email protected]

SET loc = 'REDWOOD SHORES'

WHERE deptno = 10;

UPDATE scott.emp

SET deptno = 11

WHERE deptno = 10;

UPDATE [email protected]

SET room = 1225

WHERE room = 1163;

COMMIT;

3.2 Two Types of Permissible Operations in Distributed Transactions:

 DML and DDL Transactions
 Transaction Control Statements
3.2.1 DML and DDL Transactions

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The following are the DML and DDL operations supported in a distributed transaction:
 CREATE TABLE AS SELECT
 DELETE
 INSERT (default and direct load)
 LOCK TABLE
 SELECT
 SELECT FOR UPDATE
You can execute DML and DDL statements in parallel, and INSERT direct load statements
serially, but note the following restrictions:
 All remote operations must be SELECT statements.
 These statements must not be clauses in another distributed transaction.
 If the table referenced in the table_expression_clause of an INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement is remote, then execution is serial rather than parallel.
 You cannot perform remote operations after issuing parallel DML/DDL or direct
load INSERT.
 If the transaction begins using XA or OCI, it executes serially.
 No loopback operations can be performed on the transaction originating the parallel
operation. For example, you cannot reference a remote object that is actually a synonym
for a local object.
 If you perform a distributed operation other than a SELECT in the transaction, no DML
is parallelized.
3.2.2 Transaction Control Statements
The following are the supported transaction control statements:
 COMMIT
 ROLLBACK
 SAVEPOINT
3.3 Session Trees for Distributed Transactions
As the statements in a distributed transaction are issued, the database defines a session tree of
all nodes participating in the transaction. A session tree is a hierarchical model that describes
the relationships among sessions and their roles.

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Figure 20: Example of a Session Tree

All nodes participating in the session tree of a distributed transaction assume one or more of
the following roles:
3.4 Node Roles
Roles Description
Client A node that references information in a database belonging to
a
different node
Database server A node that receives a request for information from another
node
Global coordinator The node that originates the distributed transaction
Local coordinator A node that is forced to reference data on other nodes to
complete its part of the transaction
Commit point site The node that commits or rolls back the transaction as
instructed by the global

The role a node plays in a distributed transaction is determined by:

 Whether the transaction is local or remote
 The commit point strength of the node ("Commit Point Site")
 Whether all requested data is available at a node, or whether other nodes need to be
referenced to complete the transaction
 Whether the node is read-only

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3.4.1 Clients
A node acts as a client when it references information from a database on another node. The
referenced node is a database server. In Figure 2, the node sales is a client of the nodes that
host the warehouse and finance databases.

3.4.2 Database Servers

A database server is a node that hosts a database from which a client requests data.
In Figure 2, an application at the sales node initiates a distributed transaction that accesses data
from the warehouse and finance nodes. Therefore, sales.acme.com has the role of client node,
and warehouse and finance are both database servers. In this example, sales is a database
server and a client because the application also modifies data in the sales database.

3.4.3 Local Coordinators

A node that must reference data on other nodes to complete its part in the distributed transaction
is called a local coordinator. In Figure 2, sales is a local coordinator because it coordinates the
nodes it directly references: warehouse and finance. The node sales also happens to be the
global coordinator because it coordinates all the nodes involved in the transaction.
A local coordinator is responsible for coordinating the transaction among the nodes it
communicates directly with by:
 Receiving and relaying transaction status information to and from those nodes
 Passing queries to those nodes
 Receiving queries from those nodes and passing them on to other nodes
 Returning the results of queries to the nodes that initiated them

3.4.4 Global Coordinator

The node where the distributed transaction originates is called the global coordinator. The
database application issuing the distributed transaction is directly connected to the node acting
as the global coordinator. For example, in Figure 2, the transaction issued at the
node sales references information from the database servers warehouse and finance.
Therefore, sales.acme.com is the global coordinator of this distributed transaction.
The global coordinator becomes the parent or root of the session tree. The global coordinator
performs the following operations during a distributed transaction:
 Sends all of the distributed transaction SQL statements, remote procedure calls, and so
forth to the directly referenced nodes, thus forming the session tree
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 Instructs all directly referenced nodes other than the commit point site to prepare the
transaction
 Instructs the commit point site to initiate the global commit of the transaction if all
nodes prepare successfully
 Instructs all nodes to initiate a global rollback of the transaction if there is an abort
response

3.4.5 Commit Point Site

The job of the commit point site is to initiate a commit or roll back operation as instructed by
the global coordinator. The system administrator always designates one node to be the commit
point site in the session tree by assigning all nodes a commit point strength. The node selected
as commit point site should be the node that stores the most critical data.

Figure 21: Commit Point Site

The commit point site is distinct from all other nodes involved in a distributed transaction in
these ways:
 The commit point site never enters the prepared state. Consequently, if the commit point
site stores the most critical data, this data never remains in-doubt, even if a failure
occurs. In failure situations, failed nodes remain in a prepared state, holding necessary
locks on data until in-doubt transactions are resolved.

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 The commit point site commits before the other nodes involved in the transaction. In
effect, the outcome of a distributed transaction at the commit point site determines
whether the transaction at all nodes is committed or rolled back: the other nodes follow
the lead of the commit point site. The global coordinator ensures that all nodes complete
the transaction in the same manner as the commit point site.

3.5 How a Distributed Transaction Commits

A distributed transaction is considered committed after all non-commit-point sites are prepared,
and the transaction has been actually committed at the commit point site. The redo log at the
commit point site is updated as soon as the distributed transaction is committed at this node.
Because the commit point log contains a record of the commit, the transaction is considered
committed even though some participating nodes may still be only in the prepared state and
the transaction not yet actually committed at these nodes. In the same way, a distributed
transaction is considered not committed if the commit has not been logged at the commit point
site.

3.6 Commit Point Strength

Every database server must be assigned a commit point strength. If a database server is
referenced in a distributed transaction, the value of its commit point strength determines which
role it plays in the two-phase commit. Specifically, the commit point strength determines
whether a given node is the commit point site in the distributed transaction and thus commits
before all of the other nodes. This value is specified using the initialization
parameter COMMIT_POINT_STRENGTH. This section explains how the database
determines the commit point site.
The commit point site, which is determined at the beginning of the prepare phase, is selected
only from the nodes participating in the transaction. The following sequence of events occurs:
1. Of the nodes directly referenced by the global coordinator, the database selects the node
with the highest commit point strength as the commit point site.
2. The initially-selected node determines if any of the nodes from which it has to obtain
information for this transaction has a higher commit point strength.
3. Either the node with the highest commit point strength directly referenced in the
transaction or one of its servers with a higher commit point strength becomes the
commit point site. After the final commit point site has been determined, the global
coordinator sends prepare responses to all nodes participating in the transaction
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Figure 22: Commit Point Strengths and Determination of the Commit Point Site

The following conditions apply when determining the commit point site:
 A read-only node cannot be the commit point site.
 If multiple nodes directly referenced by the global coordinator have the same commit
point strength, then the database designates one of these as the commit point site.
 If a distributed transaction ends with a rollback, then the prepare and commit phases
are not needed. Consequently, the database never determines a commit point site.
Instead, the global coordinator sends a ROLLBACK statement to all nodes and ends
the processing of the distributed transaction.
As Figure 4 illustrates, the commit point site and the global coordinator can be different
nodes of the session tree. The commit point strength of each node is communicated
to the coordinators when the initial connections are made. The coordinators retain the
commit point strengths of each node they are in direct communication with so that
commit point sites can be efficiently selected during two-phase commits. Therefore, it
is not necessary for the commit point strength to be exchanged between a coordinator
and a node each time a commit occurs.

3.7 Two-Phase Commit Mechanism

Unlike a transaction on a local database, a distributed transaction involves altering data on
multiple databases. Consequently, distributed transaction processing is more complicated,
because the database must coordinate the committing or rolling back of the changes in a

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transaction as a self-contained unit. In other words, the entire transaction commits, or the entire
transaction rolls back.
The database ensures the integrity of data in a distributed transaction using the two-phase
commit mechanism.
In the prepare phase, the initiating node in the transaction asks the other participating nodes
to promise to commit or roll back the transaction.
During the commit phase, the initiating node asks all participating nodes to commit the
transaction.
If this outcome is not possible, then all nodes are asked to roll back. All participating nodes in
a distributed transaction should perform the same action: they should either all commit or all
perform a rollback of the transaction. The database automatically controls and monitors the
commit or rollback of a distributed transaction and maintains the integrity of the global
database (the collection of databases participating in the transaction) using the two-phase
commit mechanism. This mechanism is completely transparent, requiring no programming on
the part of the user or application developer.
The commit mechanism has the following distinct phases, which the database performs
automatically whenever a user commits a distributed transaction:

Phase Description
Prepare phase The initiating node, called the global coordinator, asks participating
nodes other than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back
the transaction, even if there is a failure. If any node cannot prepare, the
transaction is rolled back.
Commit phase If all participants respond to the coordinator that they are prepared, then
the coordinator asks the commit point site to commit. After it commits, the
coordinator asks all other nodes to commit the transaction
Forget phase The global coordinator forgets about the transaction

3.7.1 Prepare Phase

The first phase in committing a distributed transaction is the prepare phase. In this phase, the
database does not actually commit or roll back the transaction. Instead, all nodes referenced in
a distributed transaction (except the commit point site, described in the "Commit Point Site")
are told to prepare to commit. By preparing, a node:
 Records information in the redo logs so that it can subsequently either commit or roll
back the transaction, regardless of intervening failures
 Places a distributed lock on modified tables, which prevents reads

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When a node responds to the global coordinator that it is prepared to commit, the prepared
node promises to either commit or roll back the transaction later, but does not make a unilateral
decision on whether to commit or roll back the transaction. The promise means that if an
instance failure occurs at this point, the node can use the redo records in the online log to
recover the database back to the prepare phase.
Note:
Queries that start after a node has prepared cannot access the associated locked data until all
phases complete. The time is insignificant unless a failure occurs

3.7.1.1 Types of Responses in the Prepare Phase

When a node is told to prepare, it can respond in the following ways:

Response Meaning
Prepared Data on the node has been modified by a statement in the distributed transaction,
and the node has successfully prepared
Read- No data on the node has been, or can be, modified (only queried), so no
only preparation is necessary
Abort The node cannot successfully prepare.

Prepared Response
When a node has successfully prepared, it issues a prepared message. The message indicates
that the node has records of the changes in the online log, so it is prepared either to commit or
perform a rollback. The message also guarantees that locks held for the transaction can survive
a failure.
Read-Only Response
When a node is asked to prepare, and the SQL statements affecting the database do not change
any data on the node, the node responds with a read-only message. The message indicates that
the node will not participate in the commit phase
There are three cases in which all or part of a distributed transaction is read-only:
Case Condition Consequence
Partially Any of the following occurs: The read-only nodes recognize their
 Only queries are issued at
read-only status when asked to prepare. They
one or more nodes.
 No data is changed. give their local coordinators a read-
Changes rolled back due to triggers
only response. Thus, the commit
firing or constraint violations.
phase completes faster because the

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database eliminates read-only nodes
from subsequent
Completely All of following occur: All nodes recognize that they are
 No data changes.
read-only read-only during prepare phase, so
Transaction is not started with SET
with prepare TRANSACTION READ no commit phase is required. The
ONLY statement
phase global coordinator, not knowing
whether all nodes are read-only,
must still perform the prepare phase.
Completely All of following occur: Only queries are allowed in the
read-only  No data changes.
transaction, so global coordinator
without two- Transaction is started with SET
phase commit TRANSACTION READ does not have to perform two-phase
ONLY statement.
commit. Changes by other
transactions do not degrade global
transaction-level read consistency
because of global SCN coordination

Note that if a distributed transaction is set to read-only, then it does not use undo segments. If
many users connect to the database and their transactions are not set to READ ONLY, then
they allocate undo space even if they are only performing queries.
Abort Response
When a node cannot successfully prepare, it performs the following actions:
1. Releases resources currently held by the transaction and rolls back the local portion of
the transaction.
2. Responds to the node that referenced it in the distributed transaction with an abort
message.
These actions then propagate to the other nodes involved in the distributed transaction so that
they can roll back the transaction and guarantee the integrity of the data in the global database.
This response enforces the primary rule of a distributed transaction: all nodes involved in the
transaction either all commit or all roll back the transaction at the same logical time.

3.7.2 Steps in the Prepare Phase

To complete the prepare phase, each node excluding the commit point site performs the
following steps:

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1. The node requests that its descendants, that is, the nodes subsequently referenced,
prepare to commit.
2. The node checks to see whether the transaction changes data on itself or its descendants.
If there is no change to the data, then the node skips the remaining steps and returns a
read-only response
3. The node allocates the resources it needs to commit the transaction if data is changed.
4. The node saves redo records corresponding to changes made by the transaction to its
redo log.
5. The node guarantees that locks held for the transaction are able to survive a failure.
6. The node responds to the initiating node with a prepared response or, if its attempt or
the attempt of one of its descendants to prepare was unsuccessful, with an abort
response.
These actions guarantee that the node can subsequently commit or roll back the transaction on
the node. The prepared nodes then wait until a COMMIT or ROLLBACK request is received
from the global coordinator.
After the nodes are prepared, the distributed transaction is said to be in-doubt. It retains in-
doubt status until all changes are either committed or rolled back.

3.7.3 Commit Phase

The second phase in committing a distributed transaction is the commit phase. Before this
phase occurs, all nodes other than the commit point site referenced in the distributed
transaction have guaranteed that they are prepared, that is, they have the necessary resources
to commit the transaction.
3.7.3.1 Steps in the Commit Phase
The commit phase consists of the following steps:
1. The global coordinator instructs the commit point site to commit.
2. The commit point site commits.
3. The commit point site informs the global coordinator that it has committed.
4. The global and local coordinators send a message to all nodes instructing them to
commit the transaction.
5. At each node, the database commits the local portion of the distributed transaction and
releases locks.
6. At each node, the database records an additional redo entry in the local redo log,
indicating that the transaction has committed.
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7. The participating nodes notify the global coordinator that they have committed.
When the commit phase is complete, the data on all nodes of the distributed system is
consistent.

Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency

Each committed transaction has an associated system change number (SCN) to uniquely
identify the changes made by the SQL statements within that transaction. The SCN functions
as an internal timestamp that uniquely identifies a committed version of the database.

In a distributed system, the SCNs of communicating nodes are coordinated when all of the
following actions occur:

 A connection occurs using the path described by one or more database links
 A distributed SQL statement executes
 A distributed transaction commits

Among other benefits, the coordination of SCNs among the nodes of a distributed system
ensures global read-consistency at both the statement and transaction level. If necessary, global
time-based recovery can also be completed.

During the prepare phase, the database determines the highest SCN at all nodes involved in the
transaction. The transaction then commits with the high SCN at the commit point site. The
commit SCN is then sent to all prepared nodes with the commit decision.

3.8 Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency

Each committed transaction has an associated system change number (SCN) to uniquely
identify the changes made by the SQL statements within that transaction. The SCN functions
as an internal timestamp that uniquely identifies a committed version of the database.
In a distributed system, the SCNs of communicating nodes are coordinated when all of the
following actions occur:
 A connection occurs using the path described by one or more database links
 A distributed SQL statement executes
 A distributed transaction commits
Among other benefits, the coordination of SCNs among the nodes of a distributed system
ensures global read-consistency at both the statement and transaction level. If necessary, global
time-based recovery can also be completed.
During the prepare phase, the database determines the highest SCN at all nodes involved in the
transaction. The transaction then commits with the high SCN at the commit point site. The
commit SCN is then sent to all prepared nodes with the commit decision.

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3.9 Forget Phase
After the participating nodes notify the commit point site that they have committed, the commit
point site can forget about the transaction. The following steps occur:
1. After receiving notice from the global coordinator that all nodes have committed, the
commit point site erases status information about this transaction.
2. The commit point site informs the global coordinator that it has erased the status
information.
3. The global coordinator erases its own information about the transaction.

3.10 In-Doubt Transactions

The two-phase commit mechanism ensures that all nodes either commit or perform a rollback
together. What happens if any of the three phases fails because of a system or network error?
The transaction becomes in-doubt.
Distributed transactions can become in-doubt in the following ways:
 A server machine running Oracle Database software crashes
 A network connection between two or more Oracle Databases involved in distributed
processing is disconnected
 An unhandled software error occurs
The RECO process automatically resolves in-doubt transactions when the machine, network,
or software problem is resolved. Until RECO can resolve the transaction, the data is locked for
both reads and writes. The database blocks reads because it cannot determine which version of
the data to display for a query.

3.10.1 Automatic Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions

In the majority of cases, the database resolves the in-doubt transaction automatically. Assume
that there are two nodes, local and remote, in the following scenarios. The local node is the
commit point site. User scott connects to local and executes and commits a distributed
transaction that updates local and remote.

3.11 Failure During the Prepare Phase

Figure 5 illustrates the sequence of events when there is a failure during the prepare phase of a
distributed transaction:

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Figure 23: Failure During Prepare Phase

The following steps occur:

1. User SCOTT connects to Local and executes a distributed transaction.
2. The global coordinator, which in this example is also the commit point site, requests all
databases other than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back when told
to do so.
3. The remote database crashes before issuing the prepare response back to local.
4. The transaction is ultimately rolled back on each database by the RECO process when
the remote site is restored.

3.12 Failure During the Commit Phase

Figure 6 illustrates the sequence of events when there is a failure during the commit phase of a
distributed transaction:

Figure 24: Failure During the Commit Phase

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The following steps occur:
1. User Scott connects to local and executes a distributed transaction.
2. The global coordinator, which in this case is also the commit point site, requests all
databases other than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back when told
to do so.
3. The commit point site receives a prepared message from remote saying that it will
commit.
4. The commit point site commits the transaction locally, then sends a commit message
to remote asking it to commit.
5. The remote database receives the commit message, but cannot respond because of a
network failure.
6. The transaction is ultimately committed on the remote database by the RECO process
after the network is restored.

3.13 Manual Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions

You should only need to resolve an in-doubt transaction in the following cases:
 The in-doubt transaction has locks on critical data or undo segments.
 The cause of the machine, network, or software failure cannot be repaired quickly.
Resolution of in-doubt transactions can be complicated. The procedure requires that you do the
following:
 Identify the transaction identification number for the in-doubt transaction.
 Query the DBA_2PC_PENDING and DBA_2PC_NEIGHBORS views to determine
whether the databases involved in the transaction have committed.
 If necessary, force a commit using the COMMIT FORCE statement or a rollback using
the ROLLBACK FORCE statement.

3.14 Relevance of System Change Numbers for In-Doubt Transactions

A system change number (SCN) is an internal timestamp for a committed version of the
database. The Oracle Database server uses the SCN clock value to guarantee transaction
consistency. For example, when a user commits a transaction, the database records an SCN for
this commit in the redo log.
The database uses SCNs to coordinate distributed transactions among different databases. For
example, the database uses SCNs in the following way:
1. An application establishes a connection using a database link.
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2. The distributed transaction commits with the highest global SCN among all the
databases involved.
3. The commit global SCN is sent to all databases involved in the transaction.
SCNs are important for distributed transactions because they function as a synchronized
commit timestamp of a transaction, even if the transaction fails. If a transaction becomes in-
doubt, an administrator can use this SCN to coordinate changes made to the global database.
The global SCN for the transaction commit can also be used to identify the transaction later,
for example, in distributed recovery.

Discussion
What is biggest crime ever committed in the cyber space?

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises

Explain the different sources of law.

Answer
a) Legislation: - It is the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by
the constitution. It stands in contrasted with judge made law. Legislation consists of written
laws, as contrasted with judge made law or common law. It also stans in contrasted to
customary law.
b) Common Law: - It comprises the body of principle, which derive their authority solely from
the decisions of courts. It is a body of law that develops and derives through judicial decisions
different from legislative enactments. Its principals do not derive their validity from formal law
making by anybody, but from their enunciation through decisions of courts.
c) Custom: - Custom‟ denotes a usage or practice of the people (including a particular social
group or a group residing in a particular locality) which by common adoption and acquiescence
and by long and unvarying habit, has become compulsory and has acquired the force of law
with respect to the place or subject matter to which it relates.

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5.0 Conclusion
Cyberlaw does concern you. As the nature of Internet is changing and this new medium is being
seen as the ultimate medium ever evolved in human history, every activity of yours in
Cyberspace can and will have a Cyber legal perspective. From the time you register your
Domain Name, to the time you set up your web site, to the time you promote your website, to
the time when you send and receive emails, to the time you conduct electronic commerce
transactions on the said site, at every point of time, there are various Cyberlaw issues involved.

6.0 Summary
Cyber law describes the legal issues related to use of communications technology, particularly
"cyberspace", i.e. the Internet. It is less a distinct field of law in the way that property or contract
are as it is an intersection of many legal fields. Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the
challenges presented by human activity on the Internet with legacy system of laws applicable
to the physical world.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Dudley, A., Braman, J., & Vincenti, G. (2011). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics:
Issues, Impacts and Practices: Issues, Impacts and Practices (Issue January).
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_-aeBQAAQBAJ&pgis=1
Isha Upadhyay (September, 2020). Cyber Law: A Comprehensive Guide For 2021.
https://www.jigsawacademy.com/blogs/cyber-security/what-is-cyber-law/. Last accessed:
December, 2021.

Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal:
Libraries and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017
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Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in\

Trachtman, J. P. (2013). Cyberspace and Cybersecurity. In The Future of International Law.

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139565585.006

Vikaspedia. Cyber Laws. https://vikaspedia.in/education/digital-litercy/information-

security/cyber-laws. Last accessed: 30 December, 2021

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UNIT 2 Flat and Nested Distributed Transactions

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions
3.2 Transactions Commands
3.3 Roles for Running a Transactions Successfully
3.4 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions
3.4.1 Flat Transactions
3.4.1.1 Limitations of a Flat Transactions
3.4.2 Nested Transactions
3.4.2.1 Advantage
3.5 Role
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
The cyberspace is anticipated to become even more complex in the upcoming years, with the
increase in networks and devices connected to it. India as a nation has encountered several
cyber-attacks which forced the government to impose cyber law that regulates the code and
conducts of the people of India and international on the cyberspace. In this unit, we will discuss
some of the regulations such as ITA 2000, IPC, National Cyber security policy and review
some of the scenarios of cybercrime in India

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, the student will able to
 Understands laws binds to cyberspace
 Know their rights in data and privacy protection
 Learn from existing scenarios of cybercrimes in India

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions

A transaction is a series of object operations that must be done in an ACID-compliant manner.
ACID connotes:
 Atomicity – The transaction is completed entirely or not at all.
 Consistency – It is a term that refers to the transition from one consistent state to another.
 Isolation – It is carried out separately from other transactions.
 Durability – Once completed, it is long lasting.

3.2 Transactions Commands:

 Begin – initiate a new transaction.

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 Commit – End a transaction and the changes made during the transaction are saved. Also,
it allows other transactions to see the modifications you’ve made.
 Abort – End a transaction and all changes made during the transaction will be undone.

3.3 Roles for Running a Transaction Successfully :

 Client – The transactions are issued by the clients.
 Coordinator – The execution of the entire transaction is controlled by it (handles Begin,
commit & abort).
 Server – Every component that accesses or modifies a resource is subject to transaction
control. The coordinator must be known by the transactional server. The transactional
server registers its participation in a transaction with the coordinator.

A flat or nested transaction that accesses objects handled by different servers is referred to as
a distributed transaction. When a distributed transaction reaches its end, in order to maintain
the atomicity property of the transaction, it is mandatory that all of the servers involved in the
transaction either commit the transaction or abort it.
To do this, one of the servers takes on the job of coordinator, which entails ensuring that the
same outcome is achieved across all servers.
The method by which the coordinator accomplishes this is determined by the protocol selected.
The most widely used protocol is the ‘two-phase commit protocol.’ This protocol enables the
servers to communicate with one another in order to come to a joint decision on whether to
commit or abort the complete transaction.

3.4 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions

If a client transaction calls actions on multiple servers, it is said to be distributed.
Distributed transactions can be structured in two different ways:
1. Flat transactions
2. Nested transactions

3.4.1 Flat Transactions:

A flat transaction has a single initiating point (Begin) and a single end point(Commit
or abort). They are usually very simple and are generally used for short activities

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rather than larger ones. A client makes requests to multiple servers in a flat
transaction. Transaction T, for example, is a flat transaction that performs operations
on objects in servers X, Y, and Z.
Before moving on to the next request, a flat client transaction completes the previous
one. As a result, each transaction visits the server object in order. A transaction can
only wait for one object at a time when servers utilize locking.

Figure 25: Flat Transactions

3.4.1.1 Limitations of a Flat Transaction:

 All work is lost in the event of a crash.
 Only one DBMS may be used at a time.
 No partial rollback is possible.

3.4.2 Nested Transactions:

A transaction that includes other transactions within its initiating point and a end point are
known as nested transactions. So the nesting of the transactions is done in a transaction. The
nested transactions here are called sub-transactions. The top-level transaction in a nested
transaction can open sub-transactions, and each sub-transaction can open more sub-
transactions down to any depth of nesting. A client’s transaction T opens up two sub-
transactions, T1 and T2, which access objects on servers X and Y, as shown in the diagram

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below. T1.1, T1.2, T2.1, and T2.2, which access the objects on the servers M, N and P are
opened by the sub-transactions T1 and T2.

Figure 26: Nested Transactions

Concurrent Execution of the Sub-transactions is done which are at the same level – in the nested
transaction strategy. Here, in the above diagram, T1 and T2 invoke objects on different servers
and hence they can run in parallel and are therefore concurrent.
T1.1, T1.2, T2.1, and T2.2 are four sub-transactions. These sub-transactions can also run in
parallel.
Consider a distributed transaction (T) in which a customer transfers:
 $105 from account A to account C and
 Subsequently, $205 from account B to account D.

It can be viewed/ thought of as:

Transaction T:
Start
Transfer $105 from A to C:
Deduct $105 from A (withdraw from A) & Add $105 to C (deposit to C)
Transfer $205 from B to D:
Deduct $205 from B (withdraw from B) & Add $205 to D (deposit to D)
End
Assuming that:
1. Account A is on server X

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2. Account B is on server Y, and
3. Accounts C and D are on server Z.

The transaction T involves four requests – 2 for deposits and 2 for withdrawals. Now they can
be treated as sub transactions (T1, T2, T3, T4) of the transaction T.
As shown in the figure below, transaction T is designed as a set of four nested transactions: T1,
T2, T3 and T4.

3.4.2.1 Advantage:
The performance is higher than a single transaction in which four operations are invoked one
after the other in sequence.

Figure 27: Nested Transactions

So, the Transaction T may be divided into sub-transactions as:

//Start the Transaction
T = open transaction
//T1
openSubtransaction
a.withdraw(105);
//T2
openSubtransaction
b.withdraw(205);
//T3
openSubtransaction
c.deposit(105);

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//T4
openSubtransaction
d.deposit(205);
//End the transaction
close Transaction

3.5 Role of coordinator:

When the Distributed Transaction commits, the servers that are involved in the transaction
execution, for proper coordination, must be able to communicate with one another .
When a client initiates a transaction, an “openTransaction” request is sent to any coordinator
server. The contacted coordinator carries out the “openTransaction” and returns the transaction
identifier to the client. Distributed transaction identifiers must be unique within the distributed
system. A simple way is to generate a TID contains two parts – the ‘server identifier” (example
:IP address) of the server that created it and a number unique to the server.
The coordinator who initiated the transaction becomes the distributed transaction’s coordinator
and has the responsibility of either aborting it or committing it.
Every server that manages an object accessed by a transaction is a participant in the transaction
& provides an object we call the participant. The participants are responsible for working
together with the coordinator to complete the commit process.
The coordinator every time, records the new participant in the participants list. Each participant
knows the coordinator & the coordinator knows all the participants. This enables them to
collect the information that will be needed at the time of commit and hence work in
coordination.

Discussion
Discuss any two cybercrimes in your country.

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises

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Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act 2000.
Answer
The following acts are cyber crime in the I.T. Act 2000:- Without permission of the authorized
user
i) Accessing or securing access to computer system or network.
ii) Downloading, coping or extracting any data or information.
iii) Introducing any computer, virus or contaminant in the computer.
iv) Disrupting the working of the computer.
v) Disrupting the access of the computer of an authorized user.
vi) Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer.
vii) Tampering with computer source documents.
viii) Hacking of computer system.
ix) Carring on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act.

What are the amendments to the Indian Penal Code?

Answer
The Indian Panel Code (IPC) details actions that constitute a crime and the punishments
prescribed for such actions. It elaborately classifies crimes based on interests that are intended
to be protected. The classification includes :-
i) Offences against body
ii) Offences against property
iii) Offences against marriage
iv) Offences against public tranquility
v) Offences against state Some important aspects have to be weighed while
determining whether a crime has been committed or not.

5.0 Conclusion
Cybercrimes are a new class of crimes which are increasing day by day due to extensive use of
internet these days.

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6.0 Summary
Technology Act, 2000 was enacted with prime objective to create an enabling environment for
commercial use of I.T. The IT Act specifies the acts which have been made punishable. The
Indian Penal Code, 1860 has also been amended to take into its purview cybercrimes.

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7.0 References/Further Reading

Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions - GeeksforGeeks

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UNIT 3 Concurrency

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Concurrency
3.2 Two Models for Concurrent Programming
3.2.1 Shared Memory
3.2.2 Message Passing
3.3 Processes, Threads & Time-Slicing
3.3.1 Process
3.3.2 Thread
3.3.3 Time Slicing
3.4 Shared Memory Example
3.4.1 Interleaving
3.4.2 Race Condition
3.4.3 Reordering
3.5 Message Passing Example
3.6 Concurrent is Hard to Test and Debug
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Cybercrime is "international" that there are ‘no cyber-borders between countries’  The
complexity in types and forms of cybercrime increases the difficulty to fight back, fighting
cybercrime calls for international cooperation . Various organizations and governments have
already made joint efforts in establishing global standards of legislation and law enforcement
both on a regional and on an international scale.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, student will able to
 Explain international laws and treaties
 Explain international cyber-attacks previously occurred

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Concurrency
Concurrency means multiple computations are happening at the same time. Concurrency is
everywhere in modern programming, whether we like it or not:
 Multiple computers in a network
 Multiple applications running on one computer
 Multiple processors in a computer (today, often multiple processor cores on a single chip)
In fact, concurrency is essential in modern programming:
 Web sites must handle multiple simultaneous users.
 Mobile apps need to do some of their processing on servers (“in the cloud”).
 Graphical user interfaces almost always require background work that does not
interrupt the user. For example, Eclipse compiles your Java code while you’re still
editing it.

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Being able to program with concurrency will still be important in the future. Processor clock
speeds are no longer increasing. Instead, we are getting more cores with each new generation
of chips. So in the future, in order to get a computation to run faster, we’ll have to split up a
computation into concurrent pieces.
3.2 Two Models for Concurrent Programming
There are two common models for concurrent programming:
 Shared memory and
 Message passing.

Figure 28: Shared Memory

3.2.1 Shared memory

In the shared memory model of concurrency, concurrent modules interact by reading and
writing shared objects in memory. Other examples of the shared-memory model:
 A and B might be two processors (or processor cores) in the same computer, sharing
the same physical memory.
 A and B might be two programs running on the same computer, sharing a common
filesystem with files they can read and write.
 A and B might be two threads in the same Java program (we will explain what a thread
is below), sharing the same Java objects.

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3.2.2 Message Passing
In the message-passing model, concurrent modules interact by sending messages to each other
through a communication channel. Modules send off messages, and incoming messages to each
module are queued up for handling. Examples include:
 A and B might be two computers in a network, communicating by network connections.
 A and B might be a web browser and a web server – A opens a connection to B, asks for
a web page, and B sends the web page data back to A.
 A and B might be an instant messaging client and server.
 A and B might be two programs running on the same computer whose input and output
have been connected by a pipe, like ls | grep typed into a command prompt.

3.3 Processes, Threads, Time-slicing

 The message-passing and shared-memory models are about how concurrent modules
communicate. The concurrent modules themselves come in two different kinds:
processes and threads.
3.3.1 Process.
 A process is an instance of a running program that is isolated from other processes on
the same machine. In particular, it has its own private section of the machine’s memory.
 The process abstraction is a virtual computer. It makes the program feel like it has the
entire machine to itself – like a fresh computer has been created, with fresh memory,
just to run that program.

 Just like computers connected across a network, processes normally share no memory
between them. A process can’t access another process’s memory or objects at all.
Sharing memory between processes is possible on most operating system, but it needs
special effort. By contrast, a new process is automatically ready for message passing,
because it is created with standard input & output streams, which are
the System.out and System.in streams you’ve used in Java.
3.3.2 Thread
A thread is a locus of control inside a running program. Think of it as a place in the program
that is being run, plus the stack of method calls that led to that place to which it will be necessary
to return through.
 Just as a process represents a virtual computer, the thread abstraction represents
a virtual processor. Making a new thread simulates making a fresh processor inside the

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virtual computer represented by the process. This new virtual processor runs the same
program and shares the same memory as other threads in process.
 Threads are automatically ready for shared memory, because threads share all the
memory in the process. It needs special effort to get “thread-local” memory that’s
private to a single thread. It’s also necessary to set up message-passing explicitly, by
creating and using queue data structures. We will talk about how to do that in a future
reading.

Figure 29: Many Concurrent Threads, One or Two Processors

3.3.3 Time Slicing

 When there are more threads than processors, concurrency is simulated by time slicing,
which means that the processor switches between threads. The figure on the right,
above, shows how three threads T1, T2, and T3 might be time-sliced on a machine that
has only two actual processors. In the figure 2, time proceeds downward, so at first one
processor is running thread T1 and the other is running thread T2, and then the second
processor switches to run thread T3. Thread T2 simply pauses, until its next time slice
on the same processor or another processor.
 On most systems, time slicing happens unpredictably and non-deterministically,
meaning that a thread may be paused or resumed at any time.

3.4 Shared Memory Example

Let’s look at an example of a shared memory system. The point of this example is to show that
concurrent programming is hard, because it can have subtle bugs.

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Imagine that a bank has cash machines that use a shared memory model, so all the cash
machines can read and write the same account objects in memory. To illustrate what can go
wrong, let’s simplify the bank down to a single account, with a dollar balance stored in
the balance variable, and two operations deposit and withdraw that simply add or remove a
dollar:

// suppose all the cash machines share a single bank account

private static int balance = 0;

private static void deposit() {

balance = balance + 1;
}
private static void withdraw() {
balance = balance - 1;
}

Customers use the cash machines to do transactions like this:

deposit(); // put a dollar in

withdraw(); // take it back out

In this simple example, every transaction is just a one dollar deposit followed by a one-dollar
withdrawal, so it should leave the balance in the account unchanged. Throughout the day, each
cash machine in our network is processing a sequence of deposit/withdraw transactions.

// each ATM does a bunch of transactions that

// modify balance, but leave it unchanged afterward
private static void cashMachine() {
for (int i = 0; i < TRANSACTIONS_PER_MACHINE; ++i) {
deposit(); // put a dollar in
withdraw(); // take it back out
}
}

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So at the end of the day, regardless of how many cash machines were running, or how many
transactions we processed, we should expect the account balance to still be 0.
But if we run this code, we discover frequently that the balance at the end of the day is not 0.
If more than one cashMachine() call is running at the same time – say, on separate processors
in the same computer – then balance may not be zero at the end of the day.

3.4.1 Interleaving
Here is one thing that can happen. Suppose two cash machines, A and B, are both working on
a deposit at the same time. Here is how the deposit() step typically breaks down into low-level
processor instructions:

get balance (balance=0)

add 1
write back the result (balance=1)

When A and B are running concurrently, these low-level instructions interleave with each other
(some might even be simultaneous in some sense, but let’s just worry about interleaving for
now):

A get balance (balance=0)

A add 1
A write back the result (balance=1)
B get balance (balance=1)
B add 1
B write back the result (balance=2)

This interleaving is fine – we end up with balance 2, so both A and B successfully put in a
dollar. But what if the interleaving looked like this:

A get balance (balance=0)

B get balance (balance=0)
A add 1
B add 1
A write back the result (balance=1)
B write back the result (balance=1)

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The balance is now 1 – A’s dollar was lost! A and B both read the balance at the same time,
computed separate final balances, and then raced to store back the new balance – which failed
to take the other’s deposit into account.

3.4.2 Race Condition

A race condition means that the correctness of the program (the satisfaction of postconditions
and invariants) depends on the relative timing of events in concurrent computations A and B.
When this happens, we say “A is in a race with B.”
Some interleavings of events may be OK, in the sense that they are consistent with what a
single, nonconcurrent process would produce, but other interleavings produce wrong answers
– violating postconditions or invariants.
All these versions of the bank-account code exhibit the same race condition:

// version 1
private static void deposit() {
balance = balance + 1;
}
private static void withdraw() {
balance = balance - 1;
}
// version 2
private static void deposit() {
balance += 1;
}
private static void withdraw() {
balance -= 1;
}
// version 3
private static void deposit() {
++balance;
}
private static void withdraw() {

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--balance;
}

You cannot tell just from looking at Java code how the processor is going to execute it. You
can’t tell what the indivisible operations – the atomic operations – will be. It isn’t atomic just
because it’s one line of Java. It doesn’t touch balance only once just because the balance
identifier occurs only once in the line. The Java compiler, and in fact the processor itself, makes
no commitments about what low-level operations it will generate from your code. In fact, a
typical modern Java compiler produces exactly the same code for all three of these versions!
The key lesson is that you cannot tell by looking at an expression whether it will be safe from
race conditions.

3.4.3 Reordering
The race condition on the bank account balance can be explained in terms of different
interleavings of sequential operations on different processors. But in fact, when you are using
multiple variables and multiple processors, you cannot even count on changes to those
variables appearing in the same order.
Here’s an example:

private boolean ready = false;

private int answer = 0;

// computeAnswer runs in one thread

private void computeAnswer() {
answer = 42;
ready = true;
}

// useAnswer runs in a different thread

private void useAnswer() {
while (!ready) {
Thread.yield();
}
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if (answer == 0) throw new RuntimeException("answer wasn't ready!");

}

We have two methods that are being run in different threads. computeAnswer does a long
calculation, finally coming up with the answer 42, which it puts in the answer variable. Then
it sets the ready variable to true, in order to signal to the method running in the other
thread, useAnswer, that the answer is ready for it to use. Looking at the code, answer is set
before ready is set, so once useAnswer sees ready as true, then it seems reasonable that it can
assume that the answer will be 42 but quite not true.
The problem is that modern compilers and processors do a lot of things to make the code fast.
One of those things is making temporary copies of variables like answer and ready in faster
storage (registers or caches on a processor), and working with them temporarily before
eventually storing them back to their official location in memory. The storeback may occur in
a different order than the variables were manipulated in your code. Here is what might be going
on under the covers (but expressed in Java syntax to make it clear). The processor is effectively
creating two temporary variables, tmpr and tmpa, to manipulate the fields ready and answer:

private void computeAnswer() {

boolean tmpr = ready;
int tmpa = answer;

tmpa = 42;
tmpr = true;

ready = tmpr;
// <-- what happens if useAnswer() interleaves here?
// ready is set, but answer isn't.
answer = tmpa;
}

3.5 Message Passing Example

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Now let us look at the message-passing approach to our bank account example.
Now not only are the cash machine modules, but the accounts are modules, too. Modules
interact by sending messages to each other. Incoming requests are placed in a queue to be
handled one at a time. The sender does not stop working while waiting for an answer to its
request. It handles more requests from its own queue. The reply to its request eventually comes
back as another message.
Unfortunately, message passing does not eliminate the possibility of race conditions. Suppose
each account supports get-balance and withdraw operations, with corresponding messages.
Two users, at cash machine A and B, are both trying to withdraw a dollar from the same
account. They check the balance first to make sure they never withdraw more than the account
holds, because overdrafts trigger big bank penalties:

get-balance
if balance >= 1 then withdraw 1

The problem is again interleaving, but this time interleaving of the messages sent to the bank
account, rather than the instructions executed by A and B. If the account starts with a dollar
in it, then what interleaving of messages will fool A and B into thinking they can both withdraw
a dollar, thereby overdrawing the account?
One lesson here is that you need to carefully choose the operations of a message-passing
model. withdraw-if-sufficient-funds would be a better operation than just withdraw.

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3.6 Concurrency is Hard to Test and Debug

If we have not persuaded you that concurrency is tricky, here is the worst of it. It is very hard
to discover race conditions using testing. And even once a test has found a bug, it may be very
hard to localize it to the part of the program causing it.

Concurrency bugs exhibit very poor reproducibility. It is hard to make them happen the same
way twice. Interleaving of instructions or messages depends on the relative timing of events
that are strongly influenced by the environment. Delays can be caused by other running
programs, other network traffic, operating system scheduling decisions, variations in processor
clock speed, etc. Each time you run a program containing a race condition, you may get
different behavior.

These kinds of bugs are heisenbugs, which are nondeterministic and hard to reproduce, as
opposed to a “bohrbug”, which shows up repeatedly whenever you look at it. Almost all bugs
in sequential programming are bohrbugs.

A heisenbug may even disappear when you try to look at it with println or debugger! The
reason is that printing and debugging are so much slower than other operations, often 100-
1000x slower, that they dramatically change the timing of operations, and the interleaving. So
inserting a simple print statement into the cashMachine():

private static void cashMachine() {

for (int i = 0; i < TRANSACTIONS_PER_MACHINE; ++i) {

deposit(); // put a dollar in

withdraw(); // take it back out

System.out.println(balance); // makes the bug disappear!

…and suddenly the balance is always 0, as desired, and the bug appears to disappear. But it is
only masked, not truly fixed. A change in timing somewhere else in the program may suddenly
make the bug come back.

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Concurrency is hard to get right. Part of the point of this reading is to scare you a bit. Over the
next several readings, we’ll see principled ways to design concurrent programs so that they are
safer from these kinds of bugs.

Discussion
What section of the Information Technology Act (ITA) that sanction internet fraudsters?
Explain the consequence according to the Act.

5.0 Conclusion
A country’s participation in a particular international agreement becomes effective only if
domestic laws are drafted and approved that legislate the intent of the signed international
agreement.

6.0 Summary
Lawmakers and law enforcement agencies, around the world, advocate the need for cyber laws
that are written in the cyber language. That is, laws that explicitly define cyber offenses and
fully support the acceptance of cyber evidence. International bodies, responding to this call,
have convened and produced treaties and conventions that, unfortunately, have fallen short of
receiving total acceptance by the member countries.

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7.0 References/Further Reading

Concepts: Concurrency (uhcl.edu)
Processes and Threads (The Java™ Tutorials > Essential Java Classes > Concurrency)
(oracle.com)

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UNIT 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
3.1.1 A Service
3.2 An Example: SOA Apps Provide a Cohesive Platform for Overstock.com (a
large Online Retailer)
3.3 The 6 Defining Concepts of SOA
3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analogy
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Ethics is, therefore, the study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics can also be defined
as a theoretical examination of morality or “theory of morals.” Other philosophers have defined
ethics in a variety of ways. Robert C. Solomon, in Morality and the Good Life, defines ethics
as a set of “theories of value, virtue, or of right (valuable) action.” O.J. Johnson, on the other
hand, defines ethics as a set of theories “that provide general rules or principles to be used in
making moral decisions and, unlike ordinary intuitions, provides a justification for those
rules.”The word ethicscomes from the ancient Greek word eché, which means character. Every
human society practices ethics in some way because every society attaches a value on a
continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions according to where that
individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s rules and canons.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Understand the use of ethical theories in ethical arguments.
 Articulate the ethical tradeoffs in a technical decision.
 Understand the role of professional codes of ethics.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
Service-Oriented Architecture, can be defined as "services" that provide a platform by which
disparate systems can communicate with each other. These services are essentially groups of
software components that help a company seamlessly carry out important business processes.
SOA implementation makes interoperability between heterogeneous applications and
technologies possible.

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The rise of SOA technology and integration in recent years is placing it as one of the most
important applications for communicating between different systems — or in this context,
services.

3.1.1 A Service
Services represent building blocks that allow users to organize information in ways that are
familiar to them. These building blocks combine information about users and their behavior in
a seamless fashion to present a relatively simple interface.
A service is commonly characterized by these four properties:
1. It logically represents a business activity with a specified outcome.
2. It is self-contained
3. It is a black box for its consumers
4. It may consist of other underlying services
To further simplify this concept, an SOA service is the mechanism that satisfies a customer’s
wants or needs through a negotiated contract. Therefore, SOA is a collection of different
services.
To better understand what service-oriented architecture is all about, consider this quote from
industry expert David Sprott:

3.2 An Example: SOA Apps Provide a Cohesive Platform for Overstock.com (a large
Online Retailer)
Communication of services can involve something as simple as passing data, or it can involve
a coordination of an activity between two or more different SOA services.
One way to illustrate the SOA method is by taking a look at a large online retailer like
Overstock.com.
In order for Overstock customers to make a transaction, different programs must work together
seamlessly. The various steps in the ordering process can involve various programs developed
at different times, each using their own unique platforms and technologies.
For instance, there might be one program that tracks inventory, which is different than the
interface (i.e. the Internet) the customer uses to shop. Then, there is likely an entirely different
program for their shopping cart and another for processing payment.
SOA services tie all of these various programs together so that an online shopper can quickly
find out if what they are looking for is in stock and get it shipped to their doorstep with just a
few clicks of their mouse.

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3.3 The 6 Defining Concepts of SOA

In October of 2009, a manifesto was created about service-oriented architecture.
This manifesto states that there are six core values of SOA:
1. Business value is more important than technical strategy.
2. Strategic goals are more valuable than project-specific benefits.
3. Intrinsic interoperability is greater than custom integration.
4. Shared services over specific-purpose implementations.
5. Flexibility is given more importance than optimization.
6. Evolutionary refinement is more important than pursuit of initial perfection.

3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analogy

Another way to think about SOA is through the analogy of transportation.
Imagine that you have to travel from your home in Ibadan to a business conference or trade
show in Kano. What are the various steps you might take to get there?
First, you will have to drive to the airport, then take a shuttle to the airport terminal. Next, you
will board the plane for Kano. After landing, you take another shuttle from the gate to the main
terminal, where you have to flag down a taxi or call an Uber to drive you to your hotel. When
it is time for the conference to start, you walk to the nearest train stop, hop on, and ride it to the
conference center.
All of these various transportation methods worked together to accomplish your end goal of
attending the conference — your car, the shuttle bus, airplane, train, and even walking. There
were many individual “steps” you had to take to arrive at your final destination on time, and
there were likely other ways you could have gone about it.
For instance, instead of driving to the airport, you could have walked to a train station or bus
stop and gotten to the airport this way. Or you could have driven completely across the country,
thus eliminating your need for any other type of transportation altogether.
However, by combining numerous transportation methods you were able to get to the
conference faster and probably cheaper than if you had driven the whole way.
In this analogy of SOA, the various modes of transportation can be viewed as the different
“services” used to reach an end goal. Just like the cars, bus, train, and plane all worked together
to help you accomplish your goal of attending the conference, combining different units of
software applications (services) can help business achieve new milestones in the most efficient
manner.
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Discussion
Why is ethics relevant in the cyberspace?

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
1. What are the ten commandments for computer ethics?
Answer
i. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
ii. Thou shalt not interfere with other people‟s computer work.
iii. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people‟s files.
iv. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
v. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
vi. Thou shalt not use of copy software for which you have not paid.
vii. Thou shalt not use other people‟s computer resources without authorization.
viii. Thou shalt not appropriate other people‟s intellectual output.
ix. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program u write.
x. Thou shalt use a computer in ways to show consideration and respect.

2. Explain the three levels of computer ethics.

Answer
 First level: - It is the basic level where computer ethics tries to sensitize people to the
fact that computer technology has social and ethical consequences. Newspaper, TV
news program, and magazines have highlighted the topic of computer ethics by
reporting on events relating to computer viruses, software ownership law suits,
computer aided bank robbery, computer malfunction etc.
 Second level:- It consists of someone who takes interest in computer ethics cases,
collects examples, clarifies them, looks for similarities and differences reads related
works, attends relevant events to make preliminary assessments and after comparing
them.
 Third level: - It referred to as „theoretical‟ computer ethics applies scholarly theories
to computer ethics cases and concepts in order to deepen the understanding of issues.
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All three level of analysis are important to the goal of advancing and defending human
values.

5.0 Conclusion
The role of ethics is to help societies distinguish between right and wrong and to give each
society a basis for justifying the judgment of human actions. Ethics is, therefore, a field of
inquiry whose subject is human actions, collectively called human conduct, that are taken
consciously, willfully, and for which one can be held responsible. According to Fr. Austin
Fagothey, such acts must have knowledge, which signifies the presence of a motive, be
voluntary, and have freedom to signify the presence of free choice to act or not to act.

6.0 Summary
The purpose of ethics is to interpret human conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing
between right and wrong. The interpretation is based on a system which uses a mixture of
induction and deduction. In most cases, these arguments are based on historical schools of
thought called ethical theories. There are many different kinds of ethical theories, and within
each theory there may be different versions of that theory. Let us discuss these next.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Alfreda D. et al. (2012). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics: Issues, Impacts, and
Practices. Information Science Reference, USA. ISBN 978-1-61350-133-7

Baldini, Gianmarco, Botterman, Maarten, Neisse, Ricardo, and Tallacchini, Mariachiara

(2016) “Ethical Design in the Internet of Things,” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-21.
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Bustard, John D. (2017), “Improving Student Engagement in the Study of Professional Ethics:
Concepts and an Example in Cyber Security” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-16.

Dipert, Randall R. (2010) “The Ethics of Cyberwarfare,” Journal of Military Ethics 9:4, 384-
410

ICSI (2016). Cybercrime Law and Practice. THE INSTITUTE OF COMPANY SCRETARIES
OF INDIA. ISBN : 978-93-82207795.

Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal:
Libraries and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017

Manjikian, Mary (2017) Cybersecurity Ethics: An Introduction, Routledge; 240 pp. Taddeo,

Mariarosaria and Glorioso, Ludovica (2017) Ethics and Policies for Cyber Operations,
Springer. EC Council (2016) Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures (Book Series, 4 volumes),
Cengage Learning

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Module 5: Mobile & Cloud Computing

Introduction to Module
As soon as cyberspace and e-commerce were created in the mid-1990s, cybercrime flourished
on a parallel track. Today, cybercrime has been doubling every single year in the number of
incidents, as well as monetary losses. It is impossible to truly quantify cybercrime because
most victims only see further losses in publicizing their inability to defend themselves from
this modern day menace. The interesting note is that, of the cybercriminals who have been
caught, the vast majority have pleaded guilty. The word ethics comes from the ancient Greek
word eché, which means character. Every human society practices ethics in some way because
every society attaches a value on a continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s
actions according to where that individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s
rules and canons. In this module, Cyber crime Acts will be address which provide legal
backings to human data and privacy.

Unit 1: Concept of Cyber Law

Unit 2: The INDIA cyber-Acts

Unit 3: The International Laws

Unit 4: Cyber Ethics

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UNIT 1 Introduction to Mobile & Cloud Computing

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Mobile and Cloud Computing
3.2 Cloud Computing
3.3 Capabilities of Cloud Computing
3.4 Categories of Cloud Computing Models
3.4.1 Software as a Service (SaaS)
3.4.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3.4.3 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
3.5 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)
3.5.1 Advantage of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.5.2 Disadvantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.6 Mobile & Cloud Computing Security Concerns
3.7 The Top Threats in the Usage of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.7.1 Data Loss
3.7.2 Untrusted Service Providers
3.7.3 Insecure API
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Cloud Computing seems to be the most promising technology of the century we are living. It
provides a new manner of sharing distributed resources and services that may be part of
different organizations, geographycally located in different places and different time zones.
Mobile Cloud Computing offers partially the same functionality, with the only additional
requirement that, at least, some of the devices are mobile. In this paper, we will try to provide
a detailed explanation of Mobile Cloud Computing concept by providing different examples,
figures, accessibility, pros and cons and comparison.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, student will able to
 Justify cyber crimes as sanctioned in cyber laws
 Demonstrate the concept of cyber law

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.2 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing is the delivery of the computing services, such as servers, databases, storage
and networking – over the Internet. These services, usually are offered by so called Cloud
Providers, that usually charge based on usage.
Nowadays, everyone that is using a device connected to Internet, might be user of cloud
services, even though we might not be aware of it. Almost every online service, including
email, document editors or entertaining apps, might be running using cloud services.

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Figure 30: Cloud Computing

3.3 Capabilities of Cloud Computing

Generally, these are a few of the capabilities of Cloud Computing:
 Create new apps and services
 Store, back up and recover data
 Deliver software
 Analyse data for pattern recognition
 Streaming.
Besides the capabilities that Cloud Computing provides, there are also a lot of benefits that it
can offer.
 Cost – using cloud services lowers the costs that organizations need to spend for buying
hardware and software tools for setting up the infrastructure for its needs.
 Speed – when the organization needs more resources, provisioning additional resources
in cloud services can be done in minutes.
 Scaling – the ability to scale elastically on demand using cloud services appears as their
main and most common use case – processing power, storage, bandwidth and whatever
the demand is, in less than a minute.
Depending on the type of service a Service Providers provides, there are several categories of
Cloud Computing models, as listed:

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3.4 Categories of Cloud Computing models

3.4.1 Software as a Service (SaaS)
The providers that provide this model of Cloud Computing solutions usually provide a web-
based application where the users of the service can operate. In this model, the consumer does
not have any control over the infrastructure in which the service is running, including the
network, servers, storage or operating system. It removes the need that several organizations
or companies will have to install and run their applications or services on their data centers or
company computers. By this, the organizations save a lot of financial resources by saving
money on the hardware they would need to run the application, the rent of space where the data
center would be located on, or even software license for operating systems and depending
software.
3.4.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Platform as a Service is another Cloud Computing model in which the third-party provider
provides the necessary hardware and software tools – usually required for development or
research – over the Internet. In other words, all the programming languages, libraries, services
and other programming tools provided by the provider are deployed in the cloud infrastructure
that the provider provides. Similar as in the previous model, SaaS, the end user does not have
any control nor have to manage any part of the infrastructure, such as network, operating
systems and storage.
3.4.3 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
According to most of the information provided by different surveys, IaaS is the most common
cloud-based model provided by the service providers. IaaS refers to the service providers who
provide processing capability, storage, network and other fundamental computing resources,
to the consumer who wants to run any type of software. Usually these services are made
possible by using virtual machines as instances. Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, KVM or Hyper-V are
typical examples of providers that offer great possibilities to run these VMs.

3.5 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)

In the consumer space, mobility players such as Apple, Google, and Microsoft all offer variants
of cloud-based apps and private storage. However, the line between the individual and the
professional is increasingly being blurred. Allowing employees access to company resources
using private devices makes them expect access to your CRM system on their iPad, with (near)

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real-time business intelligence reports delivered by the touch of a finger while sharing analysis
with their teams on the collaboration platform.
Most of the companies tend to move their apps and services in the cloud. Every company’s
mission is to grow and evolve. Considering this case, organizations face trouble with new
coming employees, which bring their own devices, services and apps. This means that, it
requires more efforts and time to integrate the data to the corporate cloud, in order to ensure
support and control over usage of the same. When we add the complex format of making sure
that corporate services are up to date, all this process becomes a mess and quite often it becomes
a challenging task for the responsible employees.

3.5.1 Advantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing

Mobile Cloud Computing offers a bunch of advantages while using cloud services. Following
are listed some of the most important ones:
 Flexibility – one of key advantages while using MCC is that the cloud information can
be used anywhere, everywhere; all you need is a mobile device of any kind, which is
paired or configured with the organization cloud platform.
 Real time available data – accessing the data in real time is no longer a challenge while
you are out of the office.
 No upfront payments – last, but not least – payments. Commonly, cloud applications
does not require payment without using it. It is mostly the case pay-for-use, which helps
in growing the adoption of the model.

3.5.2 Disadvantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing (MCC)

Whenever there are advantages on any issue, it is sure there would be the disadvantages as
well. The following are some listed and most important disadvantages of Mobile and Cloud
Computing.
 Security – a major concern with Cloud Computing is the security and data integration.
When mobile is the subject, the attention must be two times higher: unprotected
information can be easily sniffed.
 Internet connection – considering the flexibility of MCC, allowing the users to access
the data from anywhere, requires Internet connection. Making sure that, when accessing
data, the user have access to strong and stable Internet connection, often can cause
headache, especially in non-metropolitan areas.

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 Performance – considering smaller size and lower hardware performance, it is

understandable that the performance with MCC will be in a much lower level.

3.6 Mobile Cloud Computing Security Concerns

One of the most significant concerns of Cloud Computing in general and Mobile and Cloud
Computing particularly, is data security.
Mobile devices are at the top of the list of the most significant security risks. Confidentiality,
integrity and authenticity of information are the most particular threat. Confidentiality is
considered a risk when unauthorized parties manage to intercept data transmission. Allowing
such a thing, risks the integrity of the data. The authenticity is risked when these unauthorized
parties can use the devices to trigger transactions.
The latest trends of using mobile devices is by using free applications, which can be infected
by malicious software. Using open channels over network threatens confidential information.
Thus, these applications are often updated or upgraded, trying to provide as much security as
possible.

3.7 The Top Threats in the usage of Mobile and Cloud Computing.
3.7.1 Data Loss
Using Cloud Computing is more like outsourcing the data to the service provider.
This means increasing the risk of exposing important data which were not issues in traditional
computing. Since more of the service providers provide shared resources, it is more likely for
the transactions to crash and data to be lost. Recently, there has been a lot of unintentional
deletion of data by the providers. Also, a bad line code can mess up access keys, and the data
is lost.
The following solutions can lower the risk:
- Encryption of data while transmission;
- Using access control tools
- Time-to-time back up
3.7.2 Untrusted service providers
Known as malicious insiders, they are the people who have access and authorization to manage
data in the care of the service providers, offering cloud services. These people can either be
working for other companies or they do it for their personal intentions.

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3.7.3 Insecure API
Usually, the communication between a client (in this case, a mobile device which is handled
by the company’s employee) and the server (which is somewhere in the cloud) is done by an
Application Programming Interface. In order to keep data integration and security in a higher
level, the company providing the API should secure the communication channels and the
information transmitted. Avoiding insecure APIs can be achieved by using the following
techniques:
 Applying authentication and access control tools on data transmission channels
 Implementing the proper security model according to service provider’s security
protocols

Discussion
What is biggest crime ever committed in the cyber space?

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises

Explain the different sources of law.

Answer
a) Legislation: - It is the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by
the constitution. It stands in contrasted with judge made law. Legislation consists of written
laws, as contrasted with judge made law or common law. It also stans in contrasted to
customary law.
b) Common Law: - It comprises the body of principle, which derive their authority solely from
the decisions of courts. It is a body of law that develops and derives through judicial decisions
different from legislative enactments. Its principals do not derive their validity from formal law
making by anybody, but from their enunciation through decisions of courts.
c) Custom: - Custom‟ denotes a usage or practice of the people (including a particular social
group or a group residing in a particular locality) which by common adoption and acquiescence
and by long and unvarying habit, has become compulsory and has acquired the force of law
with respect to the place or subject matter to which it relates.

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5.0 Conclusion
Nowadays, Cloud Computing is moving in big strides towards becoming the most popular and
the used technology, either in the organizational context, or personal domaina. Considering the
fact that mobile technology provides flexibility, compactness and portability, the big players
in the IT industry are really focused on generating, as optimal as possible, solutions that will
drive mobile devices.

6.0 Summary
Cyber law describes the legal issues related to use of communications technology, particularly
"cyberspace", i.e. the Internet. It is less a distinct field of law in the way that property or contract
are as it is an intersection of many legal fields. Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the
challenges presented by human activity on the Internet with legacy system of laws applicable
to the physical world.

7.0 References/Further Reading

1. Lofstad, S.: Trends in Cloud Computing: The Impact of Mobile Devices. Director of Data
Center Technologies at Oracle Insight. 2013.
http://www.oracle.com/us/corporate/profit/archives/opinion/011813-slofstad-1899122.html
2. Bahtovski, A., Gusev, M.: Cloud Computing in Mobile Technologies. The 9th Conference
for Informatics and Information Technology (CIIT 2012).
3. Shanklin, M.: Mobile Cloud Computing (A survey paper written under the guidance of Prof.
Raj Jain). https://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-10/ftp/cloud/
4. Wikipedia: Cloud Computing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing
5. Microsoft Azure: What is cloud computing? A beginner’s guide.
https://azure.microsoft.com/en-in/overview/what-is-cloud-computing/
6. Rouse, M.: Definition: Software as a Service (SaaS). May, 2016.
http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Software-as-a-Service
7. Rouse. M: Definitaion: Platform as a Service (PaaS). September, 2017.
http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Platform-as-a-Service-PaaS
8. Mobile Cloud Computing – Pros and Cons. December, 2014.
https://www.getcloudservices.com/blog/mobile-cloud-computing-pros-and-cons/
9. Kleiner, C., Disterer, G.: Ensuring mobile device security and compliance at the workplace.
Conference on Enterprice Information Systems, HCist 2015, October 7-9, 2015.

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10. Aldossary, S., Allen, W: Data Security, Privacy, Availability and Integrity in Cloud
Computing: Issues and Current Solutions.International Journal of Advanced Computer Science
and Applications, Vol. 7, No. 4, 2016.

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UNIT 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Technologies for Wireless Communications
3.1.1 Radio
3.1.2 Cellular
3.1.3 Satellite
3.1.4 Wi-fi
3.2 Pros & Cons of Microwave Internet Service
3.2.1 Pros-Lower Initials Costs
3.2.2 Cons-Interference
3.2.3 Pro-mobility
3.2.4 Cons-Shared Bandwidth
3.3 Different Types of Roles
3.3.1 AM and FM
3.3.2 Shortwave Radio
3.3.3 Satellite Radio
3.3.4 Ham Radio
3.3.5 Walkie-Talkie
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Wireless communication technology defines any method of communication possible without a
direct physical connection between the two parties, largely describing systems based on radio
waves. The first wireless communication systems came into use at the end of the 19th century,
and the technology has matured significantly over the intervening years. Today, many types of
devices use wireless communication technology, allowing users to remain in contact even in
remote areas.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, the student will able to
 Understands laws binds to cyberspace
 Know their rights in data and privacy protection
 Learn from existing scenarios of cybercrimes in India

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Technologies for Wireless Communication

3.1.1 Radio
Open radio communication was one of the first wireless technologies to find
widespread use, and it still serves a purpose today. Portable multichannel
radios allow users to communicate over short distances, while citizen's band
and maritime radios provide communication services for truckers and sailors.
Ham radio enthusiasts share information and serve as emergency
communication aids during disasters with their powerful amateur broadcasting
equipment, and can even communicate digital data over the radio spectrum.

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3.1.2 Cellular
Cellular networks use encrypted radio links, modulated to allow many different users to
communicate across a single frequency band. Because individual handsets lack significant
broadcasting power, the system relies on a network of cellular towers, capable of triangulating
the source of any signal and handing reception duties off to the most suitable antenna. Data
transmission over cellular networks is possible, with at least, modern 3G systems capable of
speeds approaching that of wired DSL or cable connections. Cellular providers typically meter
their service, charging customers by the minute for voice and by the megabyte for data.

3.1.3 Satellite
Satellite communication is another wireless technology that has found widespread use in
specialized situations. These devices communicate directly with orbiting satellites via a radio
signal, allowing users to stay connected virtually anywhere on Earth. Portable satellite phones
and modems feature more powerful broadcast and reception hardware than cellular devices due
to the increased range, and are correspondingly more expensive. For semi-permanent or
permanent installations, such as outfitting a ship for satellite communication, a more traditional
communication system may link to a single satellite uplink, allowing multiple users to share
the same broadcast equipment.

3.1.4 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a form of low-power wireless communication used by computers and hand-held
electronic devices. In a Wi-Fi setup, a wireless router serves as the communication hub, linking
portable devices to a wired internet connection. These networks are extremely limited in range
due to the low power of the transmissions, allowing users to connect only within close
proximity to a router or signal repeater. Wi-Fi is common in home networking applications,
allowing users to link devices without running lengths of cable, and in commercial applications
where a business may provide wireless Internet access to their customers. Wi-Fi networks may
be free to use, or their owners may secure them with passwords and access restrictions.

3.2 Pros & Cons of Microwave Internet Service

Microwave radio transmission has been used for wireless data transmission since before the
terms wireless broadband or WiFi came into common usage. It was primarily used by
businesses to connect separate office buildings or locations. Transmission was limited by
slower data speeds, line-of-sight connections and bandwidth issues. The development of
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WiMAX -- Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access -- technology has improved
upon these shortcomings.

3.2.1 Pro -- Lower Initial Costs

The costs of installing a microwave tower are significantly less than those of installing
traditional buried cable systems, such as DSL or cable. WiMAX technology has a greater range
than traditional WiFi and is not limited to line-of sight access, providing for a larger potential
customer base per tower. WiMAX operates on frequencies both licensed and non-licensed. The
system is governed by IEEE 802.16 standards, which provides a feasible economic model and
regulated environment for wireless carriers.

3.2.2 Con -- Interference

Radio frequency (RF) transmissions can be adversely affected by weather conditions and
terrain. Temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind can all cause interference with RF
communications. Topographical features like hills and valleys can reflect or block signals. The
density and height of nearby trees will also affect reception. Lakes, rivers and other water
formations are extremely reflective surfaces in regards to radio transmissions. Large buildings
can also create a "shadow" which leaves a dead spot directly behind the structure. These
obstacles necessitate proper layout and planning of the wireless networks to minimize signal
degradation.

3.2.3 Pro -- Mobility

WiMAX was the first of the Fourth Generation, 4G, wireless technologies. Fixed networks can
provide service within a 30 mile area. As long as a customer is within that range they are able
to access the service. Mobile networks have a range of about 2.5 miles, providing even greater
flexibility and availability of connection.

3.2.4 Con -- Shared Bandwidth

All connections within range of a tower share the same bandwidth. WiMAX offers speeds up
to 70Mbps, but this is attainable only in ideal conditions and with a single user. Connection
speeds are significantly reduced as more and more users connect to the network. Slower speeds
also result from being farther from the tower.

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3.3 Different Types of Radios

Radio communication, first developed at the turn of the 20th century, remains a significant part
of the technology landscape despite decades of innovation and scientific breakthroughs. Radios
work by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves that move invisibly at the speed of
light, carrying music and speech in a coded form that depends on the type of radio used. Over
the decades, radio has evolved into many different types, each of which fulfills different needs.

3.3.1 AM and FM

Amplitude modulation, or AM radio, is one of the oldest forms of wireless broadcasting. With
AM, an audio signal rapidly modifies the strength of radio waves in a process called
modulation; an AM receiver decodes the modulation back into sound. With the introduction
of the transistor in the 1960s, pocket-sized AM radios became a reality for the first time.
Although AM's coding scheme is simple, its sound quality is only fair, and it is vulnerable to
electrical noise. FM, which was developed in the 1930s, relies on the modulation of the radio
signal's frequency and not its strength. The higher radio frequencies used for FM as well as the
modulation scheme give it much better sound quality with less noise than AM.

3.3.2 Shortwave Radio

Shortwave radio lies in a range of frequencies from 1.7 to 30 megahertz, just above the AM
radio band in the U.S. Because of the way its frequencies interact with the Earth's ionosphere,
shortwave broadcasts can travel thousands of miles -- under some circumstances, listeners can
tune in anywhere on Earth. Government and commercial stations broadcast on shortwave
frequencies to provide news, information and other content. For example, the U.S. government
runs WWV, a station that gives accurate time information, at 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz.

3.3.3 Satellite Radio

One of the newest forms of broadcasting, satellite radio is a commercial, subscription-based
service that uses a network of satellites to transmit signals over wide areas. Unlike traditional
AM and FM broadcasts, satellite radio is digitally encoded, requiring a special receiver. Even
with the receiver, you cannot tune in unless you have a paid subscription; a computer chip in
the receiver locks out any channels not paid for. Advantages of satellite radio include good
sound quality, nationwide coverage and access to material that sidesteps the Federal
Communications Commission's ban on profanity.

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3.3.4 Ham Radio
An amateur or "ham" radio operator broadcasts and receives signals over a restricted set of
frequencies set aside by the FCC; ham radio requires special training, licensing and equipment.
As with shortwave, ham radio broadcasts can travel thousands of miles depending on the time
of day and other conditions. For many, ham radio serves as an interesting and entertaining
hobby, as operators learn practical radio skills and form friendships with operators in other
countries. In times of natural disaster, local communications may be knocked out; ham
operators are known to step in to pass along life-saving information.

3.3.5 Walkie-Talkie
A walkie-talkie is a portable, handheld device that sends and receives radio signals, usually
within a range of about a mile. Walkie-talkies are used by two or more people to communicate
in situations where cell phone service is poor or unavailable, such as in remote locations or in
buildings. Because walkie-talkies have low power and short range, you don't need a special
license to operate them; they interfere little with other radio signals

Discussion
Discuss any two cybercrimes in your country.

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises

Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act 2000.

Answer
The following acts are cyber crime in the I.T. Act 2000:- Without permission of the authorized
user
x) Accessing or securing access to computer system or network.
xi) Downloading, coping or extracting any data or information.
xii) Introducing any computer, virus or contaminant in the computer.
xiii) Disrupting the working of the computer.
xiv) Disrupting the access of the computer of an authorized user.
xv) Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer.

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xvi) Tampering with computer source documents.
xvii) Hacking of computer system.
xviii) Carring on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act.

What are the amendments to the Indian Penal Code?

Answer
The Indian Panel Code (IPC) details actions that constitute a crime and the punishments
prescribed for such actions. It elaborately classifies crimes based on interests that are intended
to be protected. The classification includes :-
vi) Offences against body
vii) Offences against property
viii) Offences against marriage
ix) Offences against public tranquility
x) Offences against state Some important aspects have to be weighed while
determining whether a crime has been committed or not.

5.0 Conclusion
Cybercrimes are a new class of crimes which are increasing day by day due to extensive use of
internet these days.

6.0 Summary
Technology Act, 2000 was enacted with prime objective to create an enabling environment for
commercial use of I.T. The IT Act specifies the acts which have been made punishable. The
Indian Penal Code, 1860 has also been amended to take into its purview cybercrimes.

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7.0 References/Further Reading

Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions - GeeksforGeeks

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UNIT 3 Wireless Cellular Systems

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Wireless Cellular Systems
3.1.1 Cellular Concepts
3.1.2 Frequency Reuse
3.1.2.1 Interference and Reuse
3.1.3 Multiple Access
3.1.3.1 FDMA
3.1.3.2 TDMA
3.1.3.3 CDMA
3.1.4 Systems Capacity
3.1.4.1 Channel Capacity
3.1.4.2 Cellular Capacity
3.1.4.2.1 Cellular analog Capacity
3.1.4.2.2 TDMA/ EDMA Capacity
3.1.4.2.3 CDMA Capacity
3.1.5 Modulation and Coding
3.1.5.1 Modulations
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Wireless communications are especially useful for mobile applications, so wireless systems are
often designed to cover large areas by splitting them into many smaller cells. This cellular
approach introduces many difficulties such as how to avoid interference, or how to hand-over
from one cell to another, while maintaining good service quality. Coverage, capacity,
interference, and spectrum reuse are important concerns of cellular systems; this chapter
reviews these aspects as well as the technologies, tools, and standards used to optimize them.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, student will able to
 Explain international laws and treaties
 Explain international cyber-attacks previously occurred

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Wireless Cellular Systems

3.1.1 Cellular Concepts

Providing wireless service over wide areas requires different schemes to efficiently
use spectrum in different locations while avoiding interference.

3.1.2 Frequency Reuse

Covering a large geographic area with limited amount of spectrum leads to the reuse
of the same frequency in multiple locations; this leads to co-channel interference
considerations, meaning interference from different areas (or cells) that use the same
frequency channel.

Co-channel interference considerations are usually approached by considering

the following parameters:
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 S : total number of RF channels available (given the amount of spectrum and

t

channel width dictated by technology standard),

 S : number of channels per cell, which reflects system capacity at a given
0

location,
 K: the reuse factor, the number of cells that is repeated to provide coverage
over a large area.

The three quantities are linked by the straightforward relation:

The reuse factor K is therefore an important parameter for capacity. The lowest reuse
factor (K = 1) maximizes capacity; but this has to be balanced with interference
considerations: indeed a higher reuse factor (K = 3, 4, 7, or higher) provides more
distance between cells using the same frequency, which lowers interferences.

3.1.2.1 Interference and Reuse

Spectrum reuse causes interference; quantifying them require us to consider how a signal
propagates from one cell to another. Assume a propagation model using a power path loss
exponent n, that is a model where power decays in 1∕Rn (R being the distance separating
transmit station from receiver). This means that the ratio of received power to transmit power
may be expressed as Pr ∕Pt = A∕Rn, where A is some constant.

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Figure 31: Frequency reuse patterns

Figure 1: Frequency reuse patterns K =3, 4, and 7, on hexagonal cells. Bold contour
shows the pattern of cells repeated to provide wide area coverage. D shows the i

shortest distance between cells reusing the same frequency.

With this model, signal to interference ratios are estimated as

where i0 is the number of co-channel cells nearest to the cell (called first tier or tier one); that
number increases with K. And Di is the distance to the tier-one cells reusing the same frequency
(as shown in figure 1). In the case of hexagonal cell approximation the expression simplifies
to equation 1:

n values vary typically between 2 and 4 with the types of terrain. We will also see that specific
wireless technologies require a certain signal to noise and interference ratio (mostly based on
data rates); so equation (1) leads to a minimal acceptable value for K.

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3.1.3 Multiple Access
A major requirement of cellular networks is to provide an efficient technique for multiple
devices to access the wireless system. These techniques include:
3.1.3.1 FDMA:
Frequency Division Multiple Access, perhaps the most straightforward, in which every user
device uses its own frequency channel. This method was used in the first generation analog
systems.
3.1.3.2 TDMA:
Time Division Multiple Access, in which a radio channel is divided in time slots, and use
devices use their allocated time slots. In fact TDMA systems are often hybrid FDMA as well
as multiple channels are used, most 2G systems were TDMA.
3.1.3.3 CDMA:
Code Division Multiple Access, in which orthogonal (or pseudo orthogonal) codes are used to
differentiate user devices. CDMA is very spectrum efficient, and was used by 3G standards.
There are several approaches to achieve CDMA, such as frequency hooping (FH-CDMA) or
direct spreading (DS-CDMA).
These are the main multiple access techniques, but subtle extensions and combinations can be
devised to obtain more efficient schemes.
3.1.4 System Capacity
Wireless communications deal with at least two main concerns: coverage and capacity.
3.1.4.1 Channel Capacity
One fundamental concept of information theory is one of channel capacity, or how much
information can be transmitted in a communication channel. In the 1940’s Claude Shannon
invented formal characterization of information theory and derived the well-known Shanon’s
capacity theorem. That theorem applies to wireless communications.
The Shannon capacity equation gives an upper bound for the capacity in a non-faded
channel with added white Gaussian noise:

where C= capacity (bits/s), W=bandwidth (Hz), S∕N= signal to noise (and interference) ratio.
That capacity equation assumes one transmitter and one receiver, though multiple antennas
can be used in diversity scheme on the receiving side. The equation singles out two
fundamentally important aspects: bandwidth and SNR.
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Bandwidth reflects how much spectrum a wireless system uses, and explains why the spectrum
considerations are so important: they have a direct impact on system capacity. SNR of course
reflects the quality of the propagation channel, and will be dealt with in numerous ways:
modulation, coding, error correction, and important design choices such as cell sizes and reuse
patterns.
3.1.4.2 Cellular Capacity
Practical capacity of many wireless systems are far from the Shannon’s limit (although recent
standards are coming close to it); and practical capacity is heavily dependent on
implementation and standard choices.
Digital standards deal in their own way with how to deploy and optimize capacity. Most
systems are limited by channel width, time slots, and voice coding characteristics. CDMA
systems are interference limited, and have tradeoffs between capacity, coverage, and other
performance metrics (such as dropped call rates or voice quality).
3.1.4.2.1 Cellular Analog Capacity:
Fairly straight forward, every voice channel uses a 30 kHz frequency channel, these
frequencies may be reused according to a reuse pattern, the system is FDMA. The overall
capacity simply comes from the total amount of spectrum, the channel width and the reuse
pattern.
3.1.4.2.2 TDMA/FDMA Capacity:
In digital FDMA systems, capacity improvements mainly come from the voice coding and
elaborate schemes (such as frequency hopping) to decrease reuse factor. The frequency reuse
factor hides a lot of complexity; its value depends greatly on the signal to interference levels
acceptable to a given cellular system. TDMA systems combine multiple time slots per
channels.
3.1.4.2.3 CDMA Capacity:
A usual capacity equation for CDMA systems may be fairly easily derived as follows (for the
reverse link): first examine a base station with N mobiles, its noise and interference power
spectral density dues to all mobiles in that same cell is ISC = (N - 1)Sα, where S is the received
power density for each mobile, and α is the voice activity factor. Other cell
interferences IOC are estimated by a reuse fraction β of the same cell interference level, such
that IOC = βISC; (usual values of β are around 1∕2). The total noise and interference at the base
is therefore Nt = ISC(1 + β). Next assume the mobile signal power density received at the base
station is S = REb∕W. Eliminating ISC, we derive:

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…………… 2.5
where
 W is the channel bandwidth (in Hz),
 R is the user data bit rate (symbol rate in symbol per second),
 Eb∕Nt is the ratio of energy per bit by total noise (usually given in dB Eb∕Nt ≈ 7dB),
 α is the voice activity factor (for the reverse link), typically 0.5,
 and β is the interference reuse fraction, typically around 0.5, and represents the ratio of
interference level from the cell in consideration by interferences due to other cells. (The
number 1 + β is sometimes called reuse factor, and 1∕(1 + β) reuse efficiency)
This simple equation (2.5) gives us a number of voice channels in a CDMA frequency channel.
We can already see some hints of CDMA optimization and investigate certain possible
improvement for a 3G system. In particular: improving α can be achieved with dim and burst
capabilities, β with interference mitigation and antenna downtilt considerations, R with
vocoder rate, W with wider band CDMA, Eb∕Nt with better coding and interference mitigation
techniques.
Some aspects however are omitted in this equation and are required to quantify other capacity
improvements mainly those due to power control, and softer/soft handoff algorithms.
Of course other limitations come into play for wireless systems, such as base station (and
mobile) sensitivity, which may be incorporated into similar formulas; and further
considerations come into play such as: forward power limitations, channel element
blocking, backhaul capacity, mobility, and handoff.

3.1.5 Modulation and Coding

Modulation techniques are a necessary part of any wireless system, without them, no useful
information can be transmitted. Coding techniques are almost as important, and combine two
important aspects: first to transmit information efficiently, and second to deal with error
correction (to avoid retransmissions).

3.1.5.1 Modulation

A continuous wave signal (at a carrier frequency fc) in itself encodes and transmits no
information. The bits of information are encoded in the variations of that signal (in phase,
amplitude, or a combination thereof). These variations cause the occupied spectrum to
increase, thus occupying a bandwidth around fc; and the optimal use of that bandwidth
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is an important part of a wireless system. Various modulation schemes and coding schemes
are used to maximize the use of that spectrum for different applications (voice or high speed
data), and in various conditions of noise, interference, and RF channel resources in general.
Classic modulation techniques are well covered in several texts, and we simply recall
here a few important aspects of digital modulations (that will be important in link budgets).
The main digital modulations used in modern wireless systems are outlined in table 1.

Modulation Bits encoded by: Example

Amplitude Shift Keying Discrete amplitude levels On/off keying
Frequency Shift Keying Multiple discrete frequencies
Phase Shift Keying Multiple discrete phases BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK
Quadrature Ampl. Mod. Both phase and amplitude 16, 64, 256 QAM

Discussion
What section of the Information Technology Act (ITA) that sanction internet fraudsters?
Explain the consequence according to the Act.

5.0 Conclusion
A country’s participation in a particular international agreement becomes effective only if
domestic laws are drafted and approved that legislate the intent of the signed international
agreement.

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6.0 Summary
Lawmakers and law enforcement agencies, around the world, advocate the need for cyber laws
that are written in the cyber language. That is, laws that explicitly define cyber offenses and
fully support the acceptance of cyber evidence. International bodies, responding to this call,
have convened and produced treaties and conventions that, unfortunately, have fallen short of
receiving total acceptance by the member countries.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Contents (colorado.edu)

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UNIT 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main content
3.1 Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)
3.1.1 A Service
3.2 An Example: SOA Apps Provide a Cohesive Platform for Overstock.com (a
large Online Retailer)
3.3 The 6 Defining Concepts of SOA
3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analog
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 Introduction
Ethics is, therefore, the study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics can also be defined
as a theoretical examination of morality or “theory of morals.” Other philosophers have defined
ethics in a variety of ways. Robert C. Solomon, in Morality and the Good Life, defines ethics
as a set of “theories of value, virtue, or of right (valuable) action.” O.J. Johnson, on the other
hand, defines ethics as a set of theories “that provide general rules or principles to be used in
making moral decisions and, unlike ordinary intuitions, provides a justification for those
rules.”The word ethicscomes from the ancient Greek word eché, which means character. Every
human society practices ethics in some way because every society attaches a value on a
continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions according to where that
individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s rules and canons.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this unit, students will able to
 Understand the use of ethical theories in ethical arguments.
 Articulate the ethical tradeoffs in a technical decision.
 Understand the role of professional codes of ethics.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
Service-Oriented Architecture, can be defined as "services" that provide a platform by which
disparate systems can communicate with each other. These services are essentially groups of
software components that help a company seamlessly carry out important business processes.
SOA implementation makes interoperability between heterogeneous applications and
technologies possible.

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The rise of SOA technology and integration in recent years is placing it as one of the most
important applications for communicating between different systems — or in this context,
services.

3.1.1 A Service
Services represent building blocks that allow users to organize information in ways that are
familiar to them. These building blocks combine information about users and their behavior in
a seamless fashion to present a relatively simple interface.
A service is commonly characterized by these four properties:
5. It logically represents a business activity with a specified outcome.
6. It is self-contained
7. It is a black box for its consumers
8. It may consist of other underlying services
To further simplify this concept, an SOA service is the mechanism that satisfies a customer’s
wants or needs through a negotiated contract. Therefore, SOA is a collection of different
services.
To better understand what service-oriented architecture is all about, consider this quote from
industry expert David Sprott:

3.2 An Example: SOA Apps Provide a Cohesive Platform for Overstock.com (a large
Online Retailer)
Communication of services can involve something as simple as passing data, or it can involve
a coordination of an activity between two or more different SOA services.
One way to illustrate the SOA method is by taking a look at a large online retailer like
Overstock.com.
In order for Overstock customers to make a transaction, different programs must work together
seamlessly. The various steps in the ordering process can involve various programs developed
at different times, each using their own unique platforms and technologies.
For instance, there might be one program that tracks inventory, which is different than the
interface (i.e. the Internet) the customer uses to shop. Then, there is likely an entirely different
program for their shopping cart and another for processing payment.
SOA services tie all of these various programs together so that an online shopper can quickly
find out if what they are looking for is in stock and get it shipped to their doorstep with just a
few clicks of their mouse.

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3.3 The 6 Defining Concepts of SOA

In October of 2009, a manifesto was created about service-oriented architecture.
This manifesto states that there are six core values of SOA:
7. Business value is more important than technical strategy.
8. Strategic goals are more valuable than project-specific benefits.
9. Intrinsic interoperability is greater than custom integration.
10. Shared services over specific-purpose implementations.
11. Flexibility is given more importance than optimization.
12. Evolutionary refinement is more important than pursuit of initial perfection.

3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analogy

Another way to think about SOA is through the analogy of transportation.
Imagine that you have to travel from your home in Ibadan to a business conference or trade
show in Kano. What are the various steps you might take to get there?
First, you will have to drive to the airport, then take a shuttle to the airport terminal. Next, you
will board the plane for Kano. After landing, you take another shuttle from the gate to the main
terminal, where you have to flag down a taxi or call an Uber to drive you to your hotel. When
it is time for the conference to start, you walk to the nearest train stop, hop on, and ride it to the
conference center.
All of these various transportation methods worked together to accomplish your end goal of
attending the conference — your car, the shuttle bus, airplane, train, and even walking. There
were many individual “steps” you had to take to arrive at your final destination on time, and
there were likely other ways you could have gone about it.
For instance, instead of driving to the airport, you could have walked to a train station or bus
stop and gotten to the airport this way. Or you could have driven completely across the country,
thus eliminating your need for any other type of transportation altogether.
However, by combining numerous transportation methods you were able to get to the
conference faster and probably cheaper than if you had driven the whole way.
In this analogy of SOA, the various modes of transportation can be viewed as the different
“services” used to reach an end goal. Just like the cars, bus, train, and plane all worked together
to help you accomplish your goal of attending the conference, combining different units of
software applications (services) can help business achieve new milestones in the most efficient
manner.
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Discussion
Why is ethics relevant in the cyberspace?

4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
1. What are the ten commandments for computer ethics?
Answer
xi. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
xii. Thou shalt not interfere with other people‟s computer work.
xiii. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people‟s files.
xiv. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
xv. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
xvi. Thou shalt not use of copy software for which you have not paid.
xvii. Thou shalt not use other people‟s computer resources without authorization.
xviii. Thou shalt not appropriate other people‟s intellectual output.
xix. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program u write.
xx. Thou shalt use a computer in ways to show consideration and respect.

2. Explain the three levels of computer ethics.

Answer
 First level: - It is the basic level where computer ethics tries to sensitize people to the
fact that computer technology has social and ethical consequences. Newspaper, TV
news program, and magazines have highlighted the topic of computer ethics by
reporting on events relating to computer viruses, software ownership law suits,
computer aided bank robbery, computer malfunction etc.
 Second level:- It consists of someone who takes interest in computer ethics cases,
collects examples, clarifies them, looks for similarities and differences reads related
works, attends relevant events to make preliminary assessments and after comparing
them.
 Third level: - It referred to as „theoretical‟ computer ethics applies scholarly theories
to computer ethics cases and concepts in order to deepen the understanding of issues.
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All three level of analysis are important to the goal of advancing and defending human
values.

5.0 Conclusion
The role of ethics is to help societies distinguish between right and wrong and to give each
society a basis for justifying the judgment of human actions. Ethics is, therefore, a field of
inquiry whose subject is human actions, collectively called human conduct, that are taken
consciously, willfully, and for which one can be held responsible. According to Fr. Austin
Fagothey, such acts must have knowledge, which signifies the presence of a motive, be
voluntary, and have freedom to signify the presence of free choice to act or not to act.

6.0 Summary
The purpose of ethics is to interpret human conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing
between right and wrong. The interpretation is based on a system which uses a mixture of
induction and deduction. In most cases, these arguments are based on historical schools of
thought called ethical theories. There are many different kinds of ethical theories, and within
each theory there may be different versions of that theory. Let us discuss these next.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Alfreda D. et al. (2012). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics: Issues, Impacts, and
Practices. Information Science Reference, USA. ISBN 978-1-61350-133-7

Baldini, Gianmarco, Botterman, Maarten, Neisse, Ricardo, and Tallacchini, Mariachiara

(2016) “Ethical Design in the Internet of Things,” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-21.
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Bustard, John D. (2017), “Improving Student Engagement in the Study of Professional Ethics:
Concepts and an Example in Cyber Security” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-16.

Dipert, Randall R. (2010) “The Ethics of Cyberwarfare,” Journal of Military Ethics 9:4, 384-
410

ICSI (2016). Cybercrime Law and Practice. THE INSTITUTE OF COMPANY SCRETARIES
OF INDIA. ISBN : 978-93-82207795.

Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal:
Libraries and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017

Manjikian, Mary (2017) Cybersecurity Ethics: An Introduction, Routledge; 240 pp. Taddeo,

Mariarosaria and Glorioso, Ludovica (2017) Ethics and Policies for Cyber Operations,
Springer. EC Council (2016) Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures (Book Series, 4 volumes),
Cengage Learning

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